Marine Collagen Substrates for 2D and 3D Ovarian Cancer Cell Systems

Characterization of Collagen from Jellyfish Aurelia aurita and Investigation of Biomaterials Potentials

Marine collagen sources are potent alternatives due to abundant yield, low pathogen infection risk, high biocompatibility, and any religious and ethical restrictions compared to terrestrial collagen sources. In this research, we aim to investigate the biomaterials potential of the collagen from Aurelia aurita, which is a native jellyfish species in the Marmara Sea. Spectroscopic techniques were used to investigate the structure of jellyfish collagen (JCol) from acid-soluble fraction and compared to Jellagen® from Rhizostoma pulmo. MALDI-TOF showed the main peak of Jellagen® at 276,765.161 Da and jellyfish collagen at 276,761.687 Da. SDS-PAGE indicated α1 and α2 bands at about 122 kDa and 140 kDa, respectively. In FTIR and Raman spectra, the locations of amide bands of both species were almost the same. The pI of JCol was determined as 4.46. The particle size decreased abruptly at 43 oC from 890 to 290 nm. Water, organic and inorganic ratios of collagen were determined at 7.14%, 63.59, and 29.27 respectively. In DSC, the denaturation temperature (Td) of JCol was found at 43.7 oC and found to be higher than that of the collagens from jellyfishes that have been reported so far in the literature. Biocompatibility testing by metabolic assay revealed significantly higher fibroblast proliferation on collagen film than on the Tissue Culture Plate. To conclude, Aurelia aurita collagen would be a suitable source of collagen when biomaterials are needed to have high biocompatibility and unique macromolecular properties such as high denaturation temperatures.

Extracellular matrix type 0: From ancient collagen lineage to a versatile product pipeline - JellaGel™

Extracellular matrix type 0 is reported. The matrix is developed from a jellyfish collagen predating mammalian forms by over 0.5 billion years. With its ancient lineage, compositional simplicity, and resemblance to multiple collagen types, the matrix is referred to as the extracellular matrix type 0. Here we validate the matrix describing its physicochemical and biological properties and present it as a versatile, minimalist biomaterial underpinning a pipeline of commercialised products under the collective name of JellaGelTM. We describe an extensive body of evidence for folding and assembly of the matrix in comparison to mammalian matrices, such as bovine collagen, and its use to support cell growth and development in comparison to known tissue-derived products, such as Matrigel™. We apply the matrix to co-culture human astrocytes and cortical neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells and visualise neuron firing synchronicity with correlations indicative of a homogenous extracellular material in contrast to the performance of heterogenous commercial matrices. We prove the ability of the matrix to induce spheroid formation and support the 3D culture of human immortalised, primary, and mesenchymal stem cells. We conclude that the matrix offers an optimal solution for systemic evaluations of cell-matrix biology. It effectively combines the exploitable properties of mammalian tissue extracts or top-down matrices, such as biocompatibility, with the advantages of synthetic or bottom-up matrices, such as compositional control, while avoiding the drawbacks of the two types, such as biological and design heterogeneity, thereby providing a unique bridging capability of a stem extracellular matrix.

miR-34a-FOXP1 Loop in Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the main cause of gynecological cancer mortality in most developed countries. microRNA (miR) expression dysregulation has been highlighted in human cancers, and miR-34a is found to be downregulated and associated with inhibition of tumor growth and invasion in several malignancies, including OC. The winged helix transcription factor forkhead box P1 (FOXP1) is reported as either an oncogene or tumor suppressor in various cancers. This study aimed to elucidate potential clinical and biological associations of miR-34a and transcription factor FOXP1 in OC. We investigated nine OC patients' blood samples and two OC cell lines (SKOV-3 and OVCAR-3) using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) to determine both miR-34a and FOXP1 expressions. We have found that miR-34a and FOXP1 are reversely correlated in both in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of miR-34a transiently led to upregulation of FOXP1 mRNA expression and increased cellular invasion in vitro. Our data indicate that miR-34a could be a potential biomarker for improving the diagnostic efficiency of OC, and miR-34a overexpression may reduce OC pathogenesis by targeting FOXP1.

