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Li Q, Li B, Liu L, Wang KJ, Liu MY, Deng Y, Li Z, Zhao WD, Wu LY, Chen YH, Zhang K. Monocytes release cystatin F dimer to associate with Aβ and aggravate amyloid pathology and cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:125. [PMID: 38730470 PMCID: PMC11088181 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03119-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the molecular mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has important clinical implications for guiding therapy. Impaired amyloid beta (Aβ) clearance is critical in the pathogenesis of sporadic AD, and blood monocytes play an important role in Aβ clearance in the periphery. However, the mechanism underlying the defective phagocytosis of Aβ by monocytes in AD remains unclear. METHODS Initially, we collected whole blood samples from sporadic AD patients and isolated the monocytes for RNA sequencing analysis. By establishing APP/PS1 transgenic model mice with monocyte-specific cystatin F overexpression, we assessed the influence of monocyte-derived cystatin F on AD development. We further used a nondenaturing gel to identify the structure of the secreted cystatin F in plasma. Flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and laser scanning confocal microscopy were used to analyse the internalization of Aβ by monocytes. Pull down assays, bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy were used to determine the interactions and potential interactional amino acids between the cystatin F protein and Aβ. Finally, the cystatin F protein was purified and injected via the tail vein into 5XFAD mice to assess AD pathology. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that the expression of the cystatin F protein was specifically increased in the monocytes of AD patients. Monocyte-derived cystatin F increased Aβ deposition and exacerbated cognitive deficits in APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, secreted cystatin F in the plasma of AD patients has a dimeric structure that is closely related to clinical signs of AD. Moreover, we noted that the cystatin F dimer blocks the phagocytosis of Aβ by monocytes. Mechanistically, the cystatin F dimer physically interacts with Aβ to inhibit its recognition and internalization by monocytes through certain amino acid interactions between the cystatin F dimer and Aβ. We found that high levels of the cystatin F dimer protein in blood contributed to amyloid pathology and cognitive deficits as a risk factor in 5XFAD mice. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight that the cystatin F dimer plays a crucial role in regulating Aβ metabolism via its peripheral clearance pathway, providing us with a potential biomarker for diagnosis and potential target for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Li
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, China
| | - Bing Li
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Li Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
- Department of Neurology, Shenyang Fifth People Hospital, Shenyang, 110023, China
| | - Kang-Ji Wang
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Ming-Yue Liu
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Yu Deng
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Ze Li
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Wei-Dong Zhao
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China.
| | - Li-Yong Wu
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Yu-Hua Chen
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China.
| | - Ke Zhang
- Department of Developmental Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology,, Ministry of Public Health, China Medical University, 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, China.
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2
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Luo Y, Zhao J. The dynamic changes of peripheral blood cell counts predict the clinical outcomes of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29763. [PMID: 38681624 PMCID: PMC11053216 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is a serious type of hemorrhagic stroke. It is very important to predict the prognosis at early phase. In this work, we intend to characterize early changes in peripheral blood cells after aSAH and explore the association between peripheral blood cells and clinical outcomes after aSAH. Methods aSAH patients admitted between December 2019 and September 2022 were enrolled. A retrospective observational study was performed. Total leukocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, erythrocytes, lymphocytes and platelets counts were recorded on the day of admission (day 1), day 3, day 5 and day 7. Statistical tests included Chi-square test, analysis of variance and multivariate logistic regression (MLR) models. 197 patients were analyzed. Results Leukocytes and neutrophils were higher in poor outcome groups from day 1 to day 7 and in delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) groups from day 3 to day 7. Lymphocytes were higher at day 5 and day 7 in good outcome groups and no DCI groups. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) was lower from day 3 to day 7 in good outcome groups and no DCI groups. Erythrocytes were higher from day 3 to day 7 in good outcome groups and no DCI groups. Lymphocytes were negatively related to poor outcomes on day 1 (OR = 0.457), indicating higher lymphocytes predicted good outcomes, Neutrophils were positively related to poor outcomes on day 3 (OR = 3.003) indicating higher neutrophils predicted poor outcomes. Lymphocytes were negatively related to DCI on day 5 (OR = 0.388) indicating higher lymphocytes predicted no DCI, Erythrocytes were negatively related to DCI on day 5 (OR = 0.335) and day 7 (OR = 0.204) indicating higher erythrocytes predicted no DCI. The improved ability of neutrophils, lymphocytes and erythrocytes to predict DCI or poor functional outcomes were revealed by ROC curve analysis. Conclusions The dynamic changes of peripheral blood cell counts were related to poor functional outcomes and DCI after aSAH. Elevated neutrophils, leukocytes, NLR, and decreased lymphocytes, erythrocytes were accompanied by DCI and poor outcome. Neutrophils, lymphocytes and erythrocytes counts could be beneficial to predict DCI and outcomes after aSAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Luo
