Effects of feeding corn naturally contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and B2 on hepatic functions of broilers

Effectiveness of Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminosilicates and Discarded Date Pits as Dietary Adsorbents for Aflatoxin B1 in Enhancing Broiler Chicken Productive Performance, Hepatic Function, and Intestinal Health

The research aimed to evaluate how effective hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCASs) and discarded date pits (DDPs) are as dietary adsorbents for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in enhancing the performance and health of broiler chickens aged 16 to 30 days. A total of 240 Ross 308 straight-run broilers were randomly allocated into four dietary groups, each with 10 replicates: a control diet, a control diet with 1000 ppb AFB1, an AFB1-contaminated diet with 0.5% HSCAS, and an AFB1-contaminated diet with 4% DDP. Incorporating HSCASs or DDPs into the AFB1-contaminated diet resulted in significant improvements across various parameters, involving increased body weight, improved feed conversion ratio, higher dressing percentage, decreased relative weights of kidney and spleen, elevated serum levels of total protein, globulin, and glucose, reduced serum alanine aminotransferase activity, and heightened hepatic protein concentration and glutathione peroxidase activity, along with diminished hepatic malondialdehyde content and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase activity. Moreover, both supplements led to increased ileal villus height and surface area, enhanced apparent nitrogen-corrected metabolizable energy digestibility, and decreased AFB1 residues in the liver and kidney. Moreover, the dietary inclusion of DDPs significantly decreased relative liver weight, raised serum albumin concentration, lowered serum alkaline phosphatase activity, enhanced hepatic total antioxidant capacity level, and augmented ileal villus width. Conversely, the dietary addition of HSCASs significantly heightened apparent crude protein digestibility. In conclusion, the inclusion of HSCASs and DDPs in AFB1-contaminated diets can mitigate the toxic effects of AFB1 on broiler chickens, with DDPs exhibiting additional advantages in optimizing liver function and gut morphology.

Isolation of Bacillus licheniformis and its protective effect on liver oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of the most toxic mycotoxins. The use of probiotics is an effective approach to reduce aflatoxins content in foods. To find efficient bacterial species that can eliminate or detoxify AFB1, a bacterial strain S51 capable of degrading AFB1 was isolated from chicken intestine and soil samples by using a culture medium containing coumarin as the sole carbon source. Based on the results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, this isolate (strain S51) was identified as Bacillus licheniformis strain QT338. Further characterization of strain S51 showed that it could degrade AFB1 by 61.3% after incubation at 30°C for 72 h. Additional studies demonstrated that S51 promoted good growth performance of the treated chickens, showed no hemolytic activity, carried few drug resistance genes, and exhibited a certain level of tolerance to acid and bile salts. Furthermore, to verify whether strain S51 exerts a protective effect on AFB1-induced liver injury in chickens and to elucidate the underlying mechanism, a chicken toxicity model was induced with AFB1 (100 μg/kg BW) and treated with S51(1×109CFU/mL) for 12 d. The results showed that S51 decreased the level of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, and total bilirubin (P < 0.05); increased glutathione activity and total antioxidant capacityin the liver induced by AFB1, and decreased malondialdehyde production (P < 0.05). S51 also up-regulated the mRNA expression level of the antioxidant proteins HO-1 and Nrf2 and down-regulated the expression of the oxidation-related factor Keap1 in the Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway (P <0.05). S51 inhibited hepatocyte apoptosis induced by AFB1 and decreased the mRNA expression levels of the apoptosis-related genes Bax, caspase-3, caspase-9, and Cyt-C (P < 0.05). These results indicate that S51 regulates apoptosis and alleviates AFB1-induced oxidative stress in chicken liver by controlling the Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Significant Role in Poultry and Novel Toxicological Mechanisms

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have involved a lot of consideration owing to their distinctive features. The ZnO NPs can be described as particularly synthesized mineral salts via nanotechnology, varying in size from 1 to 100 nm, while zinc oxide (ZnO), it is an inorganic substrate of zinc (Zn). The Zn is a critical trace element necessary for various biological and physiological processes in the body. Studies have revealed ZnO NPs' efficient immuno-modulatory, growth-promoting, and antimicrobial properties in poultry birds. They offer increased bioavailability as compared to their traditional sources, producing better results in terms of productivity and welfare and consequently reducing ecological harm in the poultry sector. However, they have also been reported for their toxicological effects, which are size, shape, concentration, and exposure route dependent. The investigations done so far have yielded inconsistent results, therefore, a lot of additional studies and research are required to clarify the harmful consequences of ZnO NPs and to bring them to a logical end. This review explores an overview of efficient possible role of ZnO NPs, while comparing them with other nutritional Zn sources, in the poultry industry, primarily as dietary supplements that effect the growth, health, and performance of the birds. In addition to the anti-bacterial mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their promising role as antifungal, and anti-colloidal agent, this paper also covers the toxicological mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their consequent toxicological hazards to vital organs and the reproductive system of poultry birds.

Aflatoxin B1 in poultry liver: Toxic mechanism

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most common carcinogenic toxin in livestock and poultry feed, seriously endangering poultry production and public health. Liver is the most important organ for the metabolism of exogenous and endogenous substances in the body. AFB1 produces toxicity under the biotransformation of cytochrome P450 microparticle oxidase (CYP450). Hepatocytes are the most important cells for synthesizing CYP450 enzymes, so that AFB1 has the most significant effect on the liver. AFB1 can induce liver cell damage in poultry through a variety of molecular mechanisms, and the main of damage mechanisms have been discovered so far include oxidative damage, promoting apoptosis, influencing hepatocyte gene expression, interfering with hepatocyte autophagy, pyroptosis and necroptosis. This article reviewed the molecular mechanism of AFB1 inducing liver injury in poultry, hopefully, to provid a new direction and theoretical basis for the development of a new AFB1 detoxification method.