Suitability of R. pulmo Jellyfish-Collagen-Coated Well Plates for Cytocompatibility Analyses of Biomaterials

Cytocompatibility analyses of new implant materials or biomaterials are not only prescribed by the Medical Device Regulation (MDR), as defined in the DIN ISO Norm 10993-5 and -12, but are also increasingly replacing animal testing. In this context, jellyfish collagen has already been established as an alternative to mammalian collagen in different cell culture conditions, but a lack of knowledge exists about its applicability for cytocompatibility analyses of biomaterials. Thus, the present study was conducted to compare well plates coated with collagen type 0 derived from Rhizostoma pulmo with plates coated with bovine and porcine collagen. The coated well plates were analysed in vitro for their cytocompatibility, according to EN ISO 10993-5/-12, using both L929 fibroblasts and MC3T3 pre-osteoblasts. Thereby, the coated well plates were compared, using established materials as positive controls and a cytotoxic material, RM-A, as a negative control. L929 cells exhibited a significantly higher viability (#### p < 0.0001), proliferation (## p < 0.01), and a lower cytotoxicity (## p < 0.01 and # p < 0.05)) in the Jellagen® group compared to the bovine and porcine collagen groups. MC3T3 cells showed similar viability and acceptable proliferation and cytotoxicity in all collagen groups. The results of the present study revealed that the coating of well plates with collagen Type 0 derived from R. pulmo leads to comparable results to the case of well plates coated with mammalian collagens. Therefore, it is fully suitable for the in vitro analyses of the cytocompatibility of biomaterials or medical devices.

Recovery of Bioactive Compounds from Marine Organisms: Focus on the Future Perspectives for Pharmacological, Biomedical and Regenerative Medicine Applications of Marine Collagen

Marine environments cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface and are among the richest and most complex ecosystems. In terms of biodiversity, the ocean represents an important source, still not widely exploited, of bioactive products derived from species of bacteria, plants, and animals. However, global warming, in combination with multiple anthropogenic practices, represents a serious environmental problem that has led to an increase in gelatinous zooplankton, a phenomenon referred to as jellyfish bloom. In recent years, the idea of "sustainable development" has emerged as one of the essential elements of green-economy initiatives; therefore, the marine environment has been re-evaluated and considered an important biological resource. Several bioactive compounds of marine origin are being studied, and among these, marine collagen represents one of the most attractive bio-resources, given its use in various disciplines, such as clinical applications, cosmetics, the food sector, and many other industrial applications. This review aims to provide a current overview of marine collagen applications in the pharmacological and biomedical fields, regenerative medicine, and cell therapy.

Characterization of the Biophysical Properties and Cell Adhesion Interactions of Marine Invertebrate Collagen from Rhizostoma pulmo

Collagen is the most ubiquitous biomacromolecule found in the animal kingdom and is commonly used as a biomaterial in regenerative medicine therapies and biomedical research. The collagens used in these applications are typically derived from mammalian sources which poses sociological issues due to widespread religious constraints, rising ethical concern over animal rights and the continuous risk of zoonotic disease transmission. These issues have led to increasing research into alternative collagen sources, of which marine collagens, in particular from jellyfish, have emerged as a promising resource. This study provides a characterization of the biophysical properties and cell adhesion interactions of collagen derived from the jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo (JCol). Circular dichroism spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy were used to observe the triple-helical conformation and fibrillar morphology of JCol. Heparin-affinity chromatography was also used to demonstrate the ability of JCol to bind to immobilized heparin. Cell adhesion assays using integrin blocking antibodies and HT-1080 human fibrosarcoma cells revealed that adhesion to JCol is primarily performed via β1 integrins, with the exception of α2β1 integrin. It was also shown that heparan sulfate binding plays a much greater role in fibroblast and mesenchymal stromal cell adhesion to JCol than for type I mammalian collagen (rat tail collagen). Overall, this study highlights the similarities and differences between collagens from mammalian and jellyfish origins, which should be considered when utilizing alternative collagen sources for biomedical research.