- Department of Neurology, The First People's Hospital of Jing Zhou, The First Affiliated Hospital of Yangtze University, Jing zhou, 434000, China
- Department of Stroke Center, The First People's Hospital of Jing Zhou, The First Affiliated Hospital of Yangtze University, Jing zhou, 434000, China
| | - Jian Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First People's Hospital of Jing Zhou, The First Affiliated Hospital of Yangtze University, Jing zhou, 434000, China
- Department of Stroke Center, The First People's Hospital of Jing Zhou, The First Affiliated Hospital of Yangtze University, Jing zhou, 434000, China
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3
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Collu R, Yin Z, Giunti E, Daley S, Chen M, Morin P, Killick R, Wong STC, Xia W. Effect of the ROCK inhibitor fasudil on the brain proteomic profile in the tau transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1323563. [PMID: 38440100 PMCID: PMC10911083 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1323563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The goal of this study is to explore the pharmacological potential of the amyloid-reducing vasodilator fasudil, a selective Ras homolog (Rho)-associated kinases (ROCK) inhibitor, in the P301S tau transgenic mouse model (Line PS19) of neurodegenerative tauopathy and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Methods We used LC-MS/MS, ELISA and bioinformatic approaches to investigate the effect of treatment with fasudil on the brain proteomic profile in PS19 tau transgenic mice. We also explored the efficacy of fasudil in reducing tau phosphorylation, and the potential beneficial and/or toxic effects of its administration in mice. Results Proteomic profiling of mice brains exposed to fasudil revealed the activation of the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and blood-brain barrier (BBB) gap junction metabolic pathways. We also observed a significant negative correlation between the brain levels of phosphorylated tau (pTau) at residue 396 and both fasudil and its metabolite hydroxyfasudil. Conclusions Our results provide evidence on the activation of proteins and pathways related to mitochondria and BBB functions by fasudil treatment and support its further development and therapeutic potential for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Collu
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Bedford VA Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Biophysics, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Zheng Yin
- T. T. and W. F. Chao Center for BRAIN, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston Methodist Academic Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Elisa Giunti
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Bedford VA Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Biophysics, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Sarah Daley
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Bedford VA Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Biophysics, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mei Chen
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Bedford VA Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, United States
| | - Peter Morin
- Department of Neurology, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Richard Killick
- King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen T. C. Wong
- T. T. and W. F. Chao Center for BRAIN, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston Methodist Academic Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Weiming Xia
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Bedford VA Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Biophysics, Boston University Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Kennedy College of Science, Lowell, MA, United States
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4
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A Pooled Analysis of Preoperative Inflammatory Biomarkers to Predict 90-Day Outcomes in Patients with an Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Single-Center Retrospective Study. Brain Sci 2023; 13:brainsci13020257. [PMID: 36831800 PMCID: PMC9954360 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13020257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
An inflammatory response after an aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) has always been in the spotlight. However, few studies have compared the prognostic impact of inflammatory biomarkers. Moreover, why these inflammatory biomarkers contribute to a poor prognosis is also unclear. We retrospectively reviewed aSAH patients admitted to our institution between January 2015 and December 2020. The 90-day unfavorable functional outcome was defined as a modified Rankin scale (mRS) of ≥ 3. Independent inflammatory biomarker-related risk factors associated with 90-day unfavorable outcomes were derived from a forward stepwise multivariate analysis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was conducted to identify the best cut-off value of inflammatory biomarkers. Then, patients were divided into two groups according to each biomarker's cut-off value. To eliminate the imbalances in baseline characteristics, propensity score matching (PSM) was carried out to assess the impact of each biomarker on in-hospital complications. A total of 543 patients were enrolled in this study and 96 (17.7%) patients had unfavorable 90-day outcomes. A multivariate analysis showed that the white blood cell (WBC) count, the systemic inflammation response index, the neutrophil count, the neutrophil-to-albumin ratio, the monocyte count, and the monocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio were independently associated with 90-day unfavorable outcomes. The WBC count showed the best predictive ability (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.710, 95% CI = 0.652-0.769, p < 0.001). After PSM, almost all abnormal levels of inflammatory biomarkers were associated with a higher incidence of pneumonia during hospitalization. The WBC count had the strongest association with poor outcomes. Similar to nearly all other inflammatory biomarkers, the cause of poor prognosis may be the higher incidence of in-hospital pneumonia.
