Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin and T-2 toxin

Toxicity and detoxification of T-2 toxin in poultry

This review summarizes the updated knowledge on the toxicity of T-2 on poultry, followed by potential strategies for detoxification of T-2 in poultry diet. The toxic effects of T-2 on poultry include cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, metabolism modulation, immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, skeletal toxicity, nephrotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, etc. Cytotoxicity is the primary toxicity of T-2, characterized by inhibiting protein and nucleic acid synthesis, altering the cell cycle, inducing oxidative stress, apoptosis and necrosis, which lead to damages of immune organs, liver, digestive tract, bone, kidney, etc., resulting in pathological changes and impaired physiological functions of these organs. Glutathione redox system, superoxide dismutase, catalase and autophagy are protective mechanisms against oxidative stress and apoptosis, and can compensate the pathological changes and physiological functions impaired by T-2 to some degree. T-2 detoxifying agents for poultry feeds include adsorbing agents (e.g., aluminosilicate-based clays and microbial cell wall), biotransforming agents (e.g., Eubacterium sp. BBSH 797 strain), and indirect detoxifying agents (e.g., plant-derived antioxidants). These T-2 detoxifying agents could alleviate different pathological changes to different degrees, and multi-component T-2 detoxifying agents can likely provide more comprehensive protection against the toxicity of T-2.

Modulatory Effects of Arctostaphylos uva-urs Extract In Ovo Injected into Broiler Embryos Contaminated by Aflatoxin B1

In ovo injection of nutrients can modulate the embryo’s physiological responses against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) embryotoxicity. This hypothesis was tested using in ovo injection of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Ar. uu.) methanolic extract. The total polyphenols, total flavonoids, total antioxidant capacity, and GC-MS analysis were all assessed in the Ar. uu. methanolic extract. A total of 180 ten-day-old embryonated eggs were distributed into six groups of 30 replicates each. The first group was used as a control (non-injected), and the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth groups were injected with 10 µ double-distilled water (DDW), 500 µL methanol, 0.01 g Ar. uu./500 µL methanol, 50 ng AFB1/10 µL DDW, and 50 ng AFB1 in 10 µ DDW + 0.01 g Ar. uu./500 µL methanol, respectively. The relative embryo weight, residual yolk sac weight, tibia length and weight, and survival were recorded. Total and differential leukocytes, oxidative stress, and humoral immune responses were observed. The residual yolk sac was lower (p < 0.05) in the Ar. uu. group than other groups. The embryonic growth (tibia weight and length) was enhanced in AFB1 + Ar. uu.-injected embryos compared with those injected with AFB1 alone. In conclusion, in ovo injection of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi could modulate AFB1-induced toxicity in chicken embryos.

Effect of dietary T-2 toxin levels on liveability, organs weight, immunity and histopathology of organs in Japanese quails

To establish the tolerance level of T-2 toxin, day-old Japanese quail chicks (n=225) were divided into five dietary treatments: T1, control; T2, T1+50 ppb T-2 Toxin; T3, T1+100 ppb T-2 Toxin; T4, T1+150 ppb T-2 Toxin; T5, T1+200 ppb T-2 Toxin. Each diet was fed to 3 replicated groups of 15 birds each from 1 to 35 days of age. The results showed that the overall liveability percentage, at fifth week of age in T1 was statistically similar to T2 and T3; and higher than T4 and T5. The relative weight of liver, kidney and spleen in T1 was lower than T4 and T5; and statistically similar to T2 and T3. The relative weight of bursa in T1 was higher than T4 and T5; and statistically similar to T2 and T3. The CMI and HA titre values in T1 was higher than T4 and T5. The CMI and HA titre value in group T1 was statistically similar to T2 and T3. In group T2, mild necrosis of mucosa in the proventriculus and gizzard and in T3, dystrophy and granular degeneration in the liver and kidney and necrosis of mucosa in the gizzard and proventriculus was observed. In T4 and T5, severe histopathological lesions including hepatocyte necrosis with discrete foci, necrosis and inflammation of gallbladder mucosa having mild proliferation of bile ductules, necrosis of intestinal epithelium following transient shortening of villi and mitotic figures in crypt epithelium; necrosis in feather epithelium and mucosa of the proventriculus and gizzard was observed. In addition, dystrophy and granular degeneration in the liver and kidney; interstitial nephritis, kidney sclerosis and glomerulonephritis was also observed. It was concluded that Japanese quails can tolerate up to 100 ppb of T-2 toxin in their diet without any adverse effects on their liveability percentage, organs weight, immunity and histopathology of organs during 0-5 weeks of growth period.

Methionine alleviates aflatoxinb1-induced broiler chicks embryotoxicity through inhibition of caspase-dependent apoptosis and enhancement of cellular antioxidant status

Practical methods for preventing embryotoxicity in chickens that are caused by aflatoxin-B1 (AFB1) are currently rare. Binding absorbers are commonly used in feeding stuff to reduce laying hens' exposure to off-contaminated diets, thus reducing residue exposure to fertilized eggs. Nonetheless, several adsorbents have been shown to affect the use of nutrients and the absorption of minerals in poultry. Thus, seeking an effective strategy to counter or control embryotoxicity in broiler chicks caused by AFB1 is a problem. A total of 180 embryonated eggs were injected with 36 ng AFB1 with or without 5.90 mg L-methionine (Met) 30 embryonated eggs each, followed by incubation in an incubator until hatching time. The in ovo injection of Met significantly reduced toxicity caused by AFB1 in broiler embryos by enhancing the liver and kidney functions, lipid profiles, and alleviated oxidative stress during the incubation period. Furthermore, the relative gene expressions (SSTR5, TSH-β, Bcl-2, GSH-Px, GST-a, and SOD in the liver) were up-regulated with in ovo injection of AFB1+Met compared to AFB1 alone. Moreover, there was a dowin-regulated trend in Bax, Caspases-3, Caspases-7, Caspases-9, CYP1A1, CYP2H1, and P53 gene expression with in ovo injection of AFB1+Met compared to AFB1 alone. The in ovo injection of Met led to less apoptotic cells in liver tissues. Such results might be necessary for the poultry industry as it is focused on managing the embryotoxicity of AFB1, which affecting poultry production and welfare. Results from this study demonstrated that in ovo Met injection could alleviate AF-induced toxicity in chicken embryos.