Marine-Inspired Drugs and Biomaterials in the Perspective of Pancreatic Cancer Therapies

Despite its low prevalence, pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the deadliest, typically characterised as silent in early stages and with a dramatically poor prognosis when in its advanced stages, commonly associated with a high degree of metastasis. Many efforts have been made in pursuing innovative therapeutical approaches, from the search for new cytotoxic drugs and other bioactive compounds, to the development of more targeted approaches, including improved drug delivery devices. Marine biotechnology has been contributing to this quest by providing new chemical leads and materials originating from different organisms. In this review, marine biodiscovery for PC is addressed, particularly regarding marine invertebrates (namely sponges, molluscs, and bryozoans), seaweeds, fungi, and bacteria. In addition, the development of biomaterials based on marine-originating compounds, particularly chitosan, fucoidan, and alginate, for the production of advanced cancer therapies, is also discussed. The key role that drug delivery can play in new cancer treatments is highlighted, as therapeutical outcomes need to be improved to give further hope to patients.

Polymeric Hydrogels for In Vitro 3D Ovarian Cancer Modeling

Ovarian cancer (OC) grows and interacts constantly with a complex microenvironment, in which immune cells, fibroblasts, blood vessels, signal molecules and the extracellular matrix (ECM) coexist. This heterogeneous environment provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells and undergoes constant and dynamic remodeling that actively promotes tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. Despite the fact that traditional 2D cell culture systems have led to relevant medical advances in cancer research, 3D cell culture models could open new possibilities for the development of an in vitro tumor microenvironment more closely reproducing that observed in vivo. The implementation of materials science and technology into cancer research has enabled significant progress in the study of cancer progression and drug screening, through the development of polymeric scaffold-based 3D models closely recapitulating the physiopathological features of native tumor tissue. This article provides an overview of state-of-the-art in vitro tumor models with a particular focus on 3D OC cell culture in pre-clinical studies. The most representative OC models described in the literature are presented with a focus on hydrogel-based scaffolds, which guarantee soft tissue-like physical properties as well as a suitable 3D microenvironment for cell growth. Hydrogel-forming polymers of either natural or synthetic origin investigated in this context are described by highlighting their source of extraction, physical-chemical properties, and application for 3D ovarian cancer cell culture.

Three-Dimensional Modelling of Ovarian Cancer: From Cell Lines to Organoids for Discovery and Personalized Medicine

Ovarian cancer has the highest mortality of all of the gynecological malignancies. There are several distinct histotypes of this malignancy characterized by specific molecular events and clinical behavior. These histotypes have differing responses to platinum-based drugs that have been the mainstay of therapy for ovarian cancer for decades. For histotypes that initially respond to a chemotherapeutic regime of carboplatin and paclitaxel such as high-grade serous ovarian cancer, the development of chemoresistance is common and underpins incurable disease. Recent discoveries have led to the clinical use of PARP (poly ADP ribose polymerase) inhibitors for ovarian cancers defective in homologous recombination repair, as well as the anti-angiogenic bevacizumab. While predictive molecular testing involving identification of a genomic scar and/or the presence of germline or somatic BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation are in clinical use to inform the likely success of a PARP inhibitor, no similar tests are available to identify women likely to respond to bevacizumab. Functional tests to predict patient response to any drug are, in fact, essentially absent from clinical care. New drugs are needed to treat ovarian cancer. In this review, we discuss applications to address the currently unmet need of developing physiologically relevant in vitro and ex vivo models of ovarian cancer for fundamental discovery science, and personalized medicine approaches. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) in vitro cell culture of ovarian cancer lacks critical cell-to-cell interactions afforded by culture in three-dimensions. Additionally, modelling interactions with the tumor microenvironment, including the surface of organs in the peritoneal cavity that support metastatic growth of ovarian cancer, will improve the power of these models. Being able to reliably grow primary tumoroid cultures of ovarian cancer will improve the ability to recapitulate tumor heterogeneity. Three-dimensional (3D) modelling systems, from cell lines to organoid or tumoroid cultures, represent enhanced starting points from which improved translational outcomes for women with ovarian cancer will emerge.

