Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia intestinalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Captive Non-Human Primates in Qinling Mountains

Subtyping of Nonhuman Primate-Adapted Cryptosporidium hominis in Macaca Fascicularis and Macaca mulatta in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China

Background: Cryptosporidium spp. are a type of protozoan parasite responsible for causing diarrheal illness worldwide. They infect a broad range of vertebrate hosts, including both non-human primates (NHPs) and humans. In fact, zoonotic transmission of cryptosporidiosis from NHPs to humans is frequently facilitated by direct contact between the two groups. However, there is a need to enhance the information available on the subtyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in NHPs in the Yunnan province of China. Materials and Methods: Thus, the study investigated the molecular prevalence and species of Cryptosporidium spp. from 392 stool samples of Macaca fascicularis (n = 335) and Macaca mulatta (n = 57) by using nested PCR targeting the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA (LSU) gene. Of the 392 samples, 42 (10.71%) were tested Cryptosporidium-positive. Results: All the samples were identified as Cryptosporidium hominis. Further, the statistical analysis revealed that age is a risk factor for the infection of C. hominis. The probability of detecting C. hominis was found to be higher (odds ratio = 6.23, 95% confidence interval 1.73-22.38) in NHPs aged between 2 and 3 years, as compared with those younger than 2 years. Sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) identified six (IbA9 n = 4, IiA17 n = 5, InA23 n = 1, InA24 n = 2, InA25 n = 3, and InA26 n = 18) C. hominis subtypes with "TCA" repeats. Among these subtypes, it has been previously reported that the Ib family subtypes are also capable of infecting humans. Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight the genetic diversity of C. hominis infection among M. fascicularis and M. mulatta in Yunnan province. Further, the results confirm that both these NHPs are susceptible to C. hominis infection, posing a potential threat to humans.

Decline in Cryptosporidium Infection in Free-Ranging Rhesus Monkeys in a Park After Public Health Interventions

Nonhuman primates (NHPs) are considered an important source of parasitic zoonoses. A study in 2010 revealed high prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in a public park in Guiyang, southwestern China, which called for the control of disease in animals and long-term epidemiological tracking of Cryptosporidium spp. After the initiation of a series of public health interventions, we collected 2,402 fecal samples from monkeys and 123 water samples from lakes in the park on six occasions during 2013-2019. They were analyzed and genotyped for Cryptosporidium spp. using PCR and sequence analyses of the small subunit rRNA gene. The C. hominis and C. parvum identified were further subtyped by sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene. Compared with the high prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in fecal samples (10.9% or 45/411) and water samples (47.8% or 11/23) in 2010, only 18 (0.7%) fecal samples and 3 (2.4%) water samples collected in the present study were positive for Cryptosporidium spp., including C. hominis (n = 9) and C. parvum (n = 12). The former belonged to the NHP-adapted IfA17G2R3 subtype, while the latter mostly belonged to rodent-adapted IIpA9. Therefore, the detection rate and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. during this study period were much lower than those before the public health interventions, and there was a switch from common occurrence of anthroponotic C. hominis subtypes to sporadic occurrence of NHP-adapted C. hominis and rodent-adapted C. parvum subtypes.

Presence and genetic diversity of enteric protists in captive and semi-captive non-human primates in côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Peru

Little information is currently available on the occurrence and genetic diversity of pathogenic and commensal protist species in captive and semi-captive non-human primates (NHP) resident in zoological gardens or sanctuaries in low- and medium-income countries. In this molecular-based study, we prospectively collected individual faecal samples from apparently healthy NHP at the Abidjan Zoological Garden (AZG) in Côte d’Ivoire, the Tacugama Sanctuary (TS) in Sierra Leone, and the Quistococha Zoological Garden (QZG) in Peru between November 2018 and February 2020. We evaluated for the presence of pathogenic (Cryptosporidium spp., Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia duodenalis, Blastocystis sp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Balantioides coli) and commensal (Entamoeba dispar, Troglodytella abrassarti) protist species using PCR methods and Sanger sequencing. Giardia duodenalis was the most prevalent species found (25.9%, 30/116), followed by Blastocystis sp. (22.4%, 26/116), and E. dispar (18.1%, 21/116). We detected E. bieneusi (4.2%, 1/24) and T. abrassarti (12.5%, 3/24) only on NHP from AZG. Cryptosporidium spp., E. histolytica, and B. coli were undetected at the three sampling sites investigated here. Sequence analyses revealed the presence of zoonotic sub-assemblages BIII (n = 1) in AZG and BIV (n = 1) in TS within G. duodenalis. We identified Blastocystis subtype ST3 (100%, 6/6) in AZG, ST1 (80.0%, 12/15), ST2 (6.7%, 1/15), and ST3 (13.3%, 2/15) in TS, and ST2 (80.0%, 4/5) and ST3 (20.0%, 1/5) in QZG. The only E. bieneusi isolate detected here was identified as zoonotic genotype CAF4. Our PCR-based data indicate that potentially pathogenic protist species including G. duodenalis, Blastocystis sp., E. bieneusi, and B. coli are present at variable rates in the three NHP populations investigated here. The identification of zoonotic genotypes within these species indicates that human-NHP transmission is possible, although the extent and directionality of these events need to be elucidated in future molecular surveys.

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Giardia and Blastocystis are highly prevalent in confined non-human primates.

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Diarrhoea-causing Cryptosporidium and Entamoeba histolytica were undetected.

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First description of Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype CAF4 in non-human primates.

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Confined non-human primates harbour protist species with zoonotic potential.

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Cross-species (including human) transmission is possible in zoos and sanctuaries.

Prevalence and genetic diversity of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in nonhuman primates in Northern and Central China

Background

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a common enteric pathogen reported in human and many animals. But there are few reports of E. bieneusi in nonhuman primates (NHPs). The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and molecular characterization of E. bieneusi in NHPs from Northern and Central China.

Results

A total of 299 specimens of NHPs were collected. The overall prevalence rate of E. bieneusi was 9.4% (28/299) in NHPs by ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) amplification, including 10.0% (16/160) in captive NHPs and 8.6% (12/139) in wild NHPs. In captive NHPs, the infection rate was 9.1% in male, 11.5% in female. Infection rate in juvenile ITS (6.7%) was higher than in the adult ITS (5.6%). In different regions, infection rate in Hubei (14.7%) was higher than in Henan (7.6%) and Beijing (7.9%). Five genotypes were found, including 4 known genotypes (D, HND-Ⅰ, EbpC, SHW2) and a novel genotype named NHP1. Genotype D (8/28) and NHP1 (8/28) were the most prevalent, followed by EbpC (6/28), SHW2 (4/28), and HND-Ⅰ (2/28). All the 5 genotypes belonged to zoonotic Group1.

Conclusion

These findings could deepen our understanding of E. bieneusi prevalence and genotype distribution in NHPs in China. Our study shows that NHPs may be the reservoir of zoonotic E. bieneusi and might present a potential serious threat.

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Enterocytozoon bieneusi was detected in 9.36% fecal specimens of NHPs.

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Four known genotypes (D, HND-Ⅰ, EbpC and SHW2) and a novel genotype NHP1 were detected.

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Genotypes D, HND-Ⅰ, EbpC, SHW2 and NHP1 were classified into zoonotic Group1.

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Nonhuman primates may pose a risk for human transmission.

High zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in wild nonhuman primates from Yunnan Province, China

Background

Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are important zoonotic protists in humans and animals around the world, including nonhuman primates (NHPs). However, the prevalence, genetic identity and zoonotic potential of these pathogens in wild NHPs remain largely unclear.

Methods

A total of 348 fecal samples were collected from wild NHPs at four locations in Yunnan, southwestern China, and analyzed for these pathogens using nested PCR targeting various genetic loci and DNA sequence analysis of the PCR products. The zoonotic potential of the pathogens was assessed by comparing the genetic identity of the pathogens in these animals with that previously reported in humans.

Results

Altogether, two (0.6%), 25 (7.2%) and 30 (8.6%) samples were positive for Cryptosporidium sp., G. duodenalis and E. bieneusi, respectively. The Cryptosporidium sp. identified belonged to C. parvum subtype IIdA20G1. Both assemblages A (n = 3) and B (n = 22) were identified among G. duodenalis-positive animals. Five genotypes in zoonotic Group 1 were identified within E. bieneusi, including Type IV (n = 13), D (n = 7), Peru8 (n = 6), MMR86 (n = 2) and HNFS01 (n = 2). All genotypes and subtypes identified are known human pathogens or phylogenetically related to them.

Conclusions

Data from this study suggest a common occurrence of zoonotic genotypes of G. duodenalis and E. bieneusi in wild NHPs in southwestern China.