Evaluation of the Multimycotoxin-Degrading Efficiency of Rhodococcus erythropolis NI1 Strain with the Three-Step Zebrafish Microinjection Method

The multimycotoxin-degrading efficiency of the Rhodococcus erythropolis NI1 strain was investigated with a previously developed three-step method. NI1 bacterial metabolites, single and combined mycotoxins and their NI1 degradation products, were injected into one cell stage zebrafish embryos in the same doses. Toxic and interaction effects were supplemented with UHPLC-MS/MS measurement of toxin concentrations. Results showed that the NI1 strain was able to degrade mycotoxins and their mixtures in different proportions, where a higher ratio of mycotoxins were reduced in combination than single ones. The NI1 strain reduced the toxic effects of mycotoxins and mixtures, except for the AFB1+T-2 mixture. Degradation products of the AFB1+T-2 mixture by the NI1 strain were more toxic than the initial AFB1+T-2 mixture, while the analytical results showed very high degradation, which means that the NI1 strain degraded this mixture to toxic degradation products. The NI1 strain was able to detoxify the AFB1, ZEN, T-2 toxins and mixtures (except for AFB1+T-2 mixture) during the degradation experiments, which means that the NI1 strain degraded these to non-toxic degradation products. The results demonstrate that single exposures of mycotoxins were very toxic. The combined exposure of mycotoxins had synergistic effects, except for ZEN+T-2 and AFB1+ZEN +T-2, whose mixtures had very strong antagonistic effects.

Antidotal Potency of the Novel, Structurally Different Adsorbents in Rats Acutely Intoxicated with the T-2 Toxin

In this paper, the potential antidote efficacy of commercially available formulations of various feed additives such as Minazel-Plus^®, Mycosorb^®, and Mycofix^® was considered by recording their incidence on general health, body weight, and food and water intake, as well as through histopathology and semiquantitative analysis of gastric alterations in Wistar rats treated with the T-2 toxin in a single-dose regimen of 1.67 mg/kg p.o. (1 LD₅₀) for 4 weeks. As an organic adsorbent, Mycosorb^® successfully antagonized acute lethal incidence of the T-2 toxin (protective index (PI) = 2.25; p < 0.05 vs. T-2 toxin), and had adverse effects on body weight gain as well as food and water intake during the research (p < 0.001). However, the protective efficacy of the other two food additives was significantly lower (p < 0.05). Treatment with Mycosorb^® significantly reduced the severity of gastric damage, which was not the case when the other two adsorbents were used. Our results suggest that Mycosorb^® is a much better adsorbent for preventing the adverse impact of the T-2 toxin as well as its toxic metabolites compared with Minazel-plus^® or Mycofix-plus^®, and it almost completely suppresses its acute toxic effects and cytotoxic potential on the gastric epithelial, glandular, and vascular endothelial cells.

Significance of varying concentrations of T-2 toxin on growth performance, serum biochemical and hematological parameters in broiler chickens

The study was to determine the effects of diverse concentrations of T-2 toxin in broiler diet. Three hundred 1-day-old chicks with initial body weight of 46 ± 0.52 g were chosen and randomly assigned into five dietary treatments with 5 replicate cages and 12 broilers per cage for 42 d feeding trial. Dietary treatments were prepared with basal diets containing 0 (T₁), 50 (T₂), 100 (T₃), 150 (T₄), 200 (T₅) ppb T2-toxin. Significant results were observed in the decreased intake of feed, feed conversion ratio (FCR), body weight gain (BWG), level of serum protein, cholesterol and hemoglobulin of broilers in increased concentration of the T-2 toxin in diet (150 and 200 ppb) groups than control. Also, observed that the uric acid, serum glutamic pyruvic transferase (SGPT), serum glutamic oxaloacetic transferase (SGOT) and Heterophil/Lymphocyte (H/L) ratio value were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in groups T₄ and T₅ than control. However, the BWG, feed intake and FCR, as well blood biochemical profiles of serum protein, cholesterol, hemoglobulin, uric acid, SGPT, SGOT and H/L ratio in groups T₂ and T₃ were statistically similar to control diet of broilers. It was concluded that the results showed that no adverse effects on growth performance and blood biochemical parameters in broilers feed with T-2 toxin (50 and 100 ppb) during the entire trial.