Effect of Dietary L-Threonine and Toxin Binder on Performance, Blood Parameters, and Immune Response of Broilers Exposed to Aflatoxin B1

To evaluate the effect of L-Threonine (L-Thr) and Mycofix® Plus (MP) on aflatoxicosis, an experiment with a 3-way ANOVA model was carried out with 8 replicates and 640 birds. Treatments included two levels of L-Thr (100% and 125% of the requirements, Cobb 500, Cobb-Vantress), Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0, 500 ppb), and MP (0, 1 g/kg). As the main effects showed, AFB1 decreased breast meat yield and carcass percentage (p < 0.001), serum urea, antibody titer against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), and bone density (p < 0.05), while it increased the plasma concentrations of glucose and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (p < 0.05). Mycofix Plus improved the grower feed intake (FI), tibia fresh weight, and body weight (BW) to bone weight (p < 0.05). L-Threonine increased the grower FI, breast meat yield, serum aspartate transaminase (AST), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) (p < 0.05). There were positive interactions with breast meat yield, cholesterol, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and IBV titer. Of the treatments used, the combination of L-Thr and MP without AFB1 improved breast meat and carcass percentage. L-Threonine and MP significantly improved IBV titer in birds challenged with AFB1 (p < 0.001). In conclusion, L-Thr and MP were beneficial to improve immunity.

The preventive effect and mechanisms of adsorbent supplementation in low concentration aflatoxin B1 contaminated diet on subclinical symptom and histological lesions of broilers

This study aimed to investigate the subclinical symptom and histological lesions of 21-day-old and 42-day-old broilers exposure to low concentration aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and the preventive effect with adsorbent (Toxo-MX) supplementation. A total of 576 one-day-old Arbor Acres broilers were randomly allotted into 6 treatments 8 replicates and 12 birds per cage, fed with 0 ppb, 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination diet with or without Toxo-MX supplementation. Results showed both 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination significantly reduced growth performance in 21-day-old broilers (P < 0.05), but not in 42-day-old broilers (P > 0.05), however, AFB1 contamination in diet caused a higher feed to gain ratio (P < 0.05). Broilers of 21-day-old exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 increased mRNA expression of hepatic inflammatory cytokines, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity (P < 0.05), 42-day-old broilers showed a same change in 120 ppb but not in 60 ppb of AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05). mRNA expressions of clauding-1, Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), and occludin decreased, but Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 increased in 21-day-old broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 (P < 0.05), broilers of 42-day-old resisted on intestinal aflatoxicosis impairment against 60 ppb AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05), but not in 120 ppb (P < 0.05). Toxo-MX supplementation significantly reversed the detrimental effects on growth performance in both age broilers and reduced the accelerated feed to gain ratio caused by AFB1 (P < 0.05). Intestinal mRNA expression of tight junction and apoptotic genes in both age broilers were recovered by Toxo-MX supplementation (P < 0.05). However, Toxo-MX did not restore the accelerated expression of hepatic inflammation cytokines and SOD, GSH-Px in 120ppb AFB1 group (P < 0.05). The data demonstrated that diet supplementation with Toxo-MX reversed the detrimental effect on growth performance and intestine in broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1. However, did not completely recovered hepatic inflammation induced by AFB1.

Associations between aflatoxin B 1 ‐albumin adduct levels with metabolic conditions in Guatemala: A cross‐sectional study

Background and Aims

Metabolic conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are highly prevalent in Guatemala and increase the risk for a number of disorders, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) levels are also notably elevated in the population and are known to be associated with HCC risk. Whether AFB₁ also contributes to the high prevalence of the metabolic disorders has not been previously examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the association between AFB₁ and the metabolic conditions.

Methods

Four‐hundred twenty‐three individuals were included in the study, in which AFB₁‐albumin adduct levels were measured in sera. Metabolic conditions included diabetes, obesity, central obesity, metabolic syndrome, and NAFLD. Crude and adjusted prevalence odds ratios (PORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were estimated for the associations between the metabolic conditions and AFB₁‐albumin adduct levels categorized into quartiles.

Results

The study found a significant association between AFB₁‐albumin adduct levels and diabetes (Q4 vs Q1 POR = 3.74, 95%CI: 1.71‐8.19; P‐trend .003). No associations were observed between AFB₁‐albumin adduct levels and the other conditions.

Conclusions

As diabetes is the metabolic condition most consistently linked to HCC, the possible association between AFB₁ exposure and diabetes may be of public health importance. Further studies are warranted to replicate the findings and examine potential mechanisms.

Selenium nanoparticles are more efficient than sodium selenite in reducing the toxicity of aflatoxin B1 in Japanese quail

Background

Dietary selenium (Se), as an antioxidant element, plays a protective role in aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) toxicosis in poultry.

Objectives

To compare the effects of sodium selenite (SS) and Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) against AFB₁‐induced toxicity on growth performance, carcass traits, immune response, antioxidant status and serum lipid concentrations in Japanese broiler quails.

Methods

A total of 540 quails were divided into six treatments, each with six replicates and 15 birds per replicate at 24 days of age and reared for 21 days. Treatments included: (1) a basal diet without Se and AFB₁ (negative control; NC); (2) NC + 1.0 mg/kg AFB₁ (positive control; PC); (3) PC + 0.2 mg/kg Se as SS; (4) PC + 0.5 mg/kg Se as SS; (5) PC + 0.2 mg/kg Se as SeNPs; and (6) PC + 0.5 mg/kg Se as SeNPs.