Studying Activated Fibroblast Phenotypes and Fibrosis-Linked Mechanosensing Using 3D Biomimetic Models

Fibrosis and solid tumor progression are closely related, with both involving pathways associated with chronic wound dysregulation. Fibroblasts contribute to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling in these processes, a crucial step in scarring, organ failure, and tumor growth, but little is known about the biophysical evolution of remodeling regulation during the development and progression of matrix-related diseases including fibrosis and cancer. A 3D collagen-based scaffold model is employed here to mimic mechanical changes in normal (2 kPa, soft) versus advanced pathological (12 kPa, stiff) tissues. Activated fibroblasts grown on stiff scaffolds show lower migration and increased cell circularity compared to those on soft scaffolds. This is reflected in gene expression profiles, with cells cultured on stiff scaffolds showing upregulated DNA replication, DNA repair, and chromosome organization gene clusters, and a concomitant loss of ability to remodel and deposit ECM. Soft scaffolds can reproduce biophysically meaningful microenvironments to investigate early stage processes in wound healing and tumor niche formation, while stiff scaffolds can mimic advanced fibrotic and cancer stages. These results establish the need for tunable, affordable 3D scaffolds as platforms for aberrant stroma research and reveal the contribution of physiological and pathological microenvironment biomechanics to gene expression changes in the stromal compartment.

Biomaterials from the sea: Future building blocks for biomedical applications

Marine resources have tremendous potential for developing high-value biomaterials. The last decade has seen an increasing number of biomaterials that originate from marine organisms. This field is rapidly evolving. Marine biomaterials experience several periods of discovery and development ranging from coralline bone graft to polysaccharide-based biomaterials. The latter are represented by chitin and chitosan, marine-derived collagen, and composites of different organisms of marine origin. The diversity of marine natural products, their properties and applications are discussed thoroughly in the present review. These materials are easily available and possess excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and potent bioactive characteristics. Important applications of marine biomaterials include medical applications, antimicrobial agents, drug delivery agents, anticoagulants, rehabilitation of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, bone diseases and diabetes, as well as comestible, cosmetic and industrial applications.

Modeling the Tumor Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer: The Application of Self-Assembling Biomaterials

Ovarian cancer (OvCa) is one of the leading causes of gynecologic malignancies. Despite treatment with surgery and chemotherapy, OvCa disseminates and recurs frequently, reducing the survival rate for patients. There is an urgent need to develop more effective treatment options for women diagnosed with OvCa. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a key driver of disease progression, metastasis and resistance to treatment. For this reason, 3D models have been designed to represent this specific niche and allow more realistic cell behaviors compared to conventional 2D approaches. In particular, self-assembling peptides represent a promising biomaterial platform to study tumor biology. They form nanofiber networks that resemble the architecture of the extracellular matrix and can be designed to display mechanical properties and biochemical motifs representative of the TME. In this review, we highlight the properties and benefits of emerging 3D platforms used to model the ovarian TME. We also outline the challenges associated with using these 3D systems and provide suggestions for future studies and developments. We conclude that our understanding of OvCa and advances in materials science will progress the engineering of novel 3D approaches, which will enable the development of more effective therapies.