Efficacy of some feed additives to attenuate the hepato-renal damage induced by aflatoxin B1 in rabbits

The present trial was conducted to evaluate the beneficial role of some feed additives (potassium sorbate; Sor, hydrated sodium calcium almuniosilicate; Hsc and l-methionine; L-M) in attenuating the hepatic and renal toxicity of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in rabbits. A total number of 72 NZW growing rabbits (5 week-old) were divided into six experimental groups (four replicates with three rabbits each) as follows: control group, AFB1 group (supplemented with AFB1 0.3 mg/kg diet), AFB1 + Sor group (AFB1 0.3 mg/kg diet + Sor 2 g/kg diet), AFB1 + Hsc group (AFB1 0.3 mg/kg diet + Hsc 5 g/kg diet), AFB1 + L-M group (AFB1 0.3 mg/kg diet + L-M 8 g/kg diet) and AFB1 + Mix group (AFB1 0.3 mg/kg diet + 2 Sor + 5 Hsc + 8 L-M g/kg diet). Serum levels of total protein, albumin and globulin were significantly reduced by AF. AF increased the serum activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzymes. While, they were reduced in AF + Sor and AF + Mix groups compared with AF group. AF increased the level of cystatin C and Beta-2 microglobulin (BMG). All other supplements significantly reduced the level of cystatin C than AF; however, this reduction was more pronounced in AF-L-M group. AF + Sor, AF + L-M and AF + Mix equally reduced the BMG level than AF and AF + HSc, however, still higher than control. AF elevated the total cholesterol (TC) and LDL-cholesterol levels. A significant reduction in HDL cholesterol was seen in AF group. Additionally, AF induced pathological alterations in the liver and kidney of exposed rabbits on the other hands, the three additives separately or in mix attenuated the Af-induced alterations. In conclusion, the dietary supplementation of Sor, L-M, Hsc or their mixture was effective in ameliorating the negative effects of AFB1 on liver and kidney function and structure in rabbits with more better improvement obtained by Sor or L-M separately.

Dietary supplementation of potassium sorbate, hydrated sodium calcium almuniosilicate and methionine enhances growth, antioxidant status and immunity in growing rabbits exposed to aflatoxin B1 in the diet

The present experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of dietary supplementation with some feed additives (potassium sorbate; Sor, hydrated sodium calcium almuniosilicate; Hsc and L-methionine; L-M) against aflatoxin B1 (AF) toxicity in rabbits. A total of 72 growing rabbits (5-week-old) were distributed into six equal groups (4 replicates with 3 rabbits each). The experimental groups are as follows: control group, AF group (supplemented with AF 0.3 mg/kg diet), AF + Sor group (AF 0.3 mg/kg diet + Sor 2 g/kg diet), AF + Hsc group (AF 0.3 mg/kg diet + Hsc 5 g/kg diet), AF + L-M group (AF 0.3 mg/kg diet + L-M 8 g/kg diet) and AF + Mix group (AF 0.3 mg/kg diet + 2 Sor + 5 Hsc + 8 L-M g/kg diet). Live body weight and weight gain at 13 weeks of age were significantly reduced by AF. Feed intake at 13 weeks of age was decreased in AF, AF + Hsc and AF + Mix compared to the control. AF, AF + Hsc and AF + Mix showed the lowest total antioxidant capacity compared to the control. The highest level of reactive oxygen species and 8-Hydroxy-2-desoxyguanosine was observed in AF group. Using of other supplements with AF increased immunoglobulinM than AF alone. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of Sor, L-M, Hsc or their mixture was effective in reducing the adverse effects of AF on performance, antioxidant and immune status of rabbits with more better improvement obtained by Sor or L-M separately.

Montmorillonites Can Tightly Bind Glyphosate and Paraquat Reducing Toxin Exposures and Toxicity

Among the numerous contaminants of soil, glyphosate and paraquat are two of the most widely used herbicides that are commonly detected in the environment. Soil and sediment contaminated with glyphosate, paraquat, and other environmental toxins can be mobilized and redistributed to lawns, vegetable gardens, parks, and water supplies in vulnerable communities at the site of disasters such as hurricanes and flooding. Glyphosate and paraquat bind strongly to soils containing clays, making their bioavailability (bioaccessibility) from these types of soil very low. Because of their affinity for clay-based soils, it is possible that montmorillonite clays could be administered as a therapeutic agent in the diet of animals and humans to decrease short-term exposure and toxicity. In this study, we investigated the sorption mechanisms of glyphosate and paraquat onto active surfaces of calcium montmorillonite (CM) and sodium montmorillonite (SM) clays and derived binding parameters, including capacity, affinity, and enthalpy. Additionally, we used these parameters to predict the reduction in bioavailability under different pH and temperature conditions and to estimate the theoretical dose of clay that could protect against severe paraquat toxicity and lethality. Computational modeling and simulation studies depicted toxin sorption mechanisms at different pH values. Additionally, a toxin-sensitive living organism (Hydra vulgaris) was used to confirm the safety of the clay and its ability to protect against toxicity from glyphosate and paraquat. The high efficacy of CM and SM shown in this study supports the natural binding activity of glyphosate and paraquat to clay-based soils. Following disasters and medical emergencies, montmorillonite clays could be administered by capsules and tablets, or added to food and flavored water, to reduce toxin bioavailability and human and animal exposures.

NovaSil clay for the protection of humans and animals from aflatoxins and other contaminants

Aflatoxin contamination of diets results in disease and death in humans and animals. The objective of the present paper was to review the development of innovative enterosorption strategies for the detoxification of aflatoxins. NovaSil clay (NS) has been shown to decrease exposures to aflatoxins and prevent aflatoxicosis in a variety of animals when included in their diets. Results have shown that NS clay binds aflatoxins with high affinity and high capacity in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in a notable reduction in the bioavailability of these toxins without interfering with the utilization of vitamins and other micronutrients. This strategy is already being utilized as a potential remedy for acute aflatoxicosis in animals, and as a sustainable intervention via diet. Animal and human studies have confirmed the apparent safety of NS and refined NS clay (with uniform particle size). Studies in Ghanaians at high risk of aflatoxicosis have indicated that NS (at a dose level of 0.25% w/w) is effective at decreasing biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure and does not interfere with levels of serum vitamins A and E, or iron or zinc. A new spinoff of this strategy is the development and use of broad-acting sorbents for the mitigation of environmental chemicals and microbes during natural disasters and emergencies. In summary, enterosorption strategies/therapies based on NS clay are promising for the management of aflatoxins and as sustainable public health interventions. The NS clay remedy is novel, inexpensive, and easily disseminated.