Results

Treatment with PC diet decreased feed intake and body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio than the NC diet. The PC diet also atrophied the lymphoid organs and depressed antibody responses against Newcastle disease and avian influenza viruses and sheep red blood cell. Moreover, quails treated with PC diet appeared to have lower serum glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase activities and disturbed serum lipids than those receiving the NC diet. Dietary Se attenuated these detrimental effects, but failed to completely eliminate them. Additionally, SeNPs performed better than SS in improving thioredoxin reductase activity and antibody titer against sheep red blood cell.

Conclusions

Diet supplementation with SeNPs to provide 0.5 mg/kg of Se is recommended to reduce the AFB₁ toxicosis in broiler quails.

Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection triggered histopathological changes, oxidative stress and apoptosis in chicken thymus and spleen

Previous studies mainly focused on the inflammatory responses caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) in the chicken respiratory mucosa, setting the stage for chronic infection and disease manifestation. However, the underlying mechanism is still unknown. Spleen and thymus are important immune organs, which play a critical role in eliciting protective immune responses to ensure healing process and elimination of harmful stimuli. In the present study, the effects of MG infection on chicken spleen and thymus were investigated. The results showed that MG infection reduced antioxidant activities and induced oxidative stress in the spleen and thymus tissues. Histological examination showed normal morphology of chicken spleen and thymus in control group compared to MG infection group. In contrast, increased number of necrotic and nuclear debris, lymphocytolysis, prominent reticuloepithelial cells and loose arrangement of cells in the spleen and thymus were seen in MG-infected chickens. Ultrastructural analysis indicated nuclear and mitochondrial damage including mitochondrial swelling, deformation of nuclear membrane and congestion of chromatin material in MG infection group. The mRNA and protein expression of apoptosis-related genes were significantly upregulated in the spleen and thymus of MG-infected chickens compared to control group. Moreover, Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick endlabeling (TUNEL) assay results suggested that MG infection increased the number of positive-stained nuclei in the spleen and thymus. Meanwhile, the mRNA expression of mitochondrial dynamics in the spleen and thymus were altered by MG infection. In summary, these results showed that MG induced oxidative stress and apoptosis, which could be the possible causes associated with the immune damage, structural impairment and disease pathogenesis of MG infection.

Lack of Dose- and Time-Dependent Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on Gene Expression and Enzymes Associated with Lipid Peroxidation and the Glutathione Redox System in Chicken

Effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on lipid peroxidation and glutathione system were investigated in chicken liver. In a three-week feeding trial, different doses (<1.0 μg/kg (control diet), 17.0 µg (diet A1), 92.0 µg (diet A2), and 182.0 µg (diet A3) AFB1 kg/feed) were used. Markers of lipid peroxidation, conjugated dienes and trienes showed higher values in A3, while amounts of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances were increased in the A1 group at day 21. Glutathione content was lower at day 14 in Group A2. Glutathione peroxidase 4 activity was increased at days 7 and 21 in the A3 group but reduced in the A2 and A3 groups at day 14. The GPX4 gene was downregulated at day 7 in the A2 group, but overregulated at days 14 and 21, and at day 14 in the A3 group. GSS was downregulated at day 14 in the A1 group but overregulated at day 21 in A1 and A2 groups. GSR was downregulated at days 7 and 21 in all treatment groups, but on day 14, induction was observed in the A3 group. The results indicated that AFB1 did not induce dose- or time-dependent effects on the glutathione redox system and its encoding genes at the dose range used, which means that oxidative stress is not the primary effect of AFB1 toxicity.

Effects of absorbents on growth performance, blood profiles and liver gene expression in broilers fed diets naturally contaminated with aflatoxin

Objective

The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of the absorbent (a mixture of activated carbon and hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate) on growth performance, blood profiles and hepatic genes expression in broilers fed diets naturally contaminated with aflatoxin.

Methods

A total of 1,200 one-day-old male chicks were randomly assigned to 6 treatments with 10 replicate cages per treatment. The dietary treatments were as follows: i) control (basal diets); ii) 50% contaminated corn; iii) 100% contaminated corn; iv) control+1% adsorbent; v) 50% contaminated corn+1% absorbent; vi) 100% contaminated corn+1% absorbent.

Results

During d 1 to 21, feeding contaminated diets reduced (p<0.05) body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), and average daily feed intake (ADFI), but increased (p<0.05) feed-to-gain ratio (F/G). The absorbent supplementation increased (p<0.05) BW, ADG, and ADFI. There were interactions (p<0.05) in BW, ADG, and ADFI between contaminated corn and absorbent. Overall, birds fed 100% contaminated diets had lower (p<0.05) final BW and ADG, but higher (p<0.05) F/G compared to those fed control diets. The absorbent addition increased (p<0.05) serum albumin concentration on d 14 and 28 and total protein (TP) level on d 28, decreased (p<0.05) alanine transaminase activity on d 14 and activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase on d 28. Feeding contaminated diets reduced (p<0.05) hepatic TP content on d 28 and 42. The contaminated diets upregulated (p<0.05) expression of interleukin-6, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), but downregulated (p<0.05) glutathione S-transferase (GST) expression in liver. The absorbent supplementation increased (p<0.05) interleukin-1β, CAT, SOD, cytochrome P450 1A1 and GST expression in liver. There were interactions (p<0.05) in the expression of hepatic CAT, SOD, and GST between contaminated corn and absorbent.

Conclusion

The results suggest that the naturally aflatoxin-contaminated corn depressed growth performance, while the adsorbent could partially attenuate the adverse effects of aflatoxin on growth performance, blood profiles and hepatic genes expression in broilers.