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5
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Identification of Two CDK5R1-Related Subtypes and Characterization of Immune Infiltrates in Alzheimer's Disease Based on an Integrated Bioinformatics Analysis. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2022; 2022:6766460. [PMID: 36561735 PMCID: PMC9767738 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6766460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder and the major cause of senile dementia. The Reelin pathway has been involved in both learning and AD pathogenesis. However, the specific Reelin-related gene signature during the pathological process remains unknown. Methods Reelin-related gene (CDK5R1) expression was analyzed using the GEO datasets. The relevant genes of CDK5R1 were identified using differential expression analysis and weighted gene correlation network analysis (WGCNA) based on the GSE43850 dataset. ConsensusClusterPlus analysis was applied to identify subtypes (C1 and C2) of AD. The CIBERSORT algorithm was used to assess the immune cell infiltration between the two AD subtypes. Results CDK5R1 was downregulated in AD. 244 differentially expressed CDK5R1-related genes (DECRGs) between the two subgroups were mainly enriched in GABAergic synapse, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, synapse organization, neurotransmitter transport, etc. Furthermore, the GSVA results indicated that immune-related pathways were significantly enriched in the C1 subgroup. Interestingly, 10 Reelin pathway-related genes (CRK, DAB2IP, LRP8, RELN, STAT5A, CDK5, CDK5R1, DAB1, FYN, and SH3KBP1) were abnormally expressed between the two subgroups. The proportion of T cell gamma delta, monocytes, macrophage M2, and dendritic cells activated decreased from C1 to C2, while the proportion of plasma cells, T cell follicular helper, and NK cells activated increased. Conclusion Two CDK5R1-related subtypes of AD were identified, helping us to better understand the role of CDK5R1 in the pathological process of AD.
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6
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Xu L, Li L, Pan C, Song J, Zhang C, Wu X, Hu F, Liu X, Zhang Z, Zhang Z. Erythropoietin signaling in peripheral macrophages is required for systemic β-amyloid clearance. EMBO J 2022; 41:e111038. [PMID: 36215698 PMCID: PMC9670197 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2022111038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Impaired clearance of beta-amyloid (Aβ) is a primary cause of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aβ clearance in the periphery contributes to reducing brain Aβ levels and preventing Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. We show here that erythropoietin (EPO) increases phagocytic activity, levels of Aβ-degrading enzymes, and Aβ clearance in peripheral macrophages via PPARγ. Erythropoietin is also shown to suppress Aβ-induced inflammatory responses. Deletion of EPO receptor in peripheral macrophages leads to increased peripheral and brain Aβ levels and exacerbates Alzheimer's-associated brain pathologies and behavioral deficits in AD-model mice. Moreover, erythropoietin signaling is impaired in peripheral macrophages of old AD-model mice. Exogenous erythropoietin normalizes impaired EPO signaling and dysregulated functions of peripheral macrophages in old AD-model mice, promotes systemic Aβ clearance, and alleviates disease progression. Erythropoietin treatment may represent a potential therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Xu
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of HealthNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Department of Neurology, Sir Run Run HospitalNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Lei Li
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Cai‐Long Pan
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of HealthNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Jing‐Jing Song
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Chen‐Yang Zhang
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Xiang‐Hui Wu
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Fan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive MedicineNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Xue Liu
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Zhiren Zhang
- Institute of ImmunologyArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Zhi‐Yuan Zhang
- School of Basic Medical SciencesNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of HealthNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Department of Neurology, Sir Run Run HospitalNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
- Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu ProvinceNanjing Medical UniversityNanjingChina
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7
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Recent Progress in Research on Mechanisms of Action of Natural Products against Alzheimer's Disease: Dietary Plant Polyphenols. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213886. [PMID: 36430365 PMCID: PMC9695301 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable degenerative disease of the central nervous system and the most common type of dementia in the elderly. Despite years of extensive research efforts, our understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of AD is still highly limited. Nevertheless, several hypotheses related to risk factors for AD have been proposed. Moreover, plant-derived dietary polyphenols were also shown to exert protective effects against neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. In this review, we summarize the regulatory effects of the most well-known plant-derived dietary polyphenols on several AD-related molecular mechanisms, such as amelioration of oxidative stress injury, inhibition of aberrant glial cell activation to alleviate neuroinflammation, inhibition of the generation and promotion of the clearance of toxic amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques, inhibition of cholinesterase enzyme activity, and increase in acetylcholine levels in the brain. We also discuss the issue of bioavailability and the potential for improvement in this regard. This review is expected to encourage further research on the role of natural dietary plant polyphenols in the treatment of AD.