The efficacy of raw and concentrated bentonite clay in reducing the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broiler chicks

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of two adsorbents, a raw bentonite clay (RC) and a concentrated bentonite clay (CC), in ameliorating the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Results of the in vitro study (pH 3.0) indicated the CC adsorbed more AFB1 than RC (93.39 mg/g vs. 79.30 mg/g) suggesting that CC may be more effective than RC in reducing the toxic effects of AFB1. One hundred and eighty day-old straight run broiler chicks were assigned to 6 replicate pens of 5 chicks each and assigned to 6 dietary treatments from hatch to day 21. Dietary treatments included: 1) basal diet (BD) containing no AFB1 or adsorbents; 2) BD plus 0.50% RC; 3) BD plus 0.50% CC; 4) BD plus 2.0 mg AFB1/kg; 5) BD plus 2.0 mg AFB1/kg plus 0.50% RC; and 6) BD plus 2.0 mg AFB1/kg plus 0.50% CC. Dietary AFB1 concentrations were confirmed by analysis and diets were screened for other mycotoxins prior to the start of the experiment. The addition of AFB1 to the feed reduced (P < 0.05) growth performance and increased (P < 0.05) relative liver weight (RLW) and kidney weight (RKW) of chicks fed AFB1 compared to control chicks on day 21. These changes were ameliorated (P < 0.05) by the addition of RC and CC to the AFB1 diet. Mild to moderate lesions of aflatoxicosis (2.25) were observed in chicks fed AFB1 alone on day 21. The addition of both RC and CC to the AFB1 diet decreased (P < 0.05) but did not prevent liver lesions (0.92 and 1.42, respectively). Results indicate that both RC and CC were effective in reducing the toxic effects of AFB1, however the cost of processing of CC would make the RC a more economical product for reducing the effects of AFB1 in young broiler chicks.

Efficacy of feed additives to reduce the effect of naturally occurring mycotoxins fed to turkey hen poults reared to 6 weeks of age

Corn with naturally occurring aflatoxin (AF), wheat with naturally occurring doxynivalenol (DON), and barley with naturally occurring zearalenone (ZEA) were used to make rations for feeding turkey hen poults to 6 weeks of age. Control rations with equal amounts of corn, wheat, and barley were also fed. The control rations did contain some DON while both sets of rations contained ZEA. Within each grain source, there were 4 treatments: the control ration plus 3 rations each with a different feed additive which were evaluated for the potential to lessen potential mycotoxin effects on bird performance and physiology. The additives were Biomin BioFix (2 lb/ton), Kemin Kallsil (4 lb/ton), and Nutriad UNIKE (3 lb/ton). The mycotoxin rations reduced poult body weight (2.31 vs. 2.08 ± 0.02 kg) and increased (worsened) poult feed conversion (1.47 vs. 1.51 ± 0.01) at 6 wk. Feeding the poults the mycotoxin feed also resulted in organ and physiological changes typical of feeding dietary aflatoxin although a combined effect of AF, DON, and ZEA which cannot be dismissed. The feed additives resulted in improved feed conversion to 6 wk in both grain treatment groups. The observed physiological effect of feeding the additives was to reduce relative gizzard weight for both groups and to lessen the increase in relative kidney weight for the birds fed the mycotoxin feed. In conclusion, the feed additives used in this study did alleviate the effect of dietary mycotoxins to some degree, especially with respect to feed conversion. Further studies of longer duration are warranted.

Evaluation of Humic Acid as an Aflatoxin Binder in Broiler Chickens

The efficacy of humic acid (HA) as an aflatoxin (AF) binder in broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin- contaminated feed from 1 to 42 days of age was assessed. A total of 200 birds were assigned to 20 pens, with 10 birds per pen. The following treatments (T) were applied: T1: basal diet (B); T2: B + AFB1 (100 μg/kg); T3: B + AFB1 (100 μg/kg) + HA (0.1%); T4: B +AFB1 (100 μg/kg) + HA (0.2%); T5: B + AFB1 (100 μg/kg) + HA (0.3%). Each treatment consisted of 4 replicates. Oxihumate was effective in diminishing the adverse effects caused by aflatoxin on body weight (BW) of broilers (P<0.05). Humic acid also showed protective effects against liver damage and some of the hematological and serum biochemical changes associated with aflatoxin toxicity (P<0.05). The supplementation of HA also enhanced the humoral immunity by counteracting the aflatoxin contamination. Results indicated that HA could alleviate some of the toxic effects of aflatoxin in growing broilers. Humic acid (0.1 to 0.3%) might, therefore, prove to be beneficial in the management of aflatoxin-contaminated feedstuffs for poultry when used in combination with other mycotoxin management practices.

