Update on Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery System for Anti-inflammatory Treatment

Dynamic Release from Acetalated Dextran Nanoparticles for Precision Therapy of Inflammation

Polymer-based nanoparticles (NPs) that react to altered physiological characteristics have the potential to enhance the delivery of therapeutics to a specific area. These materials can utilize biochemical triggers, such as low pH, which is prone to happen locally in an inflammatory microenvironment due to increased cellular activity. This reduced pH is neutralized when inflammation subsides. For precise delivery of therapeutics to match this dynamic reaction, drug delivery systems (DDS) need to not only release the drug (ON) but also stop the release (OFF) autonomously. In this study, we use a systematic approach to optimize the composition of acetalated dextran (AcDex) NPs to start (ON) and stop (OFF) releasing model cargo, depending on local pH changes. By mixing ratios of AcDex polymers (mixed NPs), we achieved a highly sensitive material that was able to rapidly release cargo when going from pH 7.4 to pH 6.0. At the same time, the mix also offered a stable composition that enabled a rapid ON/OFF/ON/OFF switching within this narrow pH range in only 90 min. These mixed NPs were also sensitive to biological pH changes, with increased release in the presence of inflammatory cells compared to healthy cells. Such precise and controllable characteristics of a DDS position mixed NPs as a potential treatment platform to inhibit disease flare-ups, reducing both systemic and local side effects to offer a superior treatment option for inflammation compared to conventional systems.

Nanoparticle-mediated co-delivery of inflammasome inhibitors provides protection against sepsis

The NLRP3 inflammasome, a multiprotein complex responsible for triggering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, plays a crucial role in inducing the inflammatory response associated with sepsis. While small molecule inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome have been investigated for sepsis management, delivering NLRP3 inhibitors has been accompanied by several challenges, primarily related to the drug formulation, delivery route, stability, and toxicity. Many existing inflammasome inhibitors either show higher liver toxicity or require a high dosage to efficiently impede the inflammasome complex assembly. Moreover, the potential synergistic effects of combining multiple inflammasome inhibitors in sepsis therapy remain largely unexplored. Therefore, a rational approach is essential for presenting the potential administration of NLRP3 small molecule inhibitors to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation effectively. In this context, we present a lipid nanoparticle-based dual-drug delivery system loaded with MCC 950 and disulfiram, demonstrating markedly higher efficiency compared to an equivalent amount of free-drug combinations and individual drug nanoparticles in vitro. This combination therapy substantially improved the in vivo survival rate of mice for LPS-induced septic peritonitis. Additionally, the synergistic approach illustrated a significant reduction in the expression of active caspase-1 as well as IL-1β inhibition integral components in the NLRP3 pathway. This study underscores the importance of integrating combination therapies facilitated by nanoparticle delivery to address the limitations of small molecule inflammasome inhibitors.

Engineered Nanomaterials for Immunomodulation: A Review

The immune system usually provides a defense against invading pathogenic microorganisms and any other particulate contaminants. Nonetheless, it has been recently reported that nanomaterials can evade the immune system and modulate immunological responses due to their unique physicochemical characteristics. Consequently, nanomaterial-based activation of immune components, i.e., neutrophils, macrophages, and other effector cells, may induce inflammation and alter the immune response. Here, it is essential to distinguish the acute and chronic modulations triggered by nanomaterials to determine the possible risks to human health. Nanomaterials size, shape, composition, surface charge, and deformability are factors controlling their uptake by immune cells and the resulting immune responses. The exterior corona of molecules adsorbed over nanomaterials surfaces also influences their immunological effects. Here, we review current nanoengineering trends for targeted immunomodulation with an emphasis on the design, safety, and potential toxicity of nanomaterials. First, we describe the characteristics of engineered nanomaterials that trigger immune responses. Then, the biocompatibility and immunotoxicity of nanoengineered particles are debated, because these factors influence applications. Finally, future nanomaterial developments in terms of surface modifications, synergistic approaches, and biomimetics are discussed.