Graphical Abstract

Intestinal Protists in Captive Non-human Primates and Their Handlers in Six European Zoological Gardens. Molecular Evidence of Zoonotic Transmission

We assessed the occurrence, genetic diversity, and zoonotic potential of four protozoan (Cryptosporidium spp., Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar, Giardia duodenalis), one stramenopile (Blastocystis sp.), one microsporidia (Enterocytozoon bieneusi), and two ciliate (Balantioides coli, Troglodytella abrassarti) intestinal parasite or commensal protist species in captive non-human primates (NHP) and their zookeepers from six European zoological gardens in France (n = 1), Germany (n = 1), and Spain (n = 4). Faecal samples from NHP (n = 454) belonging to 63 species within 35 genera and humans (n = 70) were collected at two sampling periods in each participating institution between October 2018-August 2021. Detection and species identification was accomplished by PCR and Sanger sequencing of the ssu rRNA and/or ITS genes. Sub-genotyping analyses using specific markers were conducted on isolates positive for G. duodenalis (gdh, bg, tpi) and Cryptosporidium spp. (gp60). Overall, 41.0% (186/454) and 30.0% (21/70) of the faecal samples of NHP and human origin tested positive for at least one intestinal protist species, respectively. In NHP, Blastocystis sp. was the most prevalent protist species found (20.3%), followed by G. duodenalis (18.1%), E. dispar (7.9%), B. coli and T. abrassarti (1.5% each), and Cryptosporidium spp. and E. bieneusi (0.9% each). Occurrence rates varied largely among NHP host species, sampling periods, and zoological institutions. The predominant protist species found in humans was Blastocystis sp. (25.7%), followed by Cryptosporidium spp. (2.9%), E. dispar (1.4%), and G. duodenalis (1.4%). Sequencing of PCR-positive amplicons in human and/or NHP confirmed the presence of Cryptosporidium in six isolates (C. hominis: 66.7%, C. parvum: 33.3%), G. duodenalis in 18 isolates (assemblage A: 16.7%, assemblage B: 83.3%), Blastocystis in 110 isolates (ST1:38.2%, ST2:11.8%, ST3: 18.2%, ST4: 9.1%, ST5: 17.3%, ST8: 2.7%, ST13: 0.9%), and E. bieneusi in four isolates (CM18: 75.0%, Type IV: 25.0%). Zoonotic transmission events involving Blastocystis ST1-ST4 were identified in four zoological institutions. Zoonotic transmission of C. hominis was highly suspected, but not fully demonstrated, in one of them. Monitoring of intestinal protist species might be useful for assessing health status of captive NHP and their zookeepers, and to identify transmission pathways of faecal-orally transmitted pathogens.

A Perspective on the Molecular Identification, Classification, and Epidemiology of Enterocytozoon bieneusi of Animals

The microsporidian Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an obligate intracellular pathogen that causes enteric disease (microsporidiosis) in humans and has been recorded in a wide range of animal species worldwide. The transmission of E. bieneusi is direct and likely occurs from person to person and from animal to person via the ingestion of spores in water, food, or the environment. The identification of E. bieneusi is usually accomplished by molecular means, typically using the sequence of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Currently, ~820 distinct genotypes of E. bieneusi have been recorded in at least 210 species of vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians) or invertebrates (insects and mussels) in more than 50 countries. In this chapter, we provide a perspective on (1) clinical aspects of human microsporidiosis; (2) the genome and DNA markers for E. bieneusi as well as molecular methods for the specific and genotypic identification of E. bieneusi; (3) epidemiological aspects of E. bieneusi of animals and humans, with an emphasis on the genotypes proposed to be zoonotic, human-specific, and animal-specific; and (4) future research directions to underpin expanded molecular studies to better understand E. bieneusi and microsporidiosis.

Risk Evaluation of Pathogenic Intestinal Protozoa Infection Among Laboratory Macaques, Animal Facility Workers, and Nearby Villagers From One Health Perspective

Background: Previous epidemiological studies have confirmed non-human primates (NHPs) as reservoirs for Cryptosporidium spp. , Giardia intestinalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi. It highlights the possibility of interspecies transmission between humans and macaques in laboratory animal facilities. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of pathogenic intestinal protozoan infections in macaques and humans and to determine the risk of cross-species transmission from One Health view.

Materials and Methods: A total of 360 fecal samples, including 310 from the four Macaca mulatta groups, 25 from the facility workers in a laboratory animal facility, and 25 from the villagers nearby in Yongfu country, southeast China, were collected. Nested PCR assays were done for detecting protozoan pathogens from all the specimens. Furthermore, potential risk factors (gender, age, and direct contact) on the occurrence of intestinal protozoa infection among different sub-groups were evaluated. A phylogenetic and haplotype network analysis was conducted to examine the genetic structure and shared patterns of E. bieneusi and Cyclospora cayetanensis.

Results: The pathogenic intestinal protozoa were detected in both human and macaque fecal samples. A total of 134 (37.2%) samples were tested positive, which included 113 (36.4%) macaques, 14 (56.0%) facility workers, and 7 (28.0%) villagers, respectively. There was no significant difference in four intestinal protozoa infections between facility workers and villagers (χ² = 2.4, P > 0.05). However, the positive rate of pathogenic intestinal protozoa in the facility workers, who had direct contact with macaques, was significantly higher [odds ratio (OR) = 0.31, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.09–1.00, P < 0.05).Thirty-three ITS genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified, including five known genotypes (PigEBITS7, Peru8, Henan V, D, and CM1) and six novel genotypes (MEB1–6). Seven haplotypes were identified in the network analysis from C. cayetanensis-positive samples. Meanwhile, a phylogenetic and haplotype analysis confirmed the presence of zoonotic subtypes in NHPs and humans.

Conclusion: The data collected from this study confirmed a high prevalence of intestinal protozoan infection in humans and macaques. These results warrant workers of such facilities and residents to limit contact with infected animals in order to minimize related health risks. The need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate the risk of zoonotic transmission, especially from a One Health perspective, is recommended.

Investigation of giardiasis in captive animals in zoological gardens with strain typing of assemblages in China

Giardia duodenalis is a common zoonotic intestinal pathogen. It has been increasingly reported in humans and animals; however, genotyping information for G. duodenalis in captive animals is still limited. This study was conducted to assess the prevalence and multilocus genotyping of G. duodenalis in captive animals in zoological gardens in Shanghai, China. A total of 678 fresh fecal samples were randomly collected from captive animals including non-human primates (NHPs) (n = 190), herbivores (n = 190), carnivores (n = 151), birds (n = 138) and reptiles (n = 9) in a zoo and were examined for the presence of G. duodenalis using nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR). All G. duodenalis positive samples were assayed with PCR followed by sequencing at β-giardin (bg), glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) genes. In this study, 42 specimens (6.2%) were tested G. duodenalis-positive of the 678 fecal samples examined based on a single locus. A total of 30 (4.4%), 30 (4.4%) and 22 (3.2%) specimens were successfully amplified and sequenced at gdh, tpi and bg loci, respectively. Assemblages A and B were identified with assemblage B dominating in NHPs. Sequence analysis demonstrated that one, two and five new isolates were identified at bg, gdh and tpi loci. DNA sequences and new assemblage-subtypes of zoonotic G. duodenalis assemblages A and B were identified in the current study. Our data indicate the occurrence and molecular diversity of G. duodenalis and the potential zoonotic transmission in captive animals in China.

Occurrence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis among captive mammals in the Bangladesh National Zoo

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are protozoan parasites capable of causing gastrointestinal illness in humans and animals. The purpose of this research was to determine the occurrence, genetic characteristics, and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in captive mammals at the Bangladesh National Zoo. A total of 200 fresh fecal samples from 32 mammalian species were collected and examined for Cryptosporidium spp. using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and G. duodenalis targeting the β-giardin (bg), glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh), and triosephosphate isomerase (tpi) genes. The overall infection rates of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis among captive mammals in the zoo were 3.5% (7/200) and 5.5% (11/200), respectively. Five species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium (C. hominis, C. andersoni, C. muris, C. felis, and Cryptosporidium deer genotype) were identified. C. hominis was subtyped as IbA12G3 by sequence analysis of the glycoprotein 60 (gp60) gene. Multilocus genotyping of G. duodenalis revealed assemblages A, B, and D. Mixed infections of assemblages B and D and A and B were found in an Asiatic jackal and a Nilgiri langur, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the occurrence and genetic identity of the two parasites among zoo animals in Bangladesh. The results suggest that zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis are maintained in and transmitted between captive mammals. Therefore, washing, cleaning, and disinfection measures should be implemented to reduce the spread of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis infections.

Occurrence and potentially zoonotic genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in wild rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) living in Nanwan Monkey Island, Hainan, China: a public health concern

BACKGROUND

Enterocytozoon bieneusi, a microsporidian species, is a zoonotic pathogen found in both humans and animals. Here, we determined the prevalence, explored the different genotypes of E. bieneusi in wild rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) (Hainan Island of China), and assessed their zoonotic potential.

METHODS

We collected 173 fecal specimens from wild rhesus macaques living in Nanwan Monkey Island, Hainan, China. Subsequently, we identified and genotyped E. bieneusi using nested PCR analysis amplification of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the rRNA gene. Lastly, a neighbor-joining tree was built based on gene sequences from the ITS region of E. bieneusi.