Revisión: Implicaciones toxicológicas y nutricionales de la toxina T-2 / Review: Toxicological and nutritional implications of T-2 toxin

Trichothecenes are mycotoxins produced by species of the genus Fusarium. These toxins are associated with health problems in humans and animals. The most common trichothecenes in cereals are deoxynivalenol, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, nivalenol, neosolaniol and T-2 toxin; the latter is the most widely studied because it is easy to produce in the laboratory. The effects of T-2 toxicosis include dermatonecrosis, reduced body weight and efficiency of food utilization, severe diarrhoea, haemorrhage, necrosis of the upper alimentary tract, anaemia, immuno suppression ; and in birds, poor feathering. This paper reviews the latest information about the occurrence, chemical characteristics, toxicity, metabolic alterations, biotransformation and detoxifi cation methods of the T-2 toxin.

The protective effect of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate against the adverse effects of Aflatoxin B1 on D. melanogaster

The main aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Aflatoxin B1(AFB1) and Aflatoxin B1-hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) on various developmental stages of Drosophila melanogaster. Different concentrations of AFB1and HSCAS-AFB1were administered during the developmental periods of the fly (egg, larvae and pupae). When the F1progeny of control and application groups were compared, AFB1was found to extend the process of metamorphosis and decrease the total number of offspring. However, these negative effects were inhibited with HSCAS treatment at different concentrations (5.0 and 10.0 ppm). These results suggest that HSCAS could effectively inhibit AFB1-induced abnormalities in the developmental stages of D. melanogaster.

Evaluation of turmeric (Curcuma longa) effect on biochemical and pathological parameters of liver and kidney in chicken aflatoxicosis

CONTEXT

Aflatoxins as potent mycotoxins can influence vital parameters in chickens. Turmeric was used in decreasing toxic effect of mycotoxins on vital organs, traditionally.

OBJECTIVE

The study compared the protective effect of turmeric and Mycoad(TR) in broilers exposed to aflatoxin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chickens (270) were divided into six groups. The chickens were fed a basal diet, turmeric extract (5 mg/kg diet), Mycoad(TR) (25 mg/kg diet), productive aflatoxin (3 mg/kg diet), aflatoxin plus turmeric extract (3 versus 5 mg/kg diet), and aflatoxin plus Mycoad(TR) (3 versus 25 mg/kg diet) in basal diet. At 28 d old, we determined plasma concentration of total protein, albumin, triglyceride, cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), calcium, potassium, phosphorous, uric acid, aspartate transferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). Furthermore, liver and kidney were sampled for pathological examination.

RESULTS

Chickens fed turmeric with aflatoxin had significant lower ALT, AST, and uric acid than chickens fed aflatoxin (11.4 ± 0.79, 228 ± 9, and 6 ± 0.4 versus 17.2 ± 1.7, 283 ± 5, and 7.7 ± 0.1) whereas, total protein, calcium, and HDL values in chickens fed aflatoxin plus turmeric increased significantly (2.66 ± 0.16, 8.4 ± 0.2, and 920 ± 4.1 versus 1.7 ± 0.17, 7 ± 0.2, and 690 ± 4.8). Pathological examination revealed severe congestion, degeneration, and necrosis in liver and kidney in chickens that received aflatoxin.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The study showed that turmeric may provide protection against the toxic effects of aflatoxin on liver and kidney.

Experimental pathology of T-2 toxicosis and mycoplasma infection on performance and hepatic functions of broiler chickens

This experiment was conducted using 192 day-old Ross 308 chicks, divided into 4 groups of 4 replicate consisting 48 birds. Group I was fed a control diet, Group II was fed control diet supplemented with 0.5 ppm T-2 toxin for 5 weeks, Group III was fed control diet supplemented with 8 × 10(8) cfu/mL of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, and group IV was fed control diet supplemented by T-2 toxin and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Body weight and feed conversation ratio (FCR), relative organ weights, clinical signs, biochemical characteristics, and gross and histopathological lesions were recorded in the experimental groups at the end of the second and fifth weeks of age. Body weight and relative weights of bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen decreased and FCR increased significantly (P ≤ 0.05), but the relative weights of liver and kidney showed no significant decrease (P ≤ 0.05) in the serum total proteins, albumin, and increase in aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase were observed in T-2 toxin and T-2 accompanied with Mycoplasma fed birds when compared to the control group. Liver was enlarged, friable, and yellowish discoloration with distended gall bladder was noticed. Lymphoid organs such as bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen were atrophied in group II and group IV throughout the study. Microscopically, liver showed vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes, with increased Kupffer cell activity, bile duct epithelial hyperplasia, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Kidney showed vacuolar degeneration of tubular epithelium along with pyknotic nuclei. Lymphoid organs showed lymphocytolysis and depletion with prominent reticuloepithelial cells. Proventriculus revealed desquamation of villous epithelial cells and lymphoid infiltration in submucosa. Heart showed mild hemorrhage with infiltration of inflammatory cells. Lung showed edema and inflammatory cells in the bronchioles. Trachea showed desquamation and erosions of mucosa. Proliferation of mucosal glands with increased mucous secretion was obvious. Air sacs showed thickening with presence of inflammatory cells and edema.