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8
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Lyu H, Ye Y, Chi Hang Lui V, Wang B. Reducing fibrosis progression of biliary atresia by continuous administration of aducanumab at low dose: A potential treatment. Med Hypotheses 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2022.110901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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9
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Bampatsias D, Mavroeidis I, Tual-Chalot S, Vlachogiannis NL, Bonini F, Sachse M, Mavraganis G, Mareti A, Kritsioti C, Laina A, Delialis D, Ciliberti G, Sopova K, Gatsiou A, Martelli F, Georgiopoulos G, Stellos K, Stamatelopoulos K. Beta-secretase-1 antisense RNA is associated with vascular ageing and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Thromb Haemost 2022; 122:1932-1942. [PMID: 35915966 PMCID: PMC9626031 DOI: 10.1055/a-1914-2094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background
The noncoding antisense transcript for β-secretase-1 (
BACE1-AS
) is a long noncoding RNA with a pivotal role in the regulation of amyloid-β (Aβ). We aimed to explore the clinical value of
BACE1-AS
expression in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD).
Methods
Expression of
BACE1-AS
and its target, β-secretase 1 (
BACE1
) mRNA, was measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells derived from 434 individuals (259 without established ASCVD [non-CVD], 90 with stable coronary artery disease [CAD], and 85 with acute coronary syndrome). Intima-media thickness and atheromatous plaques evaluated by ultrasonography, as well as arterial wave reflections and pulse wave velocity, were measured as markers of subclinical ASCVD. Patients were followed for a median of 52 months for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE).
Results
In the cross-sectional arm,
BACE1-AS
expression correlated with
BACE1
expression (
r
= 0.396,
p
< 0.001) and marginally with Aβ1–40 levels in plasma (
r
= 0.141,
p
= 0.008). Higher
BACE1-AS
was associated with higher estimated CVD risk assessed by HeartScore for non-CVD subjects and by European Society of Cardiology clinical criteria for the total population (
p
< 0.05 for both).
BACE1-AS
was associated with higher prevalence of CAD (odds ratio [OR] = 1.85, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.37–2.5), multivessel CAD (OR = 1.36, 95% CI: 1.06–1.75), and with higher number of diseased vascular beds (OR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.07–1.61, for multiple diseased vascular beds) after multivariable adjustment for traditional cardiovascular risk factors. In the prospective arm,
BACE1-AS
was an independent predictor of MACE in high cardiovascular risk patients (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.86 per ascending tertile, 95% CI: 1.011–3.43,
p
= 0.046).