The Association of Oleic Acid and Dexamethasone Acetate into Nanocapsules Enables a Reduction in the Effective Corticosteroid Dose in a UVB Radiation-Induced Sunburn Model in Mice

Dexamethasone has a high anti-inflammatory efficacy in treating skin inflammation. However, its use is related to the rebound effect, rosacea, purple, and increased blood glucose levels. Nanotechnology approaches have emerged as strategies for drug delivery due to their advantages in improving therapeutic effects. To reduce dexamethasone-related adverse effects and improve the anti-inflammatory efficacy of treatments, we developed nanocarriers containing this corticosteroid and oleic acid. Nanocapsules and nanoemulsion presented dexamethasone content close to the theoretical value and controlled dexamethasone release in an in vitro assay. Gellan gum-based hydrogels were successfully prepared to employ the nanostructured systems. A permeation study employing porcine skin showed that hydrogels containing non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.025%) plus oleic acid (3%) or oleic acid (3%) plus dexamethasone (0.025%)-loaded nanocapsules provided a higher amount of dexamethasone in the epidermis compared to non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.5%). Hydrogels containing oleic acid plus dexamethasone-loaded nanocapsules effectively inhibited mice ear edema (with inhibitions of 89.26 ± 3.77% and 85.11 ± 2.88%, respectively) and inflammatory cell infiltration (with inhibitions of 49.58 ± 4.29% and 27.60 ± 11.70%, respectively). Importantly, the dexamethasone dose employed in hydrogels containing the nanocapsules that effectively inhibited ear edema and cell infiltration was 20-fold lower (0.025%) than that of non-nanoencapsulated dexamethasone (0.5%). Additionally, no adverse effects were observed in preliminary toxicity tests. Our study suggests that nanostructured hydrogel containing a reduced effective dose of dexamethasone could be a promising therapeutic alternative to treat inflammatory disorders with reduced or absent adverse effects. Additionally, testing our formulation in a clinical study on patients with skin inflammatory diseases would be very important to validate our study.

Advances in Nanohybrid Membranes for Dye Reduction: A Comprehensive Review

Separating valuable materials such as dyes from wastewater using membranes and returning them to the production line is a desirable environmental and economical procedure. However, sometimes, besides filtration, adsorption, and separation processes, pollutant destruction also can be suitable using photocatalytic membranes. The art of producing nanohybrid materials in contrast with nanocomposites encompasses nanomaterial synthesis as a new product with different properties from raw materials for nanohybrids versus the composition of nanomaterials for nanocomposites. According to the findings of this research, confirming proper synthesis of nanohybrid is one challenge that can be overcome by different analyses, other researchers' reports, and the theoretical assessment of physical or chemical reactions. The application of organic-inorganic nanomaterials and frameworks is another challenge that is discussed in the present work. According to the findings, Nanohybrid Membranes (NHMs) can achieve 100% decolorization, but cannot eliminate salts and dyes, although the removal efficiency is notable for some salts, especially divalent salts. Hydrophilicity, antifouling properties, flux, pressure, costs, usage frequency, and mechanical, chemical, and thermal stabilities of NHMs should be considered.

Polypeptide-Based Systems: From Synthesis to Application in Drug Delivery

Synthetic polypeptides are biocompatible and biodegradable macromolecules whose composition and architecture can vary over a wide range. Their unique ability to form secondary structures, as well as different pathways of modification and biofunctionalization due to the diversity of amino acids, provide variation in the physicochemical and biological properties of polypeptide-containing materials. In this review article, we summarize the advances in the synthesis of polypeptides and their copolymers and the application of these systems for drug delivery in the form of (nano)particles or hydrogels. The issues, such as the diversity of polypeptide-containing (nano)particle types, the methods for their preparation and drug loading, as well as the influence of physicochemical characteristics on stability, degradability, cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, hemolysis, and immunogenicity of polypeptide-containing nanoparticles and their drug formulations, are comprehensively discussed. Finally, recent advances in the development of certain drug nanoformulations for peptides, proteins, gene delivery, cancer therapy, and antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory systems are summarized.