Efficiency of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to ameliorate the adverse effects of graded levels of aflatoxin B1 in broiler chicks

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) adsorbent to ameliorate the adverse effects of 0.5 to 2 mg of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)/kg in broiler chicks. The study consisted of 8 dietary treatments, including 4 concentrations of AFB1 (0, 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg) with or without HSCAS (0.5%) fed to 8 replicate cages per diet (6 males chicks per cage) from 0 to 21 d of age. Cumulative feed intake, BW gain (P < 0.0001), and G:F (P = 0.004) of birds fed the 2 mg of AFB1/kg of diet were significantly lower in comparison with birds fed 0 to 1 mg of AFB1/kg. Relative liver weight was increased in the 2 mg of AFB1/kg group (P < 0.0001). Dietary HSCAS improved cumulative BW gain (main effect P = 0.06), particularly from 14 to 21 d of age (P = 0.037). Dietary HSCAS also reversed the increase in relative liver weight for birds fed AFB1 (P = 0.019). Dietary AFB1 negatively affected major serum parameters (albumin, total protein, globulin, phosphorus, glucose, alkaline phosphatase, and creatine phosphokinase), whereas supplementation with HSCAS partially alleviated the affected serum biochemistry. In addition, serum complement activity and liver gene expression were negatively affected by 2 mg of AFB1/kg. The HSCAS supplement increased the liver expression of catalase and superoxide dismutase (P < 0.05). Results from this study indicate that dietary supplementation with HSCAS can effectively improve BW gain and partially ameliorate aflatoxicosis for broiler chicks fed AFB1-contaminated feeds.

A review on aflatoxin contamination and its implications in the developing world: a sub-Saharan African perspective

Mycotoxins contamination in some agricultural food commodities seriously impact human and animal health and reduce the commercial value of crops. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi that contaminate agricultural commodities pre- or postharvest. Africa is one of the continents where environmental, agricultural and storage conditions of food commodities are conducive of Aspergillus fungi infection and aflatoxin biosynthesis. This paper reviews the commodity-wise aetiology and contamination process of aflatoxins and evaluates the potential risk of exposure from common African foods. Possible ways of reducing risk for fungal infection and aflatoxin development that are relevant to the African context. The presented database would be useful as benchmark information for development and prioritization of future research. There is need for more investigations on food quality and safety by making available advanced advanced equipments and analytical methods as well as surveillance and awareness creation in the region.

Capability of different non-nutritive feed additives on improving productive and physiological traits of broiler chicks fed diets with or without aflatoxin during the first 3 weeks of life

An experiment was conducted to determine whether some non-nutritive feed additives (NNFA) could block the adverse effects of aflatoxin (AF) on growth performance and physiological parameters of Cobb broilers throughout the period from 1 to 21 day of age. There were eight treatments consisting of two levels of AF at 0 and 200 ppb and four NNFA within each AF level. These additives included mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) at 2 g/kg diet, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) at 2 g/kg diet and Lactobacillus acidophilus (Lac) at 2 g/kg diet. At 21 day of age, five chickens of each treatment were slaughtered to study dressing percentage and relative weight of inner organs and glands. AF had a significant negative effect on body weight gain (BWG), and feed intake, while impairing feed conversion ratio (FCR). Aflatoxin significantly increased percentage liver, lymphocyte (%), monocyte (%), serum triglyceride level, and the aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), concentrations while decreasing dressing percentage, intestinal percentage, white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), haemoglobin (Hgb), packed cell volume (PCV), heterophil (%), heterophil/lymphocyte ratio, total serum protein and serum albumin. Aflatoxin adversely affected the morphology of the liver, bursa and the thymus. There was a significant interaction between AF and NNFA on the relative weights of liver, heart and intestine. Lac completely blocked the negative effects of AF on the percentage liver and the heart and partially on the intestine. In conclusion, Lac was most effective in reversing the adverse effects of AF on growth and FCR and on the percentage, functions and morphology of the liver. Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate also improved the economic traits of broilers but was less effective than Lac and more effective than MOS.

Evaluation of the efficacy of hydrated sodium aluminosilicate in the prevention of aflatoxin-induced hepatic cancer in rainbow trout

The use of aluminum silicates for decontaminating animal feed containing aflatoxins has yielded encouraging results in chicken and turkey poults. In contrast, very few studies have tested these substances in aquaculture. In this work, we investigated the efficacy of a trout diet containing 0.5% hydrated sodium aluminosilicate (HSAS) in protecting against contamination with aflatoxin B1. Trout were reared on these diets for one year and the experimental groups were examined monthly for hepatic presumptive preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions. Regardless of the presence of HSAS, all of the fish that received aflatoxin in their diet have shown hepatic lesions indicative of a carcinogenic process, presenting also the development of cancer in some fish. The concentration of HSAS used in this study was ineffective in preventing the onset of hepatic lesions induced by aflatoxin B1 in rainbow trout.

Mycotoxin co-contamination of food and feed: meta-analysis of publications describing toxicological interactions

Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously; moreover food and feed can be contaminated by several fungi species at the same time. Thus, humans and animals are generally not exposed to one mycotoxin but to several toxins at the same time. Most of the studies concerning the toxicological effect of mycotoxins have been carried out taking into account only one mycotoxin. In the present review, we analysed 112 reports where laboratory or farm animals were exposed to a combination of mycotoxins, and we determined for each parameter measured the type of interaction that was observed. Most of the published papers concern interactions with aflatoxins and other mycotoxins, especially fumonisins, ochratoxin A and trichothecenes. A few papers also investigated the interaction between ochratoxin A and citrinin, or between different toxins from Fusarium species. Only experiments with a 2×2 factorial design with individual and combined effects of the mycotoxins were selected. Based on the raw published data, we classified the interactions in four different categories: synergistic, additive, less than additive or antagonistic effects. This review highlights the complexity of mycotoxins interactions which varies according to the animal species, the dose of toxins, the length of exposure, but also the parameters measured.