Conclusion
BACE1-AS
is associated with the incidence and severity of ASCVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Bampatsias
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis Mavroeidis
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Simon Tual-Chalot
- Institute of Bioscience, Vascular Biology and Medicine Theme, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Nikolaos L Vlachogiannis
- Biosciences Institute, Vascular Biology and Medicine Theme, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Francesca Bonini
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Marco Sachse
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, Goethe University Frankfurt Faculty 16 Medicine, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Department of Cardiovascular Research, European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Georgios Mavraganis
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Aiginitio Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Alexia Mareti
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Chrysoula Kritsioti
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Ageliki Laina
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics,, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitris Delialis
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine Therapeutic Clinic, Athens, Greece
| | - Giorgia Ciliberti
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kateryna Sopova
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Aikaterini Gatsiou
- , Biosciences Institute, Vascular Biology and Medicine Theme, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Fabio Martelli
- Molecular Cardiology Laboratory, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, San Donato Milanese, Italy
| | - Georgios Georgiopoulos
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine Therapeutic Clinic, Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Stellos
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, European Center for Angioscience (ECAS), Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Department of Cardiology, Ruprecht Karls University Heidelberg Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Biosciences Institute, Vascular Biology and Medicine Theme, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Kimon Stamatelopoulos
- Alexandra University Hospital, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine, Athens, Greece.,Vascular Biology and Medicine Theme, Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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Wu KM, Zhang YR, Huang YY, Dong Q, Tan L, Yu JT. The role of the immune system in Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2021; 70:101409. [PMID: 34273589 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder where the accumulation of amyloid plaques and the formation of tau tangles are the prominent pathological hallmarks. Increasing preclinical and clinical studies have revealed that different components of the immune system may act as important contributors to AD etiology and pathogenesis. The recognition of misfolded Aβ and tau by immune cells can trigger a series of complex immune responses in AD, and then lead to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. In parallel, genome-wide association studies have also identified several immune related loci associated with increased - risk of AD by interfering with the function of immune cells. Other immune related factors, such as impaired immunometabolism, defective meningeal lymphatic vessels and autoimmunity might also be involved in the pathogenesis of AD. Here, we review the data showing the alterations of immune cells in the AD trajectory and seek to demonstrate the crosstalk between the immune cell dysfunction and AD pathology. We then discuss the most relevant research findings in regards to the influences of gene susceptibility of immune cells for AD. We also consider impaired meningeal lymphatics, immunometabolism and autoimmune mechanisms in AD. In addition, immune related biomarkers and immunotherapies for AD are also mentioned in order to offer novel insights for future research.
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11
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Gusdon AM, Savarraj JPJ, Shihabeddin E, Paz A, Assing A, Ko SB, McCullough LD, Choi HA. Time Course of Peripheral Leukocytosis and Clinical Outcomes After Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Front Neurol 2021; 12:694996. [PMID: 34381415 PMCID: PMC8350167 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.694996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Systemic inflammation after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is implicated in delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) and adverse clinical outcomes. We hypothesize that early changes in peripheral leukocytes will be associated with outcomes after SAH. Methods: SAH patients admitted between January 2009 and December 2016 were enrolled into a prospective observational study and were assessed for Hunt Hess Scale (HHS) at admission, DCI, and modified Ranked Scale (mRS) at discharge. Total white blood cell (WBC) counts and each component of the differential cell count were determined on the day of admission (day 0) to 8 days after bleed (day 8). Global cerebral edema (GCE) was assessed on admission CT, and presence of any infection was determined. Statistical tests included student's t-test, Chi-square test, and multivariate logistic regression (MLR) models. Results: A total of 451 subjects were analyzed. Total WBCs and neutrophils decreased initially reaching a minimum at day 4–5 after SAH. Monocyte count increased gradually after SAH and peaked between day 6–8, while basophils and lymphocytes decreased initially from day 0 to 1 and steadily increased thereafter. Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) reached a peak on day 1 and decreased thereafter. WBCs, neutrophils, monocytes, and NLR were higher in patients with DCI and poor functional outcomes. WBCs, neutrophils, and NLR were higher in subjects who developed infections. In MLR models, neutrophils and monocytes were associated with DCI and worse functional outcomes, while NLR was only associated with worse functional outcomes. Occurrence of infection was associated with poor outcome. Neutrophils and NLR were associated with infection, while monocytes were not. Monocytes were higher in males, and ROC curve analysis revealed improved ability of monocytes to predict DCI and poor functional outcomes in male subjects. Conclusions: Monocytosis was associated with DCI and poor functional outcomes after SAH. The association between neutrophils and NLR and infection may impact outcomes. Early elevation in monocytes had an improved ability to predict DCI and poor functional outcomes in males, which was independent of the occurrence of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Gusdon
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Jude P J Savarraj
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Eyad Shihabeddin
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Atzhiry Paz
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Andres Assing
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Sang-Bae Ko
- Department of Neurology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Louise D McCullough
- Department of Neurology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Huimahn Alex Choi
- Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
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12