Mechanical Studies of the Third Dimension in Cancer: From 2D to 3D Model

From the development of self-aggregating, scaffold-free multicellular spheroids to the inclusion of scaffold systems, 3D models have progressively increased in complexity to better mimic native tissues. The inclusion of a third dimension in cancer models allows researchers to zoom out from a significant but limited cancer cell research approach to a wider investigation of the tumor microenvironment. This model can include multiple cell types and many elements from the extracellular matrix (ECM), which provides mechanical support for the tissue, mediates cell-microenvironment interactions, and plays a key role in cancer cell invasion. Both biochemical and biophysical signals from the extracellular space strongly influence cell fate, the epigenetic landscape, and gene expression. Specifically, a detailed mechanistic understanding of tumor cell-ECM interactions, especially during cancer invasion, is lacking. In this review, we focus on the latest achievements in the study of ECM biomechanics and mechanosensing in cancer on 3D scaffold-based and scaffold-free models, focusing on each platform’s level of complexity, up-to-date mechanical tests performed, limitations, and potential for further improvements.

Marine-Derived Collagen as Biomaterials for Human Health

Collagen is a kind of biocompatible protein material, which is widely used in medical tissue engineering, drug delivery, cosmetics, food and other fields. Because of its wide source, low extraction cost and good physical and chemical properties, it has attracted the attention of many researchers in recent years. However, the application of collagen derived from terrestrial organisms is limited due to the existence of diseases, religious beliefs and other problems. Therefore, exploring a wider range of sources of collagen has become one of the main topics for researchers. Marine-derived collagen (MDC) stands out because it comes from a variety of sources and avoids issues such as religion. On the one hand, this paper summarized the sources, extraction methods and characteristics of MDC, and on the other hand, it summarized the application of MDC in the above fields. And on the basis of the review, we found that MDC can not only be extracted from marine organisms, but also from the wastes of some marine organisms, such as fish scales. This makes further use of seafood resources and increases the application prospect of MDC.

Jellyfish Collagen: A Biocompatible Collagen Source for 3D Scaffold Fabrication and Enhanced Chondrogenicity

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial disease leading to degeneration of articular cartilage, causing morbidity in approximately 8.5 million of the UK population. As the dense extracellular matrix of articular cartilage is primarily composed of collagen, cartilage repair strategies have exploited the biocompatibility and mechanical strength of bovine and porcine collagen to produce robust scaffolds for procedures such as matrix-induced chondrocyte implantation (MACI). However, mammalian sourced collagens pose safety risks such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy and possible transmission of viral vectors. This study characterised a non-mammalian jellyfish (Rhizostoma pulmo) collagen as an alternative, safer source in scaffold production for clinical use. Jellyfish collagen demonstrated comparable scaffold structural properties and stability when compared to mammalian collagen. Jellyfish collagen also displayed comparable immunogenic responses (platelet and leukocyte activation/cell death) and cytokine release profile in comparison to mammalian collagen in vitro. Further histological analysis of jellyfish collagen revealed bovine chondroprogenitor cell invasion and proliferation in the scaffold structures, where the scaffold supported enhanced chondrogenesis in the presence of TGFβ1. This study highlights the potential of jellyfish collagen as a safe and biocompatible biomaterial for both OA repair and further regenerative medicine applications.

Fabrication and Characterization of Collagen/PVA Dual-Layer Membranes for Periodontal Bone Regeneration

Guided tissue regeneration (GTR) is a promising treatment for periodontal tissue defects, which generally uses a membrane to build a mechanical barrier from the gingival epithelium and hold space for the periodontal regeneration especially the tooth-supporting bone. However, existing membranes possess insufficient mechanical properties and limited bioactivity for periodontal bone regenerate. Herein, fish collagen and polyvinyl alcohol (Col/PVA) dual-layer membrane were developed via a combined freezing/thawing and layer coating method. This dual-layer membrane had a clear but contact boundary line between collagen and PVA layers, which were both hydrophilic. The dual membrane had an elongation at break of 193 ± 27% and would undergo an in vitro degradation duration of more than 17 days. Further cell experiments showed that compared with the PVA layer, the collagen layer not only presented good cytocompatibility with rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), but also promoted the osteogenic genes (RUNX2, ALP, OCN, and COL1) and protein (ALP) expression of BMSCs. Hence, the currently developed dual-layer membranes could be used as a stable barrier with a stable degradation rate and selectively favor the bone tissue to repopulate the periodontal defect. The membranes could meet the challenges encountered by GTR for superior defect repair, demonstrating great potential in clinical applications.