RESULTS

Of the 173 specimens from wild rhesus macaques, 26 (15%) were infected with E. bieneusi. We identified six genotypes of E. bieneusi, of which five were known: PigEBITS7 (n = 20), D (n = 2), Type IV (n = 1), Peru6 (n = 1), Henan-III (n = 1), and a novel genotype: HNM-IX (n = 1). From the phylogenetic analysis, the six genotypes identified here were all clustered into zoonotic group 1.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first report to detect E. bieneusi infection in wild rhesus macaques from Hainan, China. Human-pathogenic genotypes D, Henan-III, Peru6, PigEbITS7, and Type IV in the wild rhesus macaques support these animals infected with E. bieneusi have a public health significance.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi of animals-With an 'Australian twist'

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a microsporidian microorganism that causes intestinal disease in animals including humans. E. bieneusi is an obligate intracellular pathogen, typically causing severe or chronic diarrhoea, malabsorption and/or wasting. Currently, E. bieneusi is recognised as a fungus, although its exact classification remains contentious. The transmission of E. bieneusi can occur from person to person and/or animals to people. Transmission is usually via the faecal-oral route through E. bieneusi spore-contaminated water, environment or food, or direct contact with infected individuals. Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes are usually identified and classified by PCR-based sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. To date, ~600 distinct genotypes of E. bieneusi have been recorded in ~170 species of animals, including various orders of mammals and reptiles as well as insects in >40 countries. Moreover, E. bieneusi has also been found in recreational water, irrigation water, and treated raw- and waste-waters. Although many studies have been conducted on the epidemiology of E. bieneusi, prevalence surveys of animals and humans are scant in some countries, such as Australia, and transmission routes of individual genotypes and related risk factors are poorly understood. This article/chapter reviews aspects of the taxonomy, biology and epidemiology of E. bieneusi; the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of microsporidiosis; critically appraises the naming system for E. bieneusi genotypes as well as the phylogenetic relationships of these genotypes; provides new insights into the prevalence and genetic composition of E. bieneusi populations in animals in parts of Australia using molecular epidemiological tools; and proposes some areas for future research in the E. bieneusi/microsporidiosis field.

Ecological and public health significance of Enterocytozoon bieneusi

Enterocytozoon bieneusi, a fungus-like protist parasite, causes symptomatic and asymptomatic intestinal infections in terrestrial animals and is also abundant in the environment. This parasite has been isolated from a variety of host types including humans, livestock, companion animals, birds, and wildlife, as well as the natural and urban environments including drinking source water, coastal water, recreational water, wastewater, vegetables in retail markets, and raw milk on farms. E. bieneusi exhibits high genetic diversity among host species and environmental sources and at least 500 genotypes have been identified thus far. Since its discovery in AIDS patients in 1985, scientists across the world have worked to demonstrate the natural history and public health potential of this pathogen. Here we review molecular typing studies on E. bieneusi and summarize relevant data to identify the potential sources of human and nonhuman infections and environmental contamination. This review also discusses the possible transmission routes of E. bieneusi and the associated risk factors, and advocates the importance of the One Health approach to tackle E. bieneusi infections.

Population genetic analysis suggests genetic recombination is responsible for increased zoonotic potential of Enterocytozoon bieneusi from ruminants in China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a zoonotic pathogen with worldwide distribution. Among the 11 established groups of E. bieneusi genotypes based on phylogenetic analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS), the human-infective potential and population genetics of the Group 1 genotypes from diverse hosts are well characterized. In contrast, Group 2 genotypes from ruminants have unclear population genetics, leading to poor understanding of their host range and zoonotic potential. In this study, we sequence-characterized 121 Group 2 isolates from dairy cattle, beef cattle, yaks, Tibetan sheep, golden takins, and deer from China at five genetic loci (ITS, MS1, MS3, MS4 and MS7), comparing with data from 113 Group 1 isolates from nonhuman primates. Except for MS7, most of the genetic loci produced efficient PCR amplification and high nucleotide identity between Groups 1 and 2 of E. bieneusi genotypes. In population genetic analyses of the sequence data, a strong linkage disequilibrium was observed among these genetic loci in the overall Group 2 population. The individual ITS genotypes (I, J and BEB4) within Group 2, however, had reduced linkage disequilibrium and increased genetic exchanges among isolates. There was only partial genetic differentiation between Group 1 and Group 2 genotypes, with some occurrence of genetic recombination between them. Genetic recombination was especially common between genotypes I and J within Group 2. The data presented indicate a high genetic identity between Group 1 and Group 2 genotypes of E. bieneusi, which could be responsible for the broad host range and high zoonotic potential of Group 2 genotypes in China. As there is no effective treatment against E. bieneusi, the One Health approach should be used in the control and prevention of zoonotic transmission of the pathogen.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Giardia duodenalis in dogs in Israel

Three hundred and two stool samples were collected from municipal shelters and owned dogs in different geographical locations in Israel from December 2016 to September 2017 and examined for Giardia and assemblage type by PCR targeting the 18S rRNA and β-giardin genes. Overall Giardia prevalence was 24.5 % (74/30). Giardia prevalence was 1.9-fold higher in dogs ≤ 6 months old compared to > 6 ≤ 12 months old and older dogs [25/61 (41 %), 18/73 (24.6 %) and 31/166 (18.7 %), respectively, (p = 0.001)], 2.3-fold higher in winter [32/90 (35.5 %)] compared to its prevalence during autumn [15/60 (25 %)], spring [10/62 (16.1 %)] and summer [17/89 (19.1 %), p = 0.003)], and 2.7-fold more frequent among diarrheic dogs [23/43 (53.4 %)] compared to those with formed stools [51/253 (20.1 %)], (p = 0.001)]. The Giardia sp. assemblages detected were C and D. Higher infection rates in young, diarrheic dogs, sampled during winter, and housed in municipal shelters, indicates the need for targeted preventive measures.

Multilocus sequence typing of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Hainan, China

Background

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is one of common intestinal pathogens in humans and animals including non-human primates (NHPs). Many zoonotic pathogens including E. bieneusi have been found in these animals. However, there are few studies on the population structure of E. bieneusi in NHPs. To infer the gene diversity and population genetics of E. bieneusi, we selected 88 E. bieneusi-positive samples from crab-eating macaques for multilocus characterizations in this study.

Methods

The E. bieneusi isolates examined belonged to three common genotypes with different host ranges by sequence analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS): Type IV (n = 44), Macaque3 (n = 24) and Peru8 (n = 20). They were further characterized by sequence analysis at four microsatellite and minisatellite loci (MS1, MS3, MS4 and MS7). DnaSP, Arlequin and LIAN were used to analyze the sequence data together with those from the ITS locus to infer the population genetics. Subpopulation structure was inferred using phylogenetic and STRUCTURE analyses.

Results

Seventy-two (81.8%), 71 (80.7%), 76 (86.4%) and 79 (89.8%) samples were amplified and sequenced successfully at the MS1, MS3, MS4 and MS7 loci, respectively, with 53 having sequence data at all five MLST loci including ITS. Altogether, 33 multilocus genotypes (MLGs) were produced based on concatenated sequences from the 53 samples. In phylogenetic analyses of sequences and allelic data, four major subpopulations (SPs) were observed with different ITS genotypes in each of them: Type IV and Peru8 in SP1 and SP2; Type IV, Macaque3 and Peru8 in SP3; and Type IV and Macaque3 in SP4. SP3 and SP4 were phylogenetically related and might be NHP-specific based on the fact that Macaque3 is mostly found in NHPs. A strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) was observed among the multilocus sequences and allelic data.

Conclusions

The significant LD in the multilocus sequence analysis indicated the presence of an overall clonal population structure of E. bieneusi in crab-eating macaques. The inconsistent segregation of MLGs among ITS genotypes suggested some occurrence of genetic recombination. These observations should improve our understanding of the population genetics of E. bieneusi in NHPs.

A retrospective epidemiological analysis of human Cryptosporidium infection in China during the past three decades (1987-2018)

Background

Cryptosporidiosis is an emerging infectious disease of public health significance worldwide. The burden of disease caused by Cryptosporidium varies between and within countries/areas. To have a comprehensive understanding of epidemiological status and characteristics of human Cryptosporidium infection in China since the first report in 1987, a retrospective epidemiological analysis was conducted by presenting differences in the prevalence of Cryptosporidium by province, year, population, living environment and season and possible transmission routes and risk factors as well as genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium in humans.

Methodology/Principal findings

A systematic search was conducted to obtain epidemiological papers of human Cryptosporidium infection/cryptosporidiosis from PubMed and Chinese databases. Finally, 164 papers were included in our analysis. At least 200,054 people from 27 provinces were involved in investigational studies of Cryptosporidium, with an average prevalence of 2.97%. The prevalence changed slightly over time. Variable prevalences were observed: 0.65–11.15% by province, 1.89–47.79% by population, 1.77–12.87% and 0–3.70% in rural and urban areas, respectively. The prevalence peak occurred in summer or autumn. Indirect person-to-person transmission was documented in one outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in a pediatric hospital. 263 Cryptosporidium isolates were obtained, and seven Cryptosporidium species were identified: C. hominis (48.3%), C. andersoni (22.43%), C. parvum (16.7%), C. meleagridis (8.36%), C. felis (3.04%), C. canis (0.76%) and C. suis (0.38%).

Conclusions/Significances

This systematic review reflects current epidemiological status and characteristics of Cryptosporidium in humans in China. These data will be helpful to develop efficient control strategies to intervene with and prevent occurrence of human Cryptosporidium infection/cryptosporidiosis in China as well as have a reference effect to other countries. Further studies should focus on addressing a high frequency of C. andersoni in humans and a new challenge with respect to cryptosporidiosis with an increasing population of elderly people and patients with immunosuppressive diseases.