DNA damage checkpoint response to aflatoxin B1

Although most countries regulate the aflatoxin levels in food by legislations, high amounts of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-DNA adducts can still be detected in normal and tumorous tissue obtained from cancer patients. AFB1 cannot directly interact with DNA unless it is biotransformed to AFB1-8, 9-epoxide via cytochrome p450 enzymes. This metabolite spontaneously and irreversibly attaches to guanine residues to generate highly mutagenic DNA adducts. AFB1-induced mutation of ATM kinase results in the deterioration of the cell cycle checkpoint activation at the G2/M checkpoint site. Genomic instability and increased cancer risk due to A-T mutation is the result of diminished repair of DNA double strand breaks. The major point mutation caused by AFB1 is G-to-T transversion that is related with the high frequency of p53 mutation. Majority of AFB1 associated hepatocellular cancer cases carry TP53 mutant DNA, which is an indicator of AFB1 exposure, as well as hepatocellular cancer risk.

Encapsulation of cinnamon essential oil in whey protein enhances the protective effect against single or combined sub-chronic toxicity of fumonisin B1 and/or aflatoxin B1 in rats

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) are fungal metabolites that frequently co-occur in foodstuffs and are responsible for mycotoxicosis and several primary cancers. Cinnamon essential oil (CEO) has a spacious range of benefit effects but also has some limitations owing to its strong taste or its interaction with some drugs. This study aimed to use the cinnamon oil emulsion droplets (COED) for the protection against oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity in male Sprague-Dawley rats sub-chronically exposed to FB₁ and/or AFB₁. The composition of CEO was identified using GC-MS then was encapsulated using whey protein as wall material. Male rats were divided into eight groups and treated orally for 8 weeks as follows: control group, AFB₁-trreated group (80 μg/kg b.w), FB₁-treated group (100 mg/kg b.w), FB₁ plus AFB₁-treated group, and the groups treated with COED plus FB₁ and/or AFB₁. Blood and samples of the kidney, liver, and testis were collected for different analysis and histopathological examination. The GC-MS analysis revealed that cinnamaldehyde, α-copaene, trans-cinnamaldehyde, caryophyllene, and delta-cadinene were the main compounds in COE. The average size of COED was 235 ± 1.4 nm and the zeta potential was - 6.24 ± 0.56. Treatment with FB₁ and/or AFB₁ induced significant disturbances in the serum biochemical analysis, oxidative stress parameters, DNA fragmentation, gene expression, and testosterone and severe pathological changes in the tested organs. Moreover, treatment with both mycotoxins induced synergistic toxic effects. COED did not induce toxic effects and could normalize the majority of the tested parameters and improve the histological picture in rats treated with FB₁ and/or AFB₁. It could be concluded that COED induce potential protective effects against the single or combined exposure to FB₁ and AFB₁.

Protective role of curcumin in ameliorating AFB1-induced apoptosis via mitochondrial pathway in liver cells

It is well documented that liver is the primary target organ of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and curcumin proved to be effective against AFB₁-induced liver injury. In the present study, we investigated the preventive effects of curcumin against AFB₁-induced apoptosis through the molecular regulation of p53, caspase-3, Bax, caspase-9, Bcl-2 and cytochrome-C associated with mitochondrial pathway. Liver antioxidant levels were measured. The hallmarks of apoptosis were analysed by methyl green-pyronin-Y staining, transmission electron microscopy, RT-PCR and western blot. Results revealed that dietary curcumin ameliorated AFB₁-induced oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner. Methyl green-pyronin-Y staining and transmission electron microscopy showed that AFB₁ induced apoptosis and caused abnormal changes in liver cells morphology such as condensation of chromatin material, reduces cell volume and damaged mitochondria. Moreover, mRNA and protein expression results manifested that apoptosis associated genes showed up-regulation in AFB₁ fed group. However, the supplementation of dietary curcumin (dose-dependently) alleviated the increased expression of the apoptosis associated genes at mRNA and protein level, and restored the hepatocytes normal morphology. The study provides an insight and a better understanding of the preventive mechanism of curcumin against AFB₁-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes and provide scientific basis for the therapeutic uses of curcumin.

The effects of low levels of aflatoxin B1 on health, growth performance and reproductivity in male rabbits

This study investigated the chronic effects of relatively low exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the growth performance, immune situation and reproduction in male rabbits. Bucks (n=32, 4.82±0.22 kg) were individually assigned to 4 treatments (8 replicates each) using a randomised complete block design. Four diets containing 0, 0.02, 0.05, and 0.1 mg AFB1/kg, were provided to bucks for 8 wk. Growth performance and semen quality were measured. Blood, organ and tissue samples were collected to measure haematological indices, liver function, organ weights and immune parameters. Compared to control, AFB1-contaminated diets reduced body weight and average daily gain (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05), altered certain haematological indices and liver function with decreased monocytes percentage and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, and increased plateletcrit and albumin (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05), slightly impaired reproductive parameters with enhanced ratio of morphologically abnormal sperm cells at early stage and reduced post-stage acrosome integrity, testis weight and serum testosterone concentration (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05), decreased immune function with reduced relative liver weight (%) and tumour necrosis factor-α levels in serum and liver tissue, and increased serum 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine levels (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05). Furthermore, bucks fed diets with relatively high AFB1 (0.05 and 0.1 mg AFB1/kg) had reduced red blood cell and haematocrit (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05) in contrast with the low AFB1 group (0.02 mg AFB1/kg). In conclusion, diets containing 0.05 and 0.1 mg AFB1/kg had negative effects on bucks’ growth performance, haematology, reproductivity and immune function, whereas diet containing 0.02 mg AFB1/kg had only minor effects on the parameters measured.