Freeze-Dried Matrices Composed of Degradable Polymers with Surfactant-Loaded Microparticles Based on Pectin and Sodium Alginate

Gelatin/polyvinylpyrrolidone/hydroxyethyl cellulose/glycerol porous matrices with microspheres made of sodium alginate or pectin and sodium alginate were produced. A surfactant was loaded into these microparticles. The microspheres were characterized using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy SEM, and laser diffraction particle size analyzer. For the matrices, the density, porosity, swelling capacity, dissolution in phosphate saline buffer were determined and SEM, mechanical, and thermogravimetric studies were applied. The results showed that the size of the two-component microspheres was slightly larger than that of single-ingredient microparticles. The images confirmed the spherical shape of the microparticles. The prepared matrices had high water uptake ability and porosity due to the presence of hydrophilic polymers. The presence of microparticles in the matrices caused a decrease in these parameters. Degradation of the composites with the microspheres was significantly faster than the matrix without them. The addition of microparticles increased the stiffness and toughness of the prepared materials. The efficiency of the thermal decomposition main stage was reduced in the samples with microspheres, whereas a char residue increased in these composites.

Production of Injectable Marine Collagen-Based Hydrogel for the Maintenance of Differentiated Chondrocytes in Tissue Engineering Applications

Cartilage is an avascular tissue with limited ability of self-repair. The use of autologous chondrocyte transplants represent an effective strategy for cell regeneration; however, preserving the differentiated state, which ensures the ability to regenerate damaged cartilage, represents the main challenge during in vitro culturing. For this purpose, we produced an injectable marine collagen-based hydrogel, by mixing native collagen from the jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo with hydroxy-phenyl-propionic acid (HPA)-functionalized marine gelatin. This biocompatible hydrogel formulation, due to the ability of enzymatically reticulate using horseradish peroxidase (HPR) and H₂O₂, gives the possibility of trap cells inside, in the absence of cytotoxic effects, during the cross-linking process. Moreover, it enables the modulation of the hydrogel stiffness merely varying the concentration of H₂O₂ without changes in the concentration of polymer precursors. The maintenance of differentiated chondrocytes in culture was then evaluated via morphological analysis of cell phenotype, GAG production and cytoskeleton organization. Additionally, gene expression profiling of differentiation/dedifferentiation markers provided evidence for the promotion of the chondrogenic gene expression program. This, combined with the biochemical properties of marine collagen, represents a promising strategy for maintaining in vitro the cellular phenotype in the aim of the use of autologous chondrocytes in regenerative medicine practices.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Marine Collagen and Fibrinogen Proteins in the Presence of Thrombin

: Enzymatic hydrolysis of native collagen and fibrinogen was carried out under comparable conditions at room temperature. The molecular weight parameters of proteins before and after hydrolysis by thrombin were monitored by gel-penetrating chromatography (GPC). An analysis of the experiment results shows that the molecular weight parameters of the initial fibrinogen (Fn) and cod collagen (CC) are very similar. High molecular CC decays within the first minute, forming two low molecular fractions. The main part (~80%) falls on the fraction with a value of Mw less than 10 kDa. The initial high molecular fraction of Fn with Mw ~320-340 kDa is not completely hydrolyzed even after three days of control. The presence of low molecular fractions with Mw ~17 and Mw ~10 kDa in the solution slightly increases within an hour and noticeably increases for three days. The destruction of macromolecules of high molecular collagen to hydrolysis products appears almost completely within the first minute mainly to the polymer with Mw ~10 kDa, and enzymatic hydrolysis of fibrinogen proceeds slower than that of collagen, but also mainly to the polymer with Mw ~10 kDa. Comparative photos of the surfaces of native collagen, fibrinogen and the scaffold based on them were obtained.