Cryptosporidium is a major cause of diarrheal disease in humans globally. Due to the lack of effective drug treatment and vaccine prevention against cryptosporidiosis, it is particularly important to develop efficient control strategies to intervene with and prevent Cryptosporidium infection in humans. The present review presented and analyzed epidemiological status and characteristics of Cryptosporidium infection in humans in China since the first report in 1987. To date, epidemiological investigations of Cryptosporidium infecion have been carried out in different populations in 27 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities. Average prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 2.97% (5,933/200,054). Like other infectious disease, due to poor sanitation conditions in rural areas, people living in rural areas had a significantly higher prevalence of Cryptosporidium (1.77–12.87%) than those living in urban areas (0–3.70%). Seven Cryptosporidium species were identified, including C. hominis, C. andersoni, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. felis, C. canis and C. suis. This retrospective epidemiological analysis indicates wide geographical distribution of human Cryptosporidium infection/cryptosporidiosis in China.

Prevalence and genotypic identification of Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in captive Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in Heilongjiang and Fujian provinces of China

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are two important pathogens with zoonotic potential that cause enteric infections in a wide range of hosts, including humans. Both are transmitted from animals to humans by direct contact or through contaminated equipment. Bears are frequently found in Chinese zoos as ornamental animals as well as farmed as commercial animals, and are therefore in close contact with zoo- or farm-keepers, but the prevalence and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in bears is poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to provide data on the occurrence and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in Asiatic black bears from Heilongjiang and Fujian, China. From May 2015 to December 2017, 218 fresh fecal specimens were collected from captive Asiatic black bears in Heilongjiang (n = 36) and Fujian (n = 182), China. Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi were examined by PCR amplification of the partial small subunit of ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA, respectively. C. andersoni-positive isolates were subtyped through PCR analysis of the four minisatellite/microsatellite (MS1, MS2, MS3 and MS16) loci.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi were 2.4% (4/218) and 6.4% (14/218), respectively, with 2.8% (1/36) and 22.2% (8/36) in the Heilongjiang Province, and 1.6% (3/182) and 3.3% (6/182) in the Fujian Province. Sequence analysis confirmed the presence of Cryptosporidium species: C. andersoni (n = 3) and a genotype termed Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV (n = 1). All three identified C. andersoni belonged to the MLST subtype A4, A4, A4, A1. Two known E. bieneusi genotypes D (n = 4) and SC02 (n = 10) were identified, both of which belong to zoonotic Group 1.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of C. andersoni and Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV in bears. The discovery of the zoonotic potential of E. bieneusi genotype D in bears highlights its significant zoonotic potential and potential threat to human health.

Occurrence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in captive non-human primates from 12 zoos in China

Giardia duodenalis is a common enteric protozoan that infects a range of hosts including humans and other mammals. Multilocus genotyping of G. duodenalis in captive non-human primates (NHPs) from zoos in China is limited. In this study, we evaluated 302 NHP fecal samples collected from 32 different NHP species. The primates were from 12 zoos distributed across eight provinces and two municipalities (Chongqing and Beijing) of China. The overall infection rate was 8.3% (25/302). The six G. duodenalis-positive zoos and their infection rates were: Suzhou Zoo (40.0%, 4/10), Yangzhou Zoo (22.2%, 2/9), Dalian Zoo (16.7%, 4/24), Chengdu Zoo (12.8%, 6/47), Guiyang Forest Wildlife Zoo (12.1%, 7/58), and Changsha Zoo (4.7%, 2/43). Molecular analysis of three loci, beta-giardin (bg), triose phosphate isomerase (tpi), and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh), showed high genetic heterogeneity, and seven novel subtypes (BIII-1, MB10-1, WB8-1, B14-1, MB9-1, DN7-1, and BIV-1) were detected within assemblage B. Additional analysis revealed 12 different assemblage B multilocus genotypes (MLGs), one known MLG and 11 novel MLGs. Based on phylogenetic analysis, 12 assemblage B MLGs formed two main clades, MLG-SW (10-12, 18) and MLG-SW (13, 14, 16, 17), the other four MLG-SW (15, 19, 20, 21) were scattered throughout the phylogenetic tree in this study. Using multilocus genotyping, this study expands our understanding of the occurrence of Giardia infection and genetic variation in Giardia in captive non-human primates from zoos in China.

Genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi among captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Hainan Province: High genetic diversity and zoonotic potential

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a potentially important zoonotic pathogen. However, there is no information on E. bieneusi infection of captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Hainan Province, China. Here 193 fecal specimens of M. fascicularis were collected from a breeding base in Hainan Province, China, housing non-human primates for experimental use. E. bieneusi was identified and genotyped by nested PCR analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. A total of 59 (30.6%) specimens were PCR-positive for E. bieneusi and 16 ITS genotypes were identified including nine known genotypes: Type IV (n = 19), D (n = 11), CM1 (n = 8), PigEBITS7 (n = 4), Pongo2 (n = 4), Peru8 (n = 3), Peru11 (n = 1), WL21 (n = 1) and CM2 (n = 1) and seven novel genotypes HNM-I to HNM-VII (one each). Importantly, genotypes D, Type IV, Peru8, PigEBITS7, and Peru11, which were the predominant (38/59, 64.4%) genotypes identified among captive M. fascicularis in this study, are also well-known human-pathogenic genotypes. All the genotypes of E. bieneusi identified here, including the seven novel ones, belonged to zoonotic Group 1. This is the first report of the identification of E. bieneusi in M. fascicularis in Hainan Province, China. The finding that the numerous known human-pathogenic types and seven novel genotypes of E. bieneusi all belong to zoonotic Group 1 indicates the possibility of transmission of this important pathogenic parasite between M. fascicularis and humans.

Molecular characterization and distribution of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi from yaks in Tibet, China

BACKGROUND

With worldwide distribution and importance for veterinary medicine, Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi have been found in a wide variety of vertebrate hosts. At present, few available molecular data can be used to understand the features of genetic diversity of these pathogens in areas without or less intensive farming. Dominated by grazing, Tibet is a separate geographic unit in China and yaks are in frequent contact with local herdsmen and necessary for their daily life. Therefore, to investigate the distribution of these pathogens in yaks of Tibet, 577 fecal specimens were screened using nested PCR for the presence and genotypes of the three intestinal pathogens.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi were 1.4% (8/577), 1.7% (10/577), and 5.0% (29/577), respectively. Cryptosporidium andersoni (n = 7) and Cryptosporidium bovis (n = 1) were detected by sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA gene. Genotyping at the SSU rRNA and triosephosphate isomerase genes suggested that all G. duodenalis positive specimens belonged to assemblage E. Sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer gene identified six known E. bieneusi genotypes: BEB4 (n = 11), I (n = 6), D (n = 5), J (n = 2), CHC8 (n = 1), and BEB6 (n = 1). One subtype (A5,A4,A2,A1) for C. andersoni and three multilocus genotypes for E. bieneusi were identified by multilocus sequence typing.

CONCLUSIONS

We report for the first time the status of three enteric pathogens infection simultaneously for grazing yaks in Tibet. Yaks in our study are likely to impose a low zoonotic risk for humans. The molecular epidemiology data add to our knowledge of the characteristics of distribution and transmission for these pathogens in Tibet and their zoonotic potential and public health significance.

Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective

A total of eight Giardia species are accepted. These include: Giardia duodenalis (syn. Giardia intestinalis and Giardia lamblia), which infects humans and animals, Giardia agilis, Giardia ardeae, Giardia psittaci, Giardia muris, Giardia microti, Giardia peramelis and G. cricetidarum, which infect non-human hosts including amphibians, birds, rodents and marsupials. Giardia duodenalis is a species complex consisting of eight assemblages (A-H), with assemblages A and B the dominant assemblages in humans. Molecular studies to date on the zoonotic potential of Giardia in animals are problematic and are hampered by lack of concordance between loci. Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) are predominantly infected with G. duodenalis assemblage E, which has recently been shown to be zoonotic, followed by assemblage A. In cats and dogs, assemblages A, B, C, D and F are commonly reported but relatively few studies have conducted molecular typing of humans and their pets and the results are contradictory with some studies support zoonotic transmission but the majority of studies suggesting separate transmission cycles. Giardia also infects a broad range of wildlife hosts and although much less well studied, host-adapted species as well as G. duodenalis assemblages (A-H) have been identified. Fish and other aquatic wildlife represent a source of infection for humans with Giardia via water contamination and/or consumption of undercooked fish and interestingly, assemblage B and A predominated in the two molecular studies conducted to date. Our current knowledge of the transmission dynamics of Giardia is still poor and the development of more discriminatory typing tools such as whole genome sequencing (WGS) of Giardia isolates is therefore essential.

Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis subtypes in crab-eating macaques

BACKGROUND

Non-human primates are often infected with human-pathogenic Cryptosporidium hominis subtypes, but rarely with Cryptosporidium parvum. In this study, 1452 fecal specimens were collected from farmed crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Hainan, China during the period April 2016 to January 2018. These specimens were analyzed for Cryptosporidium species and subtypes by using PCR and sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA and 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes, respectively.