Comparison of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate and yeast cell wall on counteracting aflatoxicosis in broiler chicks

The objective of this research was to determine the efficacy of 2 types of adsorbents [hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCAS) vs. a combination of clay and yeast cell wall] in preventing aflatoxicosis in broilers. A total of 275 one-day-old birds were randomly divided into 11 treatments, with 5 replicate pens per treatment and 5 chicks per pen. The 11 treatments included 3 diets without any adsorbent containing either 0, 1, or 2 mg/kg of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) plus 8 additional treatments employing 2 dietary levels of AFB1 (1 or 2 mg/kg), 2 different adsorbents [Solis (SO) and MTB-100 (MTB)], and 2 different levels of each absorbent (0.1 and 0.2%) in a 2×2×2 factorial arrangement. Solis is a mixture of different HSCAS and MTB is a combination of clay and yeast cell wall. Feed and water were provided ad libitum throughout the 21-d study period. Body weight gain and feed intake were depressed and relative liver weight was increased in chicks fed AFB1 compared with the positive control (P<0.05). Severe liver damage was observed in chicks fed 2 mg/kg of AFB1 with lesions consistent with aflatoxicosis, including fatty liver and vacuolar degeneration. Serum glucose, albumin, total protein, Ca, P, and alkaline phosphatase concentrations were reduced by AFB1 (P<0.05). The addition of either SO or MTB ameliorated the negative effects of 1 mg/kg of AFB1 on growth performance and liver damage (P<0.05). However, supplemental MTB failed to diminish the negative effects of 2 mg/kg of AFB1, whereas SO was more effective compared with MTB at 2 mg/kg of AFB1 (P<0.05). These data indicate that the HSCAS product effectively ameliorated the negative effect of AFB1 on growth performance and liver damage, whereas the yeast cell wall product was less effective especially at the higher AFB1 concentration.

MYCOTOX® and aflatoxicosis in quails

1. This study was to evaluate the toxic effects of aflatoxin (AF) on growth performance of quail, and to determine the preventive efficacy of MYCOTOX (oxicinol, tymol, micronised yeast). 2. One hundred and eighty 1-d-old quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) of both sexes were weighed and randomly divided into 4 experimental groups each with 5 replicates of 9 birds. 3. There were 4 dietary treatments: (1) control with 0 mg AF/kg diet and 0% MYCOTOX; (2) 0 mg AF/kg diet and 0.5% MYCOTOX; (3) 2.5 mg AF/kg diet and 0% MYCOTOX; (4) 2.5 mg AF/kg diet plus 0.5% MYCOTOX. The chicks were maintained on these treatments to 3 weeks of age. Quail consumed the diets and water ad libitum. 4. Body weight (BW) gains in groups receiving AF alone were the lowest at all periods. Feed intake was lowest in the group consuming the AF diet. The addition of MYCOTOX to the AF diet did not prevent or reduce the toxic effects of AF on feed intake at any time period. Feeding diets containing MYCOTOX alone did not change feed intake significantly. With the exception of the 1 to 7 d period, feed conversion of chicks fed the AF diet was similar to those of the other experimental groups. 5. Bursa of Fabricius weight decreased, whereas the relative weights of liver, kidney and spleen increased in quail consuming diets containing AF and AF plus MYCOTOX. Liver colour was normal in the control and MYCOTOX alone group, but was lighter in groups fed AF. 6. The results indicated that MYCOTOX was not effective in preventing the deleterious effects of AF.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in Southern Europe

Contamination of feed materials with mycotoxins is an important issue for farmers, as dietary exposure to these toxins may cause acute or chronic intoxication in animals, resulting in major economic losses. Although prevention methods to avoid mycotoxin contamination on the field prior to harvest, during harvesting or storage have been developed, it is currently not possible to eliminate the risk of a mycotoxin contamination entirely. Here we present a survey over a 4.5 year period that was performed to evaluate the incidence of mycotoxins in feed materials and compounded feed samples originating from Southern European countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Cyprus. The 416 samples received were tested for the most relevant mycotoxins that are found in feed materials, such as aflatoxins, zearalenone (ZEA), type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol and acetyldeoxynivalenol), type A trichothecenes (T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin), fumonisins and ochratoxin A (OTA), by two different methods, a commercial ELISA and by validated HPLC methods. The Fusarium mycotoxins (type B trichothecenes, ZEA and fumonisins) were the major contaminants. Average concentrations of type B trichothecenes were 365 µg/kg or 445 µg/kg analysed by HPLC or ELISA, respectively. In the case of zearalenone the average concentration was 27 µg/kg by ELISA or 32.5 µg/kg by HPLC. Fumonisin contamination was found with an average of 1,411 µg/kg by HPLC or 6,260 µg/kg by ELISA. Aflatoxins and OTA as well as the type A trichothecenes were detected less frequently and the average concentration was lower in comparison to the other mycotoxins tested. The average concentration of aflatoxins, OTA and the type A trichothecenes was 1 µg/kg or 3 µg/kg, 4 µg/kg or 2 µg/kg, 2 µg/kg or 18 µg/kg, respectively, by HPLC or ELISA analysis.