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Xu L, Pan CL, Wu XH, Song JJ, Meng P, Li L, Wang L, Zhang Z, Zhang ZY. Inhibition of Smad3 in macrophages promotes Aβ efflux from the brain and thereby ameliorates Alzheimer's pathology. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 95:154-167. [PMID: 33737172 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Impaired amyloid-β (Aβ) clearance is believed to be a primary cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and peripheral abnormalities in Aβ clearance have recently been linked to AD pathogenesis and progression. Data from recent genome-wide association studies have linked genetic risk factors associated with altered functions of more immune cells to AD pathology. Here, we first identified correlations of Smad3 signaling activation in peripheral macrophages with AD progression and phagocytosis of Aβ. Then, manipulating the Smad3 signaling regulated macrophage phagocytosis of Aβ and induced switch of macrophage inflammatory phenotypes in our cell cultures. In our mouse models, flag-tagged or fluorescent-dye conjugated Aβ was injected into the lateral ventricles or tail veins, and traced. Interestingly, blocking Smad3 signaling efficiently increased Aβ clearance by macrophages, reduced Aβ in the periphery and thereby enhanced Aβ efflux from the brain. Moreover, in our APP/PS1 transgenic AD model mice, Smad3 inhibition significantly attenuated Aβ deposition and neuroinflammation, and ameliorated cognitive deficits, probably by enhancing the peripheral clearance of Aβ. In conclusion, enhancing Aβ clearance by peripheral macrophages through Smad3 inhibition attenuated AD-related pathology and cognitive deficits, which may provide a new perspective for understanding AD and finding novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Xu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; The Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Cai-Long Pan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; The Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Xiang-Hui Wu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Jing-Jing Song
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Ping Meng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; Department of Pathology, Zhongda Hospital, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Lei Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Hygiene Analysis and Detection, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Zhiren Zhang
- Institute of Immunology, Army Medical University, 30 Gaotanyan Main Street, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zhi-Yuan Zhang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; The Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of Ministry of Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; Department of Neurology, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China.
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13
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Munawara U, Catanzaro M, Xu W, Tan C, Hirokawa K, Bosco N, Dumoulin D, Khalil A, Larbi A, Lévesque S, Ramassamy C, Barron AE, Cunnane S, Beauregard PB, Bellenger JP, Rodrigues S, Desroches M, Witkowski JM, Laurent B, Frost EH, Fulop T. Hyperactivation of monocytes and macrophages in MCI patients contributes to the progression of Alzheimer's disease. IMMUNITY & AGEING 2021; 18:29. [PMID: 34154615 PMCID: PMC8215492 DOI: 10.1186/s12979-021-00236-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease ultimately manifesting as clinical dementia. Despite considerable effort and ample experimental data, the role of neuroinflammation related to systemic inflammation is still unsettled. While the implication of microglia is well recognized, the exact contribution of peripheral monocytes/macrophages is still largely unknown, especially concerning their role in the various stages of AD. Objectives AD develops over decades and its clinical manifestation is preceded by subjective memory complaints (SMC) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI); thus, the question arises how the peripheral innate immune response changes with the progression of the disease. Therefore, to further investigate the roles of monocytes/macrophages in the progression of AD we assessed their phenotypes and functions in patients at SMC, MCI and AD stages and compared them with cognitively healthy controls. We also conceptualised an idealised mathematical model to explain the functionality of monocytes/macrophages along the progression of the disease. Results We show that there are distinct phenotypic and functional changes in monocyte and macrophage populations as the disease progresses. Higher free radical production upon stimulation could already be observed for the monocytes of SMC patients. The most striking results show that activation of peripheral monocytes (hyperactivation) is the strongest in the MCI group, at the prodromal stage of the disease. Monocytes exhibit significantly increased chemotaxis, free radical production, and cytokine production in response to TLR2 and TLR4 stimulation. Conclusion Our data suggest that the peripheral innate immune system is activated during the progression from SMC through MCI to AD, with the highest levels of activation being in MCI subjects and the lowest in AD patients. Some of these parameters may be used as biomarkers, but more holistic immune studies are needed to find the best period of the disease for clinical intervention. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12979-021-00236-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usma Munawara
- Research Center on Aging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Michael Catanzaro
- Research Center on Aging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada.,Department of Drug Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Weili Xu
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Immunos Building, Biopolis, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Crystal Tan
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Immunos Building, Biopolis, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Katsuiku Hirokawa
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Institute of Health and Life Science, Tokyo Med. Dent. University, Tokyo and Nitobe Memorial Nakanosogo Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nabil Bosco
- Nestlé Research, Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Cell Biology, Cellular Metabolism, EPFL Innovation Park, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - David Dumoulin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Abdelouahed Khalil
- Research Center on Aging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Anis Larbi
- Research Center on Aging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada.,Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Immunos Building, Biopolis, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Simon Lévesque
- Department of Microbiology and Infectiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Charles Ramassamy
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé-biotechnologie, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Annelise E Barron
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Stephen Cunnane
- Research Center on Aging, Endocrinology Division, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Pascale B Beauregard
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Pierre Bellenger
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Serafim Rodrigues
- Ikerbasque, The Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain. .,Basque Center for Applied Mathematics, Mathematical, Computational and Experimental Neuroscience research group, Alameda de Mazarredo 14, 48009, Bilbao, Bizkaia, Basque-Country, Spain.