RESULTS

Altogether, Cryptosporidium was detected using 18S rRNA-based PCR in 132 (9.1%) sampled animals, with significantly higher prevalence in females (12.5% or 75/599 versus 6.1% or 43/706), younger animals (10.7% or 118/1102 in monkeys 1-3-years-old versus 4.0% or 14/350 in those over 3-years-old) and animals with diarrhea (12.6% or 46/365 versus 7.9% or 86/1087). Four Cryptosporidium species were identified, namely C. hominis, C. parvum, Cryptosporidium muris and Cryptosporidium ubiquitum in 86, 30, 15 and 1 animal, respectively. The identified C. parvum, C. hominis and C. ubiquitum were further subtyped by using gp60 PCR. Among them, C. parvum belonged to subtypes in two known subtype families, namely IIoA14G1 (in 18 animals) and IIdA19G1 (in 2 animals). In contrast, C. hominis mostly belonged to two new subtype families Im and In, which are genetically related to Ia and Id, respectively. The C. hominis subtypes identified included ImA18 (in 38 animals), InA14 (in six animals), InA26 (in six animals), InA17 (in one animal) and IiA17 (in three animals). The C. ubiquitum isolates belonged to subtype family XIId. By subtype, ImA18 and IIoA14G1 were detected in animals with diarrhea whereas the remaining ones were mostly found in asymptomatic animals. Compared with C. parvum and C. muris, higher oocyst shedding intensity was observed in animals infected with C. hominis, especially those infected with the Im subtype family.

CONCLUSIONS

Data from the study suggest that crab-eating macaques are infected with diverse C. parvum and C. hominis subtypes. The C. parvum IIo subtype family previously seen in rodents in China has apparently expanded its host range.

Prevalence and diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. in bamboo rats (Rhizomys sinensis) in South Central China

Cryptosporidium is one of the most prevalent zoonotic parasites and is responsible for the high burden of diarrheal disease across the globe. Rodents are globally overpopulated and are reservoirs for a variety of zoonotic pathogens. Bamboo rats are a common species of rodent that are bred for meat and wool in China. However, the genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium in bamboo rats in China is limited. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium in bamboo rats from South Central China. From February2017to February 2018, 435 fecal samples were collected from bamboo rats in 13 farms located in 12 cities in South Central China. All fecal specimens were examined for Cryptosporidium by PCR, and through sequencing the partial small subunit of ribosomal DNA (SSU rRNA). C. parvum-positive samples were further subtyped through analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene sequence. Meanwhile, all the new Cryptosporidium genotypes samples were selected for further sequence characterization at the 70-kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) gene and oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene as well as gp60 gene. Infection rates of 2.1% (9/435) were recorded for Cryptosporidium. Sequence analysis confirmed the presence of two Cryptosporidium species including C. parvum (n = 2), C. occultus (n = 1) and two new Cryptosporidium genotypes termed Cryptosporidium bamboo rat genotype I (n = 5) and Cryptosporidium bamboo rat genotype II (n = 1). Two subtypes of C. parvum were identified including IIdA15G1 and IIpA19 (one each).The discovery of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species/genotypes in bamboo rats suggests they have significant zoonotic potential and pose a threat to human health. The novel sequences discovered provide new insight into genotypic variations in Cryptosporidium in bamboo rats.

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This is the first report of the identification of Cryptosporidium in farmed bamboo rats in South Central China.

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2.1% (9/435) bamboo rats were PCR-positive for Cryptosporidium.

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Cryptosporidium parvum, C. occultus, Cryptosporidium bamboo rats I and II were identified.

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The possibility of transmission of Cryptosporidium between bamboo rats and humans was suggested.

Genotypes and public health potential of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in crab-eating macaques

BACKGROUND

Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis are common human and animal pathogens. Studies have increasingly shown that non-human primates (NHPs) are common hosts of these two zoonotic parasites. However, few studies have explored the genetic diversity and public health potential of these pathogens in laboratory monkeys. In this study, we examined the genetic diversity of the two pathogens in crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in a commercial facility in Hainan, China.

RESULTS

Enterocytozoon bieneusi and G. duodenalis were detected by PCR analysis in 461/1452 (31.7%) and 469/1452 (32.3%) fecal specimens from the animals, respectively. Significantly higher detection rates of E. bieneusi were detected in males (36.5%, 258/706) than in females (26.7%, 160/599; χ2 = 14.391, P = 0.0001), in animals with loose stools (41.4%, 151/365) than those with normal stool (28.5%, 310/1087; χ2 = 20.83, P < 0.0001), and in animals of over 3 years of age (38.6%, 135/350) than those of 1-3 years (29.6%, 326/1,102; χ2 = 9.90, P = 0.0016). For G. duodenalis, the detection rate in males (33.4%, 236/706) was higher than in females but not statistically significant (30.2%, 181/599; χ2 = 1.54, P = 0.2152), in monkeys with loose stools (41.1%, 150/365) than those with normal stools (29.3%, 319/1087; χ2 = 17.25, P < 0.0001), and in monkeys of 1-3 years of age (36.6%, 403/1102) than those over 3 years (18.9%, 66/350; χ2 = 38.11, P < 0.0001). Nine E. bieneusi genotypes were detected in this study by DNA sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer of the rRNA gene, namely Type IV (236/461), Peru8 (42/461), Pongo2 (27/461), Peru11 (12/461), D (4/461) and PigEbITS7 (1/461) previously seen in NHPs as well as humans, and CM1 (119/461), CM2 (17/461) and CM3 (3/461) that had been only detected in NHPs. DNA sequence analyses of the tpi, gdh and bg loci identified all G. duodenalis specimens as having assemblage B. Altogether, eight (4 known and 4 new), seven (6 known and 1 new) and seven (4 known and 3 new) subtypes were seen at the tpi, gdh and bg loci, leading to the detection of 53 multi-locus genotypes (MLG-B-hn01 to MLG-B-hn53). Most of them were genetically related to those previously seen in common Old-World monkeys.

CONCLUSIONS

Data from this study indicate a common occurrence of zoonotic genotypes of E. bieneusi and assemblage B of G. duodenalis in farmed crab-eating macaques in Hainan, China.

Host Specificity of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Public Health Implications

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most common cause of human microsporidiosis and it also infects a wide range of mammals and birds worldwide. The role of animals in the transmission of this parasite to humans and its public health importance remain poorly elucidated. This review summarizes all E. bieneusi genotypes identified thus far based on sequence analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) from specimens obtained from humans, domestic and wild animals, and water sources; it examines genotypes, host and geographical distribution, analyzes inter- and intragenotype group host specificity, and interprets the public health significance of genotype groups and major zoonotic genotypes, with the goal of improving our understanding of host specificity in E. bieneusi and its implications for interspecies and zoonotic transmission.

Molecular prevalence and subtyping of Cryptosporidium hominis among captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from Hainan Island, southern China

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium is an important zoonotic parasite that is commonly found in non-human primates (NHPs). Consequently, there is the potential for transmission of this pathogen from NHPs to humans. However, molecular characterization of the isolates of Cryptosporidium from NHPs remains relatively poor. The aim of the present work was to (i) determine the prevalence; and (ii) perform a genetic characterization of the Cryptosporidium isolated from captive Macaca fascicularis and M. mulatta on Hainan Island in southern China.

METHODS

A total of 223 fresh fecal samples were collected from captive M. fascicularis (n = 193) and M. mulatta (n = 30). The fecal specimens were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the partial small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene. The Cryptosporidium-positive specimens were subtyped by analyzing the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene sequence.

RESULTS

Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 5.7% (11/193) of M. fascicularis. All of the 11 Cryptosporidium isolates were identified as C. hominis. Subtyping of nine of these isolates identified four unique gp60 subtypes of C. hominis. These included IaA20R3a (n = 1), IoA17a (n = 1), IoA17b (n = 1), and IiA17 (n = 6). Notably, subtypes IaA20R3a, IoA17a, and IoA17b were novel subtypes which have not been reported previously.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first reported detection of Cryptosporidium in captive M. fascicularis from Hainan Island. The molecular characteristics and subtypes of the isolates here provide novel insights into the genotypic variation in C. hominis.

Intestinal Parasites and the Occurrence of Zoonotic Giardia duodenalis Genotype in Captive Gibbons at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center, Thailand

Intestinal parasitic infections can have an impact on health and growth of wildlife. The current study aims were to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites and to molecular characterize Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in captive gibbons at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center, Thailand. Fifty-five gibbons, 2 agile- (Hylobates agilis), 38 lar- (Hylobates lar) and 15 pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) were included in this study. Fecal samples were collected individually at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center, Chachoengsao province, eastern Thailand, in November 2013. Intestinal parasitic infections were examined by zinc sulfate centrifugation flotation and by a commercially available immunofluorescent assay (IFA) for detection of G. duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp.. Polymerase chain reaction targeting the Giardia glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh), beta- giardin (bg), triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) genes, and the Cryptosporidium small subunit-rRNA and heat-shock protein (hsp70) following by DNA sequencing were performed on the IFA positive samples. The overall prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection in gibbons at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center was 12.7% (95%CI: 5.3–24.5), Strongyloides spp. eggs or larvae were present in all positive samples. Co-infections with G. duodenalis were detected in 1.8% (95%CI: 0.1–9.7) of the samples. Based on the sequencing results of the three genes, the IFA Giardia positive isolate typed as the zoonotic genotype B. Since the data reveals the occurrence of zoonotic Giardia genotype, good hygiene management is suggested to prevent the transmission of this pathogen from gibbon to human, and vice versa.