Effect of probiotic supplement on aflatoxicosis and gene expression in the liver of broiler chicken

The present study aimed to investigate the toxic effect of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and the effectiveness of a biological mycotoxin binder (Nutritox^®) in detoxifying aflatoxicosis. Ninety one-day-old chicks were chosen and divided into 3 groups. The first group received standard basal diet only, the second group received a basal diet with AFB1 (0.25 mg/kg diet), and the third group received a basal diet with AFB1 (0.25 mg/kg diet) and Nutritox^® (1 kg/ton diet). AFB1 feed contamination significantly reduced growth performance and deteriorated FCR. Moreover, it significantly increased serum AST, ALT, and malondialdehyde and significantly decreased serum total protein, albumin, globulin, SOD, CAT activities and glutathione peroxidase gene expression as well. Aflatoxin residues were detected in the liver tissues. Furthermore, the liver and kidney of AFB1 treated group showed pathological changes. The supplementation of Nutritox^® significantly reduced aflatoxin levels in the liver and counteracted the negative effects of AFB1.

Aflatoxin B1 invokes apoptosis via death receptor pathway in hepatocytes

The fungal metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus cause detrimental health effects on humans and animals. Particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most studied and a well-known global carcinogen, producing hepatotoxic, genotoxic and immunotoxic effects in multiple species. AFB1 is shown to provoke liver dysfunctioning by causing hepatocytes apoptosis and disturbing cellular enzymatic activities. In liver, AFB1 causes apoptosis via extrinsic mechanism because of high expression of death receptor pathway. The detailed mechanism of AFB1 induced hepatocytes apoptosis, via death receptor pathway still remains elusive. So the present study was conducted to explore apoptotic mechanism initiated by death receptors and associated genes in aflatoxin B1 induced liver apoptosis in chickens fed with AFB1 for 3 weeks. Results from the present study displayed histopathological and ultrastructural changes in liver such as hydropic degeneration, fatty vacuolar degeneration and proliferation of bile duct in hepatocytes in AFB1 group, along with imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense system upon AFB1 ingestion. Moreover, AFB1 intoxicated chickens showed upregulation of death receptors FAS, TNFR1 and associated genes and downregulation of inhibitory apoptotic proteins XIAP and BCL-2. The results obtained from this novel and comprehensive study including histopathological, ultrastructural, flow cytometrical and death receptor pathway gene expression profiles, will facilitate better understanding of mechanisms and involvement of death receptor pathway in hepatocytes apoptosis induced by AFB1 and ultimately may be helpful in bringing down the toxigenic potential of AFB1.

Microcystin-LR increases genotoxicity induced by aflatoxin B1 through oxidative stress and DNA base excision repair genes in human hepatic cell lines

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and microcystin-LR (MC-LR) simultaneously exist in polluted food and water in humid and warm areas, and each has been reported to be genotoxic to liver and associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the genotoxic effects of the two biotoxins in combination and potential mechanism remain unknown. We treated the human hepatic cell line HL7702 with AFB1 and MC-LR together at different ratios, examined their genotoxic effects using micronuclei and comet assays, and evaluated the possible mechanism by measuring oxidative stress markers and DNA base excision repair (BER) genes. Our data show that co-exposure to AFB1 and MC-LR significantly increased DNA damage compared with AFB1 or MC-LR alone as measured by the levels of both micronuclei and tail DNA. Meanwhile, AFB1 and MC-LR co-exposure showed biphasic effects on ROS production, and a gradual trend towards increased Glutathione (GSH) levels and activity of Catalase (CAT) and Superoxide Dismutase (SOD). Furthermore, MC-LR, with or without AFB1, significantly down-regulated the expression of the base excision repair (BER) genes 8-oxoguanine glycosylase-1 (OGG1) and X-ray repair cross complementing group 1 (XRCC1). AFB1 and MC-LR in combination upregulated the expression of the BER gene apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1), whereas either agent alone had no effect. In conclusion, our studies show that MC-LR exacerbates AFB1-induced genotoxicity and we report for the first time that this occurs through effects on oxidative stress and the deregulation of DNA base excision repair genes.

Biochemical basis for the age-related sensitivity of broilers to aflatoxin B1

In this study, we investigated the mechanism underlying age-related susceptibility in broilers to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The results showed that AFB1 induced significant changes in serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity & liver superoxide dismutase (SOD), malonaldehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity at day 7, 21 and 42 relative to control group. However, AFB1-induced changes in serum biochemical parameters and liver antioxidant activities become less severe with increasing age of broilers. Particularly, liver cytosolic GST activity increases with the age of broilers, crucial for the detoxification of AFB1. The mRNA expression level of Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes was significantly higher at day 7, and decreases at day 21 and 42. While, the mRNA expression level of liver GSTA3, GSTA4 and EPHX1 increases with age of broilers. Maximum AFB1 residues level was detected at day 42 relative to day 7 and 21. While, AFM1 residues level increases (p < 0.05) from day 7 to 21, but decreases (p > 0.05) at day 42. Most importantly, our data confirmed the efficient AFB1-bioactivation by CYP enzymes and deficient detoxification of GST enzymes at younger age (∼7-day old) compared to older age. In summary, the age-related changes particularly in phase-I and phase-II enzymes mainly responsible for AFB1 bioactivation and detoxification may be partially accountable for the increased susceptibility of younger broilers (∼7-day old) compared to older broilers.