Decontamination and detoxification strategies for the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in animal feed and the effectiveness of microbial biodegradation

Trichothecenes are a group of mycotoxins mainly produced by fungi of the Fusarium genus. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most abundant and important trichothecenes in food and feed, and is a significant contaminants due to its frequent occurrence in toxicologically relevant concentrations worldwide. Since toxin production depends strongly on environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, Fusarium toxin contamination can not be avoided completely. Therefore, exposure to this toxin is a permanent health risk for both humans and farm animals. As cereal crops are commonly contaminated with DON and animal diets consist mainly of cereals, it can be assumed that animals are frequently exposed to DON-contaminated feeds. Many strategies can be undertaken to reduce the toxic effect of DON. In addition to the general necessity for minimizing all risk factors that might influence the contamination of cereals with DON, such as the so-called field toxins before harvest, several post-harvest strategies can be applied to counteract possible deleterious effects of this mycotoxin in farm animals. Another approach for decontamination in feedstuffs is the use of adsorbent materials. Adsorbent materials may bind mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract and reduce absorption and systemic toxicity. It has been shown that some adsorbents are suitable to alleviate the toxic effects of specific mycotoxins, but its efficacy against trichothecenes is practically zero. Therefore, alternative strategies to reduce animal and human health risk are needed. The use of microbial additives is a method which uses microorganisms having the capability to detoxify mycotoxins by metabolism or degradation prior to their resorption in the gastrointestinal tract. DON has been reported to be completely transformed to de-epoxy-DON by ruminal and intestinal microflora. Eubacterium BBSH 797 was capable of DON degradation and counteracted the toxic effects of DON in animals. This review focuses on the efficacy of microbial feed additives in ameliorating the toxic effects of DON. According to the results of experiments to date, it appears that microorganisms are the main living organisms suitable for this mycotoxin biodegradation. However, the use of this approach depends on its effectiveness from both a practical and economic perspective.

Aflatoxin B1 in poultry: toxicology, metabolism and prevention

Aflatoxins (AF) are ubiquitous in corn-based animal feed and causes hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic effects. The most important AF in terms of toxic potency and occurrence is aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Poultry, especially turkeys, are extremely sensitive to the toxic and carcinogenic action of AFB1, resulting in millions of dollars in annual losses to producers due to reduced growth rate, increased susceptibility to disease, reduced egg production and other adverse effects. The extreme sensitivity of turkeys and other poultry to AFB1 is associated with efficient hepatic cytochrome P450-mediated bioactivation and deficient detoxification by glutathione S-transferases (GST). Discerning the biochemical and molecular mechanisms of this extreme sensitivity of poultry to AFB1, will contribute in the development of novel strategies to increase aflatoxin resistance. Since AFB1 is an unavoidable contaminant of corn-based poultry feed, chemoprevention strategies aimed at reducing AFB1 toxicity in poultry and in other animals have been the subject of numerous studies. This brief review summarizes many of the key recent findings regarding the action of aflatoxins in poultry.

Preventive and therapeutic methods against the toxic effects of mycotoxins - a review

Ingredients used in animal feeds and their contamination with undesirable substances, such as mycotoxins, are fundamentally important both in terms of the quality of animal products and the potential human health impacts associated with the animal-based food production chain. Feed ingredients contaminated with mycotoxins may have a wide range of toxicological effects on animals. Therefore, mycotoxin contamination of feed ingredients constituting complete feed products represents an important potential hazard in farm animal production. This review summarises the potential effects of some preventive methods used during the storage of cereal grains as well as of nutritive (e.g. antioxidants, amino acids, fats) or non-nutritive compounds (e.g. pharmacological substances, carbon- or silica-based polymers) and detoxifying enzymes recommended for use against the toxic effects of different mycotoxins.

Evaluation of high-grade sodium bentonite on performance and immune status of broilers, fed ochratoxin and aflatoxin

An experimental trial with 2×2×2 factorial design was conducted to assess the individual and combined effects of mycotoxins including ochratoxin A (OTA) (0 and 1.0 mg/kg), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0 and 0.5 mg/kg) and high-grade sodium bentonite (HGSB) (0 and 1.0%) in broilers. Significant depression of body weight, feed consumption, serum protein and serum albumin were noticed due to OTA, AFB1 and OTA+AFB1. The relative weights of pancreas, spleen and bursa were not altered significantly either by inclusion of OTA, AFB1, OTA+AFB1 or HGSB. Increases in the relative weights of liver and gizzard were observed in OTA, AFB1 and OTA+AFB1. Decreases in serum protein levels and increases in gamma glutamyl transferase were noticed in the OTA+AFB1 group. Also decreases in serum protein levels for alanine amino transferase and thymus were observed. The antibody titres against Newcastle Disease and Infectious Bursal Disease were significantly (P<0.05) decreased in all the treatment groups compared to control. HGSB reduced the toxicity of aflatoxin and marginally ameliorated the effect of OTA+AFB1 on some parameters.

Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: a review

Innovative sorption strategies for the detoxification of aflatoxins have been developed. NovaSil clay (NS) has been shown to prevent aflatoxicosis in a variety of animals when included in their diet. Results have shown that NS clay binds aflatoxins with high affinity and high capacity in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in a notable reduction in the bioavailability of these toxins without interfering with the utilization of vitamins and other micronutrients. This strategy is being evaluated as a potential remedy for acute aflatoxicosis, and as a sustainable human intervention for aflatoxins via the diet. Phase I and II clinical trials confirmed the apparent safety of NS for further study in humans. A recent study in Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis has indicated that NS (at a dose level of 0.25%) is effective in decreasing biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure and does not interfere with the levels of serum vitamins A and E, and iron and zinc. In summary, enterosorption strategies/therapies based on NS clay are promising for the management of aflatoxins and as a sustainable public health intervention. The NS clay remedy is novel, inexpensive and easily disseminated. Based on the present research, aflatoxin sequestering clays should be rigorously evaluated in vitro and in vivo, and should meet the following criteria: (1) favourable thermodynamic characteristics of mycotoxin sorption, (2) tolerable levels of priority metals, dioxins/furans and other hazardous contaminants, (3) safety and efficacy in multiple animal species, (4) safety and efficacy in long-term studies, and (5) negligible interactions with vitamins, iron and zinc and other micronutrients.