Prevalence and multi-locus genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in black-boned sheep and goats in Yunnan Province, southwestern China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a common pathogen in sheep and goats worldwide, threatening husbandry development and public health. However, there were few reports on native breeds of sheep and goats in China. In the present study, we investigated the prevalence and multi-locus genotypes (MLGs) of E. bieneusi in two important local breeds, black-boned sheep and goats, in Yunnan province, southwestern China. Of 661 faecal specimens collected from five counties of Yunnan province, 70 (10.59%) were positive for E. bieneusi infection. Infections were found in both black-boned sheep and goats, but no significant difference in prevalence was detected between two species. E. bieneusi was found in all age groups of black-boned sheep, while no infections were observed in 0-2-month black-boned goats. 12 genotypes were identified based on sequence variations of the internal transcribed spacer, including 10 known genotypes (BEB6, COS I, SX1, CM21, CHG3, CHG1, CHS5, EbpC, COS II, PigEb4) and two novel genotypes (named as YNS1 and YSM1), with BEB6 as the prevalent genotype both in black-boned sheep and goats. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that three genotypes of them, namely EbpC, CHS5 and PigEb4, were clustered into the zoonotic group 1, while the remaining nine genotypes were belonged to the host-adapted group 2. Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) revealed 12 distinct multilocus genotypes (MLGs), with 11 MLGs detected in black-boned sheep and only one found in one black-boned goat. These findings expanded the reservoirs of E. bieneusi and provided fundamental data for controlling E. bieneusi infection in native small ruminants as well as other hosts in this province.

Molecular characterization and new genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in minks (Neovison vison) in China

Microsporidiosis is an emerging and opportunistic disease, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the main cause of this disease in humans. Little information is available on prevalence and genotyping of E. bieneusi in minks. We collected 559 feces samples of minks from Heilongjiang and Jilin provinces in 2017, and studied E. bieneusi prevalence by nested PCR. A total of 23 out of 559 minks (4.1%) were detected as E. bieneusi-positive, and were raised in five of the seven investigated farms. Age was the only risk factor associated with E. bieneusi prevalence in investigated minks through logistic regression analysis. Sequence analysis of the ITS gene revealed that five E. bieneusi ITS genotypes, including Peru11, EbpC, and three novel genotypes (HLJM-1, HLJM-2 and JLM-1) were present, suggesting minks may be a potential source of human microsporidiosis.

Prevalence and genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi has been considered as the most frequently diagnosed microsporidian species in humans and various animal species, accounting for more than 90% of the cases of human microsporidiosis. Spores of this pathogen excreted from both symptomatic and asymptomatic hosts into environment also would be an important source of waterborne outbreak of microsporidiosis. Due to limited effective drugs available but with too much side effects to mammals (eg. toxic), accurate characterization of E. bieneusi in both humans and animals is essential to implement effective control strategies to this pathogen. In China, E. bieneusi infection was presented in humans and some animals with high prevalence. Analysis of genetic variations of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences found 361 genotypes in China, and some novel genotypes were identified in some specific hosts. Additionally, associations between infections and some risk factors were also observed. In the present article, we reviewed the current status of prevalence, genotypes, multilocus genotypes (MLGs) in humans, various animals and waters in China. These findings will provide basic information for developing effective control strategies against E. bieneusi infection in China as well as other countries.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Minks (Neovison vison) in Northern China: A Public Health Concern

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most important causative agent of microsporidiosis and can infect almost all vertebrate and invertebrate hosts, including minks (Neovison vison). In the present study, a total of 298 feces samples (including 79 from Heilongjiang province, 31 from Hebei province, 67 from Jilin province, 90 from Liaoning province, and 31 from Shandong province, Northern China) were examined by nested PCR amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. The overall prevalence of E. bieneusi in minks was 10.1%, with 10.5% in Jilin province, 32.3% in Hebei province, 8.9% in Liaoning province, 0% in Shandong province, and 6.3% in Heilongjiang province. Furthermore, multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that region was only risk factors associated with E. bieneusi infection in the investigated minks. Five E. bieneusi ITS genotypes (three known genotypes, namely D, Peru11, and EbpC; two novel genotypes, namely, NCM-1 and NCM-2) were found in the current study. Importantly, genotypes D, Peru11 and EbpC, previously identified in humans, were also found in minks, which suggested that minks are the potential sources of human microsporidiosis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of E. bieneusi infection in minks worldwide. The results of the present survey have implications for the controlling E. bieneusi infection in minks, other animals and humans.

Molecular characterization and new genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in pet chipmunks (Eutamias asiaticus) in Sichuan province, China

BACKGROUND

Enterocytozoon bieneusi, the most commonly identified microsporidian species in humans, is also identified in livestock, birds, rodents, reptiles, companion animals, even wastewater. However, there is no information available on occurrence of E. bieneusi in pet chipmunks. The aim of the present study was to determine the genotypes, molecular characterization of E. bieneusi in pet chipmunks, and assess the zoonotic potential.

RESULTS

A total of 279 fecal specimens were collected from chipmunks from seven pet shops and one breeding facility in Sichuan province, China. The prevalence for E. bieneusi was 17.6% (49/279) based on nested PCR targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. The prevalence of E. bieneusi in chipmunks < 90 days of age was significantly higher than that in older chipmunks; however, differences among different sources and between genders were not significant. Eight genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified, including four known genotypes (D, Nig7, CHG9, and CHY1) and four novel genotypes (SCC-1 to 4). Phylogenetic analysis classified these genotypes into four distinct groups as follows: genotypes D and CHG9 clustered into group 1 of zoonotic potential; genotypes Nig7 and CHY1 clustered into group 6 and a new group, respectively; the four novel genotypes (SCC-1 to 4) formed a separate group named group 10.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in pet chipmunks in China. Genotypes D and Nig7, found in chipmunks in this study, have also been previously identified in humans, which suggests that chipmunks might play a role in the transmission of this pathogen to humans.

Giardia duodenalis in primates: Classification and host specificity based on phylogenetic analysis of sequence data

Giardia duodenalis colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a wide range of hosts, including humans and other primates. It is grouped into eight different Assemblages and, beyond that, into a number of sub-Assemblages, defined ad hoc on the basis of genetic differences; these various groups are often considered to be associated with a specific restricted host range. The aim of this study was to use publicly available genotyping data to investigate the relatedness of human and non-human primate (NHP) Giardia isolates in order to evaluate the usefulness of current taxonomic classification and to assess whether there is potential for zoonotic transmission between humans and NHP. Our final data set consisted of sequence data from 165 isolates, 111 from NHP and 54 from humans. Assemblages were well defined, but sub-Assemblages across Assemblage B were not resolved. Although sub-Assemblages AI and AII were resolved, the terms were not found to capture any useful molecular or host/deme properties. In the phylogenetic tree, NHP isolates were scattered among human isolates across Assemblages A and B, and were even found in Assemblage E. We conclude that there does not appear to be significant molecular distinction between human and NHP Giardia isolates across these four molecular markers. Thus, on the basis of these markers, we cannot exclude a risk for zoonotic and anthropozoonotic transmission of Assemblages A and B isolates, irrespective of sub-Assemblage classification. We further evaluated the relative merit of the four genes used in genotyping studies. The tpi, gdh and bg genes gave relatively congruent tree topologies, but the SSU gene did not resolve Assemblages according to the current classification. Future genotyping efforts should aim for multilocus or whole-genome approaches and, in particular, use of the SSU gene as the sole marker should be avoided when possible.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in deer in Henan and Jilin, China

Background

Little is known about the prevalence and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in deer in China. In this study, 662 fecal samples were collected from 11 farms in Henan and Jilin Provinces between July 2013 and August 2014, and were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis with genotyping and subtyping methods.

Results

Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were detected in 6.80% (45/662) and 1.21% (5/662) of samples, respectively. Six Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified based on the small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA) gene: C. parvum (n = 11); C. andersoni (n = 5); C. ubiquitum (n = 3); C. muris (n = 1); C. suis-like (n = 1); and Cryptosporidium deer genotype (n = 24). When five of the 11 C. parvum isolates were subtyped by sequencing the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene, zoonotic subtypes IIaA15G2R2 (n = 4) and IIdA19G1 (n = 1) were found. According to a subtype analysis, three C. ubiquitum isolates belonged to XIIa subtype 2. In contrast, only assemblage E was detected in the five Giardia-positive samples with small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA) gene sequencing.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first study to report C. andersoni, as well as C. parvum zoonotic subtypes IIaA15G2R2 and IIdA19G1 in cervids. These data, though limited, suggest that cervids may be a source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Cervids in the present study are likely to be of low zoonotic potential to humans, and more molecular epidemiological studies are required to clarify the prevalence and public health significance of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis in cervids throughout China.

Host specificity of Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) in China

BACKGROUND

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an obligate, intracellular fungus and is commonly reported in humans and animals. To date, there have been no reports of E. bieneusi infections in Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus). The present study was conducted to understand the occurrence and molecular characteristics of E. bieneusi in Bactrian camels in China.