Impacts of bentonite supplementation on growth, carcass traits, nutrient digestibility, and histopathology of certain organs of rabbits fed diet naturally contaminated with aflatoxin

The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of graded levels of dietary bentonite supplementation on growth performance, carcass traits, nutrient digestibility, and histopathology of certain organs in rabbits fed a diet naturally contaminated with aflatoxin. In total, 125 weanling New Zealand White male rabbits were randomly assigned to five treatment groups each of five replicates. Treatments were as follows: T1, basal diet with no aflatoxin and no additives (positive control diet, PCD); T2, basal diet naturally contaminated with 150 ppb aflatoxin and no additives (negative control diet, NCD); T3, NCD plus 0.5% Egyptian bentonite; T4, NCD plus 1% Egyptian bentonite; and T5, NCD plus 1% Egyptian bentonite. The experiment lasted for 8 weeks. Results showed a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in the body weight and the body weight gain in the NCD, while they were improved (P < 0.05) in groups fed diets supplemented with different levels of bentonite. The relative weight of the liver and kidneys were higher in the NCD, while the liver weight was relatively high in the group fed NCD supplemented with 0.5% bentonite, and it was not significant in other bentonite-supplemented groups. Bentonite supplementation improved the digestibility coefficients of various nutrients. Bentonite addition decreased the histopathological lesions in liver, kidney, and intestine caused by aflatoxin-infected diets. In conclusion, bentonite supplementation overcame the negative effect of aflatoxin, enhanced growth performance traits, decreased the relative weights of the liver and the kidney which are usually increased by aflatoxin, caused significant improvement in nutrients' digestibility, and decreased the histopathological lesions caused by aflatoxin-infected diets. The level of 2% bentonite is recommended for ameliorating the aflatoxin effects.

Ameliorative Effects of Neutral Electrolyzed Water on Growth Performance, Biochemical Constituents, and Histopathological Changes in Turkey Poults during Aflatoxicosis

Different in vitro and in silico approaches from our research group have demonstrated that neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) can be used to detoxify aflatoxins. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of NEW to detoxify B-aflatoxins (AFB₁ and AFB₂) in contaminated maize and to confirm detoxification in an in vivo experimental model. Batches of aflatoxin-contaminated maize were detoxified with NEW and mixed in commercial feed. A total of 240 6-day-old female large white Nicholas-700 turkey poults were randomly divided into four treatments of six replicates each (10 turkeys per replicate), which were fed ad libitum for two weeks with the following dietary treatments: (1) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize (CONTROL); (2) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize (AF); (3) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize detoxified with NEW (AF + NEW); and (4) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize treated with NEW (NEW). Compared to the control groups, turkey poults of the AF group significantly reduced body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio and mortality rate; whereas turkey poults of the AF + NEW group did not present significant differences on productive parameters. In addition, alterations in serum biochemical constituents, enzyme activities, relative organ weight, gross morphological changes and histopathological studies were significantly mitigated by the aflatoxin-detoxification procedure. From these results, it is concluded that the treatment of aflatoxin-contaminated maize with NEW provided reasonable protection against the effects caused by aflatoxins in young turkey poults.

Pathological Impairment, Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis of Thymus and Bursa of Fabricius Induced by Aflatoxin-Contaminated Corn in Broilers

This study aimed to evaluate the comparative effects of aflatoxin-contaminated corn on the thymus and bursa of Fabricius (BF) in chickens by detecting histopathological lesions, cell cycle phase distribution and apoptosis. A total of 900 COBB500 male broilers were randomly allocated into five groups. The experiment lasted for six weeks and the five dietary treatments consisted of uncontaminated corn (control), 25% contaminated corn, 50% contaminated corn, 75% contaminated corn and 100% contaminated corn groups. The gross changes showed the decreased size of the thymus and BF, as well as the pale color of the BF in the broilers after aflatoxin contaminated diet exposure. There were more nuclear debris in the thymus and BF of birds in the 50%, 75%, and 100% contaminated corn groups, but the pathological impairments of the BF were more obvious than those of the thymus, which showed as more obvious lymphocyte depletion and the proliferation of reticulocytes and fibroblasts. At 21 days of age, the percentage of thymocytes and BF cells in the G2M phase was increased in a dose-dependent manner in the four AFB-contaminated corn groups. However, at 42 days of age, dietary AFB₁ induced cell cycle perturbation at the G0G1 phase in thymocytes, but at the G2M phase in BF cells. The increased percentage of apoptotic cells in the thymus and BF were similarly observed in the AFB groups. According to these results, the severity of histopathological lesions may be correlated with the different sensitivity of the two central immune organs when exposed to AFB; different arrested cell cycle phases suggest that different mechanisms may be involved in the lesions of the thymus and BF, which need to be further researched.

Ameliorating Effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Functions, and Aflatoxin Residues in Ducks Fed Diets Contaminated with Aflatoxins

Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 isolated from fish gut is very effective in detoxifying aflatoxins in feed and feed ingredients. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of B. subtilis ANSB060 on growth performance, body antioxidant functions, and aflatoxin residues in ducks fed moldy maize naturally contaminated with aflatoxins. A total of 1500 18-d-old male Cherry Valley ducks with similar body weight were randomly assigned to five treatments with six replicates of 50 ducks per repeat. The experiment design consisted of five dietary treatments labeled as C0 (basal diet containing 60% normal maize), M0 (basal diet containing 60% moldy maize contaminated with aflatoxins substituted for normal maize), M500, M1000, and M2000 (M0 +500, 1000 or 2000 g/t aflatoxin biodegradation preparation mainly consisted of B. subtilis ANSB060). The results showed that ducks fed 22.44 ± 2.46 μg/kg of AFB₁ (M0) exhibited a decreasing tendency in average daily gain (ADG) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity in serum, and T-SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities in the liver significantly decreased along with the appearance of AFB₁ and AFM₁ compared with those in Group C0. The supplementation of B. subtilis ANSB060 into aflatoxin-contaminated diets increased the ADG of ducks (p > 0.05), significantly improved antioxidant enzyme activities, and reduced aflatoxin accumulation in duck liver. In conclusion, Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 in diets showed an ameliorating effect to duck aflatoxicosis and may be a promising feed additive.