| | - Mathieu Desroches
- MathNeuro Team, Inria Sophia Antipolis Méditerranée, Valbonne, France.,Université Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Jacek M Witkowski
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Benoit Laurent
- Research Center on Aging, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Eric H Frost
- Department of Microbiology and Infectiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tamas Fulop
- Research Center on Aging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, 3001, 12th Avenue North, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada.
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14
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Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibition in Monocytes/Macrophages from Alzheimer's Disease Patients. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11040502. [PMID: 33810505 PMCID: PMC8066292 DOI: 10.3390/biom11040502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence shows that the immune system is critically involved in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis and progression. The modulation and targeting of peripheral immune mechanisms are thus promising therapeutic or preventive strategies for AD. Given the critical involvement of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system in modulating immune functions, we investigated the potential role of the main elements of such a system, namely type-1 and type-2 cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), in distinct immune cell populations of the peripheral blood of AD patients. We found that, compared to healthy controls, CB1 and CB2 expression was significantly lower in the B-lymphocytes of AD patients. Moreover, we found that CB2 was significantly lower and FAAH was significantly higher in monocytes of the same subjects. In contrast, T-lymphocytes and NK cells did not show any variation in any of these proteins. Of note, monocytic CB2 and FAAH levels significantly correlated with clinical scores. Furthermore, the pharmacological inactivation of FAAH in monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages obtained from AD patients was able to modulate their immune responses, by reducing production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12, and enhancing that of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Furthermore, FAAH blockade skewed AD monocyte-derived macrophages towards a more anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving phenotype. Collectively, our findings highlight a central role of FAAH in regulating AD monocytes/macrophages that could be of value in developing novel monocyte-centered therapeutic approaches aimed at promoting a neuroprotective environment.
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15
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Peripheral clearance of brain-derived Aβ in Alzheimer's disease: pathophysiology and therapeutic perspectives. Transl Neurodegener 2020; 9:16. [PMID: 32381118 PMCID: PMC7204069 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-020-00195-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia, and no disease-modifying treatments are available to halt or slow its progression. Amyloid-beta (Aβ) is suggested to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of AD, and clearance of Aβ from the brain becomes a main therapeutic strategy for AD. Recent studies found that Aβ clearance in the periphery contributes substantially to reducing Aβ accumulation in the brain. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of how Aβ is cleared in the periphery is important for the development of effective therapies for AD. In this review, we summarized recent findings on the mechanisms of Aβ efflux from the brain to the periphery and discuss where and how the brain-derived Aβ is cleared in the periphery. Based on these findings, we propose future strategies to enhance peripheral Aβ clearance for the prevention and treatment of AD. This review provides a novel perspective to understand the pathogenesis of AD and develop interventions for this disease from a systemic approach.
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16
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van de Wouw M, Boehme M, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Monocyte mobilisation, microbiota & mental illness. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 81:74-91. [PMID: 31330299 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The gastrointestinal microbiome has emerged as a key player in regulating brain and behaviour. This has led to the strategy of targeting the gut microbiota to ameliorate disorders of the central nervous system. Understanding the underlying signalling pathways in which the microbiota impacts these disorders is crucial for the development of future therapeutics for improving CNS functionality. One of the major pathways through which the microbiota influences the brain is the immune system, where there is an increasing appreciation for the role of monocyte trafficking in regulating brain homeostasis. In this review, we will shed light on the role of monocyte trafficking as a relay of microbiota signals in conditions where the central nervous system is in disorder, such as stress, peripheral inflammation, ageing, traumatic brain injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. We also cover how the gastrointestinal microbiota is implicated in these mental illnesses. In addition, we aim to discuss how the monocyte system can be modulated by the gut microbiota to mitigate disorders of the central nervous system, which will lead to novel microbiota-targeted strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcus Boehme
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Timothy G Dinan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Science, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John F Cryan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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