RESULTS

Of 407 individual Bactrian camel fecal specimens, 30.0% (122) were E. bieneusi-positive by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on internal transcriber spacer (ITS) sequence analysis. A total of 14 distinct E. bieneusi ITS genotypes were obtained: eight known genotypes (genotype EbpC, EbpA, Henan-IV, BEB6, CM8, CHG16, O and WL17), and six novel genotypes (named CAM1 to CAM6). Genotype CAM1 (59.0%, 72/122) was the most predominant genotype in Bactrian camels in Xinjiang, and genotype EbpC (18.9%, 23/122) was the second-most predominant genotype. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that six known genotypes (EbpC, EbpA, WL17, Henan-IV, CM8 and O) and three novel genotypes (CAM3, CAM5 and CAM6) fell into the human-pathogenic group 1. Two known genotypes (CHG16 and BEB6) fell into the cattle host-specific group 2. The novel genotypes CAM1, CAM 2 and CAM4 cluster into group 8.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first report of E. bieneusi in Bactrian camels. The host-specific genotype CAM1 was the predominant genotype, which plays a negligible role in the zoonotic transmission of E. bieneusi. However, the second-most predominant genotype, EbpC, has greater zoonotic potential.

Dominance of the Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype BEB6 in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) in China and a brief literature review

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most frequently diagnosed microsporidian species in humans and is also found in a wide range of animals. It is considered to be an important but neglected zoonotic pathogen. With the development of deer bred in captivity, the number of deer has been increasing in recent years in China and there are more people involved in this work. The aims of this study were to determine prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), and to assess their potential zoonotic transmission. A total of 122 fecal specimens were collected from 104 red deer and 18 roe deer from three deer farms in Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces, China. Enterocytozoon bieneusi was detected and genotyped by PCR and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. The average infection rate was 8.2% (10/122), with 7.7% (8/104) for red deer and 11.1% (2/18) for roe deer. Two genotypes were identified: a known genotype BEB6 (n = 9) and a novel genotype named HLJD-VI (n = 1). This is the first report of E. bieneusi infection in Siberian roe deer. The fact that genotype BEB6 was detected previously in one human case of microsporidiosis, and that genotype HLJD-VI fell into zoonotic group 1, suggest the possibility of transmission to humans. A brief review of E. bieneusi genotypes in deer worldwide shows that 40 genotypes have been found in seven deer species, with genotype BEB6 being predominant.

Giardia duodenalis Infections in Humans and Other Animals in China

Giardia duodenalis is an important zoonotic pathogen in both public and veterinary health, and has been genotyped into at least eight assemblages (A-H), each with a distinct host range. In recent years, this intestinal protozoan parasite has been identified widely in humans and various other animals, and has even been recorded in environmental contaminants. Along with whole genome sequencing of G. duodenalis, multilocus sequence typing is increasingly being used to characterize G. duodenalis isolates. Here, we review the epidemiology, genotyping, and subtyping of G. duodenalis from humans and a wide range of other animals, as well as from wastewater, in China.

Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in captive non-human primates in Sichuan and Guizhou provinces, Southwestern China

Giardia duodenalis is a common human and animal pathogen. It has been increasingly reported in wild and captive non-human primates (NHPs) in recent years. However, multilocus genotyping information for G. duodenalis infecting NHPs in southwestern China is limited. In the present study, the prevalence and multilocus genotypes (MLGs) of G. duodenalis in captive NHPs in southwestern China were determined. We examined 207 fecal samples from NHPs in Sichuan and Guizhou provinces, and 16 specimens were positive for G. duodenalis. The overall infection rate was 7.7%, and only assemblage B was identified. G. duodenalis was detect positive in northern white-cheeked gibbon (14/36, 38.9%), crab-eating macaque (1/60, 1.7%) and rhesus macaques (1/101, 0.9%). Multilocus sequence typing based on beta-giardin (bg), triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) revealed nine different assemblage B MLGs (five known genotypes and four novel genotypes). Based on a phylogenetic analysis, one potentially zoonotic genotype of MLG SW7 was identified in a northern white-cheeked gibbon. A high degree of genetic diversity within assemblage B was observed in captive northern white-cheeked gibbons in Southwestern China, including a potentially zoonotic genotype, MLG SW7. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report using a MLGs approach to identify G. duodenalis in captive NHPs in Southwestern China.

Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis in China

Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis is an active research area in China. The use of genotyping and subtyping tools in prevalence studies has led to the identification of unique characteristics of Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals. Human cryptosporidiosis in China is exemplified by the high diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. at species and subtype levels, with dominant C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes being rarely detected in other countries. Similarly, preweaned dairy calves, lambs, and goat kids are mostly infected with non-pathogenic Cryptosporidium species (C. bovis in calves and C. xiaoi in lambs and goat kids), with C. parvum starting to appear in dairy calves as a consequence of concentrated animal feeding operations. The latter Cryptosporidium species is dominated by IId subtypes, with IIa subtypes largely absent from the country. Unlike elsewhere, rodents in China appear to be commonly infected with C. parvum IId subtypes, with identical subtypes being found in these animals, calves, other livestock, and humans. In addition to cattle, pigs and chickens appear to be significant contributors to Cryptosporidium contamination in drinking water sources, as reflected by the frequent detection of C. suis, C. baileyi, and C. meleagridis in water samples. Chinese scientists have also made significant contributions to the development of new molecular epidemiological tools for Cryptosporidium spp. and improvements in our understanding of the mechanism involved in the emergence of hyper-transmissible and virulent C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes. Despite this progress, coordinated research efforts should be made to address changes in Cryptosporidium transmission because of rapid economic development in China and to prevent the introduction and spread of virulent and zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in farm animals.

Molecular characterization of Enterocytozoon bieneusi isolates in laboratory macaques in north China: zoonotic concerns

The significance of wild and zoo nonhuman primates (NHPs) as potential sources of human Enterocytozoon bieneusi infections has been increasingly appreciated, while the role of laboratory NHPs in zoonotic transmission of microsporidiosis remains elusive. In this study, the infection rate, genetic characteristic, and zoonotic potential of E. bieneusi were investigated for 205 laboratory macaques in Beijing, north China. The parasite was identified in 37 (18.0%) animals by nested PCR and sequencing of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS), with an infection rate of 25.6% in Macaca fascicularis (34/133) and 4.2% in Macaca mulatta (3/72). The differences in infection rate between the two species of macaques and between young macaques aged ≤ 5 years (29.6%, 32/108) and adults aged > 5 years (5.2%, 5/97) were significant (p < 0.01). Analysis of the ITS sequence polymorphisms recognized eight known genotypes (CC4, CM1, CM2, D, Peru8, Peru11, Type IV, and WL21) and two new genotypes (named as CMB1 and CMB2), with well-known human-pathogenic genotypes (D, Peru8, Peru11, and Type IV) most frequently detected. The rest genotypes (CC4, CM1, CM2, WL21, CMB1, and CMB2) were clustered into zoonotic group 1 in phylogenetic analysis. The high diversity and widespread presence of the human-pathogenic or group 1 E. bieneusi genotypes in laboratory NHPs, notably M. fascicularis and the young animals, suggest potential of zoonotic transmission. These findings imply that laboratory rhesus macaques could be significant reservoirs for human microsporidiosis.

Molecular characterisation of protist parasites in human-habituated mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), humans and livestock, from Bwindi impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Background

Over 60 % of human emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic, and there is growing evidence of the zooanthroponotic transmission of diseases from humans to livestock and wildlife species, with major implications for public health, economics, and conservation. Zooanthroponoses are of relevance to critically endangered species; amongst these is the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) of Uganda. Here, we assess the occurrence of Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, and Entamoeba infecting mountain gorillas in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda, using molecular methods. We also assess the occurrence of these parasites in humans and livestock species living in overlapping/adjacent geographical regions.

Results

Diagnostic PCR detected Cryptosporidium parvum in one sample from a mountain gorilla (IIdA23G2) and one from a goat (based on SSU). Cryptosporidium was not detected in humans or cattle. Cyclospora was not detected in any of the samples analysed. Giardia was identified in three human and two cattle samples, which were linked to assemblage A, B and E of G. duodenalis. Sequences defined as belonging to the genus Entamoeba were identified in all host groups. Of the 86 sequence types characterised, one, seven and two have been recorded previously to represent genotypes of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Entamoeba, respectively, from humans, other mammals, and water sources globally.

Conclusions

This study provides a snapshot of the occurrence and genetic make-up of selected protists in mammals in and around BINP. The genetic analyses indicated that 54.6% of the 203 samples analysed contained parasites that matched species, genotypes, or genetic assemblages found globally. Seventy-six new sequence records were identified here for the first time. As nothing is known about the zoonotic/zooanthroponotic potential of the corresponding parasites, future work should focus on wider epidemiological investigations together with continued surveillance of all parasites in humans, other mammals, the environment, and water in this highly impoverished area.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2283-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

High prevalence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi zoonotic genotype D in captive golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanae) in zoos in China

BACKGROUND

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the dominant specie of microsporidia which can infect both anthroponotic and zoonotic species. The golden snub-nosed monkey is an endangered primate which can also infect by E. bieneusi. To date, few genetic data on E. bieneusi from golden snub-nosed monkeys has been published. Therefore, to clarify the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in captive golden snub-nosed monkeys is necessary to assess the potential for zoonotic transmission.