Curcumin Prevents Aflatoxin B₁ Hepatoxicity by Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 Isozymes in Chick Liver

This study was designed to establish if Curcumin (CM) alleviates Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁)-induced hepatotoxic effects and to determine whether alteration of the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isozymes is involved in the regulation of these effects in chick liver. One-day-old male broilers (n = 120) were divided into four groups and used in a two by two factorial trial in which the main factors included supplementing AFB₁ (< 5 vs. 100 μg/kg) and CM (0 vs. 150 mg/kg) in a corn/soybean-based diet. Administration of AFB₁ induced liver injury, significantly decreasing albumin and total protein concentrations and increasing alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities in serum, and induced hepatic histological lesions at week 2. AFB₁ also significantly decreased hepatic glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione levels, while increasing malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, and exo-AFB₁-8,9-epoxide (AFBO)-DNA concentrations. In addition, the mRNA and/or activity of enzymes responsible for the bioactivation of AFB₁ into AFBO-including CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2A6, and CYP3A4-were significantly induced in liver microsomes after 2-week exposure to AFB₁. These alterations induced by AFB₁ were prevented by CM supplementation. Conclusively, dietary CM protected chicks from AFB₁-induced liver injury, potentially through the synergistic actions of increased antioxidant capacities and inhibition of the pivotal CYP450 isozyme-mediated activation of AFB₁ to toxic AFBO.

Efficacy of Mozambican bentonite and diatomaceous earth in reducing the toxic effects of aflatoxins in chicks

The effectiveness of diatomaceous earth (DE) and bentonite clay (BC) in reducing the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in chicks was assessed. A total of 150 day-old male broiler chicks were assigned to six dietary treatments, with 5 replicate pens of five chicks per treatment. Dietary treatments were: (1) a positive control basal diet (BD) containing no AFB1, no BC and no DE; (2) BD + 0.50% BC but with no AFB1 and DE; (3) BD + 0.50% DE but with no AF and BC; (4) BD + 2 mg AFB1/kg diet but with no BC and DE; (5) BD + 0.50% BC + 2 mg AFB1/kg diet but with no DE; and (6) BD + 0.50% DE + 2 mg AFB1/kg diet but with no BC. Compared with controls, feed intake (FI) and body weight gain (BWG) were depressed (P<0.05) in chicks fed AFB1, with greater reduction in FI and BWG observed in birds fed the AFB1 plus 0.50% DE diet. Feed conversion ratio was similar. Chicks fed AFB1 alone had increased (P<0.05) relative liver weights compared to all other dietary treatments except for chicks fed AFB1+ DE. Chicks fed AFB1 alone and those fed AFB1+ DE had heavier (P<0.05) relative kidney weights compared to chicks fed other treatments. Compared with the control chicks, livers from birds fed dietary AFB1 and AFB1 plus DE were similar. Liver lesion score of chicks fed AFB1 plus BC was lower (P<0.05) than that of chicks fed AFB1 but higher (P<0.05) than that of control chicks. Compared to controls, serum concentrations of glucose, albumin, total protein globulin, and calcium were decreased (P<0.05) in chicks fed AFB1 alone, whereas serum concentrations of aspartate amino transferase and gamma glutamyl transferase were increased (P<0.05). It can be concluded that this concentration of BC was partially effective in reducing the toxic effects of 2 mg/kg AFB1, whereas DE at the same concentration was not effective in reducing the toxic effects of 2 mg/kg AFB1.

Protective Effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 on Serum Biochemistry, Histopathological Changes and Antioxidant Enzyme Activities of Broilers Fed Moldy Peanut Meal Naturally Contaminated with Aflatoxins

The aim of this study was to investigate the toxic effects of aflatoxins and evaluate the effectiveness of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 in detoxifying aflatoxicosis in broilers. A total of 360 one-week-old male broilers (Ross 308) were assigned to six dietary treatments for five weeks. The treatment diets were: C0 (basal diet); C1.0 (C0 + 1.0 g B. subtilis ANSB060/kg diet); M0 (basal diet formulated with moldy peanut meal); M0.5, M1.0 and M2.0 (M0 + 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g B. subtilis ANSB060/kg diet, respectively). The contents of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 in the diets formulated with moldy peanut meal were 70.7 ± 1.3, 11.0 ± 1.5, 6.5 ± 0.8 and 2.0 ± 0.3 µg/kg, respectively. The results showed that aflatoxins increased (p < 0.05) serum aspartate transaminase activity, decreased (p < 0.05) serum glutathione peroxidase activity, and enhanced (p < 0.05) malondialdehyde contents in both the serum and liver. Aflatoxins also caused gross and histological changes in liver tissues, such as bile duct epithelium hyperplasia, vacuolar degeneration and lymphocyte infiltration. The supplementation of ANSB060 reduced aflatoxin levels in the duodenum and counteracted the negative effects of aflatoxins, leading to the conclusion that ANSB060 has a protective effect against aflatoxicosis and this protection is dose-related.

A novel strain of Cellulosimicrobium funkei can biologically detoxify aflatoxin B1 in ducklings

Two experiments were conducted to screen microorganisms with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) removal potential from soils and to evaluate their ability in reducing the toxic effects of AFB1 in ducklings. In experiment 1, we screened 11 isolates that showed the AFB1 biodegradation ability, and the one exhibited the highest AFB1 removal ability (97%) was characterized and identified as Cellulosimicrobium funkei (C. funkei). In experiment 2, 80 day-old Cherry Valley ducklings were divided into four groups with four replicates of five birds each and were used in a 2 by 2 factorial trial design, in which the main factors included administration of AFB1 versus solvent and C. funkei versus solvent for 2 weeks. The AFB1 treatment significantly decreased the body weight gain, feed intake and impaired feed conversion ratio. AFB1 also decreased serum albumin and total protein concentration, while it increased activities of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase and liver damage in the ducklings. Supplementation of C. funkei alleviated the adverse effects of AFB1 on growth performance, and provided protective effects on the serum biochemical indicators, and decreased hepatic injury in the ducklings. Conclusively, our results suggest that the novel isolated C. funkei strain could be used to mitigate the negative effects of aflatoxicosis in ducklings.