RESULT

We examined 160 golden snub-nosed monkeys from six zoos in four cities in China, using PCR and comparative sequence analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS). The overall prevalence of E. bieneusi was 46.2% (74/160); while the prevalence was 26.7%, 69.1%, 69.4% and 33.3% in Shanghai Zoo, Shanghai Wild Animal Park, Tongling Zoo, and Taiyuan Zoo respectively (P = 0.006). A total of seven E. bieneusi genotypes were found that included four known (D, J, CHG1, and CHG14) and three new (CM19-CM 21) genotypes. The most common genotype was D (54/74, 73.0%), followed by J (14/74, 18.9%); other genotypes were restricted to one or two samples. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that genotype D belonged to the previously-characterized Group 1, with zoonotic potential; whereas genotypes J, CHG1, CHG14 and CM19-CM 21 clustered in the previously-characterized Group 2, the so-called cattle host specificity group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of high prevalence of zoonotic E. bieneusi genotypes D and J in golden snub-nosed monkeys suggest that golden snub-nosed monkeys may be the reservoir hosts for human microsporidiosis, and vice versa.

First Report of the Human-Pathogenic Enterocytozoon bieneusi from Red-Bellied Tree Squirrels (Callosciurus erythraeus) in Sichuan, China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a common opportunistic pathogen causing diarrhea and enteric disease in a variety of animal hosts. Although it has been reported in many animals, there is no published information available on the occurrence of E. bieneusi in red-bellied tree squirrels. To understand the occurrence, genetic diversity, and zoonotic potential of E. bieneusi in red-bellied tree squirrels, 144 fecal specimens from Sichuan province, China, were examined by PCR amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene of E. bieneusi. The overall infection rate of E. bieneusi 16.7% (24/144) was observed in red-bellied tree squirrels. Altogether five genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified: three known genotypes D (n = 18), EbpC (n = 3), SC02 (n = 1) and two novel genotypes CE01, CE02 (one each). Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis employing three microsatellite (MS1, MS3, MS7) and one minisatellite (MS4) revealed 16, 14, 7 and 14 positive specimens were successfully sequenced, and identified eight, three, three and two genotypes at four loci, respectively. In phylogenetic analysis, the three known genotypes D, EbpC, and SC02 were clustered into group 1 with zoonotic potential, and the two novel genotypes CE01 and CE02 were clustered into group 6. The present study firstly reported the occurrence of E. bieneusi in red-bellied tree squirrels in China, and the E. bieneusi genotypes D and EbpC were found in humans previously. These results indicate that red-bellied tree squirrels may play a potential role in the transmission of E. bieneusi to humans.

Identification of Giardia lamblia Assemblage E in Humans Points to a New Anthropozoonotic Cycle

Giardia lamblia is a pathogen transmitted by water and food that causes infection worldwide. Giardia genotypes are classified into 8 assemblages (A-H). Assemblages A and B are detected in humans, but they are potentially zoonotic because they infect other mammalian hosts. Giardia in samples from 44 children was genotyped. Conserved fragments of the genes encoding β-giardin and glutamate dehydrogenase were sequenced and their alignment were carried out with sequences deposited in GenBank. As expected for Rio de Janeiro, the majority of samples were related to assemblage A. Surprisingly, assemblage E was detected in 15 samples. Detection of assemblage E in humans suggests a new zoonotic route of Giardia transmission.

The zoonotic potential of Giardia intestinalis assemblage E in rural settings

Giardiasis is a globally re-emerging protozoan disease with veterinary and public health implications. The current study was carried out to investigate the zoonotic potential of livestock-specific assemblage E in rural settings. For this purpose, a total of 40 microscopically positive Giardia stool samples from children with gastrointestinal complaints with or without diarrhea were enrolled in the study as well as fecal samples from 46 diarrheic cattle (18 dairy cows and 28 calves). Animal samples were examined by sedimentation method to identify Giardia spp., and then, all Giardia positive samples from human and animals were processed for molecular detection of livestock-specific assemblage E through amplification of assemblage-specific triosephosphate isomerase (tpi) gene using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results of the study revealed high unexpected occurrence of assemblage E among human samples (62.5 %), whereas the distribution among patients with diarrhea and those without was 42.1 and 81 %, respectively. On the other hand, the prevalence of Giardia spp. among diarrheic dairy cattle was (8.7 %), while only calves yielded positive results (14.3 %) and all bovine Giardia spp. were genetically classified as Giardia intestinalis assemblage E. Moreover, DNA sequencing of randomly selected one positive human sample and another bovine one revealed 100 and 99 % identity with assemblage E tpi gene sequences available at GenBank after BLAST analysis. In conclusion, the current study highlights the wide dissemination of livestock-specific assemblage E among humans in rural areas, and thus, zoonotic transmission cycle should not be discounted during the control of giardiasis in such settings.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon spp. and Giardia intestinalis in Wild, Semi-Wild and Captive Orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) on Sumatra and Borneo, Indonesia

Background

Orangutans are critically endangered primarily due to loss and fragmentation of their natural habitat. This could bring them into closer contact with humans and increase the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission.

Aims

To describe the prevalence and diversity of Cryptosporidium spp., microsporidia and Giardia intestinalis in orangutans at seven sites on Sumatra and Kalimantan, and to evaluate the impact of orangutans’ habituation and location on the occurrence of these zoonotic protists.

Result

The overall prevalence of parasites in 298 examined animals was 11.1%. The most prevalent microsporidia was Encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype II, found in 21 animals (7.0%). Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype D (n = 5) and novel genotype Pongo 2 were detected only in six individuals (2.0%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of these parasites in orangutans. Eight animals were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. (2.7%), including C. parvum (n = 2) and C. muris (n = 6). Giardia intestinalis assemblage B, subtype MB6, was identified in a single individual. While no significant differences between the different human contact level groups (p = 0.479–0.670) or between the different islands (p = 0.992) were reported in case of E. bieneusi or E. cuniculi, Cryptosporidium spp. was significantly less frequently detected in wild individuals (p < 2×10⁻¹⁶) and was significantly more prevalent in orangutans on Kalimantan than on Sumatra (p < 2×10⁻¹⁶).

Conclusion

Our results revealed that wild orangutans are significantly less frequently infected by Cryptosporidium spp. than captive and semi-wild animals. In addition, this parasite was more frequently detected at localities on Kalimantan. In contrast, we did not detect any significant difference in the prevalence of microsporidia between the studied groups of animals. The sources and transmission modes of infections were not determined, as this would require repeated sampling of individuals, examination of water sources, and sampling of humans and animals sharing the habitat with orangutans.

Prevalence, risk factors and multilocus genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in farmed foxes (Vulpes lagopus), Northern China

Background

Microsporidiosis is a common disease in animals and humans around the world. Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most common microsporidian species in humans. Many animal species may be a potential source of human microsporidiosis. However, information concerning prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi infection in farmed foxes (Vulpes lagopus) is scarce. Therefore, the present study examined prevalence, risk factors and genotypes of E. bieneusi in farmed foxes in northern China using a genetic approach.

Results

Of 302 fecal samples from farmed foxes, 37 (12.25 %, 95 % CI 8.55–15.95) were PCR-positive for E. bieneusi, and the prevalence was highly associated with the farming mode in that foxes raised outdoors (26.03 % positive, 95 % CI 18.91–33.15) had a significantly higher E. bieneusi prevalence than those raised indoors. Eleven internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genotypes were identified among the positive samples: four known E. bieneusi genotypes (Peru 8, Types IV, CHN-DC1 and D) and seven novel genotypes (NCF1-NCF7). Genotype NCF2 was the commonest (n = 13) and was found in five farms across three provinces (Jilin, Heilongjiang and Hebei). All genotypes belonged to phylogenetic group 1. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analyses revealed additional diversity.

Conclusions

These findings indicate the presence of zoonotic E. bieneusi infection in farmed foxes in northern China. This is also the first report of genotypes Peru8, CHN-DC1 and Type IV, and seven novel genotypes (NCF1-NCF7) in farmed foxes by ITS combining with microsatellite and minisatellite markers for the first time. The results will provide baseline data for preventing and controlling E. bieneusi infection in farmed foxes, other animals and humans.

Molecular survey of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in sheep and goats in China

Background

Over recent years, several studies have conducted genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in various hosts worldwide using sequence analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS), however, relatively little is known about E. bieneusi in sheep and goats in China. Therefore this research was conducted to understand the prevalence and genotype distribution of E. bieneusi in farmed sheep and goats in China.

Results

A total of 1025 fecal specimens from farmed animals in various geographic areas were collected. Overall, PCR and sequence analysis of the ITS detected E. bieneusi in 34.4 % (353/1025) of isolates; of which the prevalence in goats was 28.8 % (176/611) and in sheep was 42.8 % (177/414). Phylogenetic analysis of ITS sequences identified 42 genotypes (nine known and 33 novel ones). These consisted of four known genotypes (D, KIN-1, EbpC, and F) and 10 novel genotypes (CHG6, CHG7, CHG9, CHG19, CHG23, CHG25, CHS5 and CHS10–CHS12) which all belonged to the so-called zoonotic group 1. A further four known genotypes (CD6, COS-I, BEB6, and J) and 22 novel genotypes (CHG1–CHG3, CHG5, CHG8, CHG10–CHG14, CHG16–CHG18, CHG20, CHG22, CHG24, CHS3, CHS4 and CHS6–CHS9) formed a clade within the group 2. One novel genotype (CHG21) was clustered in the group 9 with the genotype CM4.

Conclusions

E. bieneusi is highly prevalent, widely distributed, and genetically diverse in Chinese farmed goats and sheep. Some of the genotypes identified are potentially zoonotic.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1304-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.