Prevention of Aflatoxin B1 Hepatoxicity by Dietary Selenium Is Associated with Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 Isozymes and Up-Regulation of 6 Selenoprotein Genes in Chick Liver

BACKGROUND

The involvement of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isozymes and the selenogenome in selenium-mediated protection against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced adverse effects in broilers remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed first to determine whether selenium could reduce AFB1-induced hepatotoxic effects and then to determine whether these effects were due to changes in the CYP450 isozymes and selenogenome expression in the liver of chicks.

METHODS

Male avian broilers (aged 120 d) were allocated to 4 groups with 5 replicates of 6 birds to be included in a 2-by-2 factorial trial in which the main factors included supplementation of AFB1 (<5 compared with 100 μg/kg) and selenium (0.2 compared with 0.5 mg/kg) in a corn/soybean-based diet for 4 wk. Serum biochemistry, hepatic histology, and mRNA and/or activities of hepatic antioxidant enzymes, CYP450 isozymes, and 26 selenoproteins were analyzed at week 2 and/or 4.

RESULTS

Administration of AFB1 induced liver injury, decreasing (P < 0.05) total protein and albumin concentrations by 33.3-43.8% and increasing (P < 0.05) alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities by 26.0-33.8% in serum, and induced hepatic necrosis and bile duct hyperplasia at week 2. AFB1 also decreased (P < 0.05) hepatic activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD), and catalase, and the glutathione concentration by 13.1-59.9% and increased (P < 0.05) malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and exo-AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFBO) DNA concentrations by 17.9-1200%. In addition, the mRNA and activity of enzymes responsible for the bioactivation of AFB1 into AFBO, which included CYP450 A1, 1A2, 2A6, and 3A4, were significantly induced (P < 0.05) by 29.2-271% in liver microsomes after 2-wk exposure to AFB1. These alterations induced by AFB1 were prevented by selenium supplementation. Dietary selenium supplementation increased (P < 0.05) mRNA and/or activities of 6 selenoprotein genes (Gpx3, Txnrd1, Txnrd2, Txnrd3, iodothyronine deiodinase 2, and selenoprotein N) in the liver of AFB1-treated groups at week 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary selenium protected chicks from AFB1-induced liver injury, potentially through the synergistic actions of inhibition of the pivotal CYP450 isozyme-mediated activation of AFB1 to toxic AFBO, and increased antioxidant capacities by upregulation of selenoprotein genes coding for antioxidant proteins.

Individual and combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 on BRL 3A rat liver cells

This study was performed to determine the individual and combined cytotoxic effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) on BRL 3A rat liver cells. After the mycotoxins treated the BRL 3A cells for 12, 24 and 48 h, cell viability was determined using the MTT assay. The cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins on BRL 3A cell viability in decreasing order were DON > AFB1 > ZEA > FB1. The central composite design (CCD) was used to assess the toxicity of binary and ternary mixtures of these mycotoxins. The mixtures of AFB1+ZEA and AFB1+DON showed the synergetic toxic effects on BRL 3A cells. These toxins decreased the viability of cells by inducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promoting apoptosis in the BRL 3A cells. This effect was mediated by an upregulation of the stress and apoptotic genes Hsp70, p53, Bax, Caspase-3 and Caspase-8, along with a downregulation of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2. In conclusion, our results suggested that the coexistence of AFB1 and ZEA or DON in agricultural products could be more hepatotoxic than individually, suggests that the toxicological interactions of these toxins need to be better understood to assess health risks.

Histological lesions, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and T cell subsets changes of spleen in chicken fed aflatoxin-contaminated corn

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of corn naturally contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin B2 on pathological lesions, apoptosis, cell cycle phases and T lymphocyte subsets of spleen, and to provide an experimental basis for understanding the mechanism of aflatoxin-induced immunosuppression. A total of 900 COBB500 male broilers were randomly allocated into five groups with six replicates per group and 30 birds per replicate. The experiment lasted for 6 weeks and the five dietary treatments consisted of control, 25% contaminated corn, 50% contaminated corn, 75% contaminated corn and 100% contaminated corn groups. The histopathological spleen lesions from the contaminated corn groups was characterized as congestion of red pulp, increased necrotic cells and vacuoles in the splenic corpuscle and periarterial lymphatic sheath. The contaminated corn intake significantly increased relative weight of spleen, percentages of apoptotic splenocytes, induced cell cycle arrest of splenocytes, increased the percentages of CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells and decreased the ratios of CD3⁺CD4⁺ to CD3⁺CD8⁺. The results suggest that AFB-induced immunosuppression maybe closely related to the lesions of spleen.

An overview on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa

Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate various feedstuffs and agricultural crops. The contamination of food by mycotoxins can occur before production, during storage, processing, transportation or marketing of the food products. High temperature, moisture content and water activity are among the predisposing factors that facilitate the production of mycotoxins in food. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are all considered the major mycotoxins produced in food and feedstuffs. In Africa, mycotoxin contamination is considered to be a major problem with implications that affect human and animal health and economy. Aflatoxin-related hepatic diseases are reported in many African countries. Ochratoxin and fumonisin toxicity in humans and animals is widespread in Africa. The available, updated information on the incidence of mycotoxin contamination, decontamination and its public health importance in Africa is lacking. The aim of this review is to highlight, update and discuss the available information on the incidence of mycotoxins in African countries. The public health implications and the recommended strategies for control of mycotoxins in food and agricultural crops are also discussed.