Nucleus Pulposus-Targeting Nanocarriers Facilitate Mirna-Based Therapeutics for Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a common cause of low back pain. Understanding its molecular mechanisms is the basis for developing specific treatment. To demonstrate that miR-22-3p is critical in the regulation of IDD, miRNA microarray analyses are conducted in conjunction with in vivo and in vitro experiments. The miR-22-3p knockout (KO) mice show a marked decrease in the histological scores. Bioinformatic analysis reveals that miR-22-3p plays a mechanistic role in the development of IDD by targeting SIRT1, which in turn activates the JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway. This is confirmed by a luciferase reporter assay and western blot analysis. Therapeutically, the delivery of miR-22-3p inhibitors and mimics through the synthesized nanoparticles in the IDD model alleviates and aggravates IDD, respectively. The nanocarriers enhance transportation of miR-22-3p to nucleus pulposus cells, thus enabling the in vivo inhibition of miR-22-3p for therapeutic purposes and consequently promoting the development of miRNA-specific drugs for IDD.

Caffeic Acid-Zinc Basic Salt/Chitosan Nanohybrid Possesses Controlled Release Properties and Exhibits In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Activities

Caffeic acid (CA) exhibits a myriad of biological activities including cardioprotective action, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. On the other hand, CA presents low water solubility and poor bioavailability, which have limited its use for therapeutic applications. The objective of this study was to develop a nanohybrid of zinc basic salts (ZBS) and chitosan (Ch) containing CA (ZBS-CA/Ch) and evaluate its anti-edematogenic and antioxidant activity in dextran and carrageenan-induced paw edema model. The samples were obtained by coprecipitation method and characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and UV-visible spectroscopy. The release of caffeate anions from ZBS-CA and ZBS-CA/Ch is pH-dependent and is explained by a pseudo-second order kinetics model, with a linear correlation coefficient of R² ≥ 0.99 at pH 4.8 and 7.4. The in vivo pharmacological assays showed excellent anti-edematogenic and antioxidant action of the ZBS-CA/Ch nanoparticle with slowly releases of caffeate anions in the tissue, leading to a prolongation of CA-induced anti-edematogenic and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as improving its inhibition or sequestration antioxidant action toward reactive species. Overall, this study highlighted the importance of ZBS-CA/Ch as an optimal drug carrier.

Repositioned Natural Compounds and Nanoformulations: A Promising Combination to Counteract Cell Damage and Inflammation in Respiratory Viral Infections

Respiratory viral diseases are among the most important causes of disability, morbidity, and death worldwide. Due to the limited efficacy or side effects of many current therapies and the increase in antiviral-resistant viral strains, the need to find new compounds to counteract these infections is growing. Since the development of new drugs is a time-consuming and expensive process, numerous studies have focused on the reuse of commercially available compounds, such as natural molecules with therapeutic properties. This phenomenon is generally called drug repurposing or repositioning and represents a valid emerging strategy in the drug discovery field. Unfortunately, the use of natural compounds in therapy has some limitations, due to their poor kinetic performance and consequently reduced therapeutic effect. The advent of nanotechnology in biomedicine has allowed this limitation to be overcome, showing that natural compounds in nanoform may represent a promising strategy against respiratory viral infections. In this narrative review, the beneficial effects of some promising natural molecules, curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and vitamin C, which have been already studied both in native form and in nanoform, against respiratory viral infections are presented and discussed. The review focuses on the ability of these natural compounds, analyzed in in vitro and in vivo studies, to counteract inflammation and cellular damage induced by viral infection and provide scientific evidence of the benefits of nanoformulations in increasing the therapeutic potential of these molecules.

Long-term Prognosis of Vision Loss Caused by Facial Hyaluronic Acid Injections and the Potential Approaches to Address This Catastrophic Event

BACKGROUND

Vision loss is a serious complication of hyaluronic acid (HA) filler injections, and long-term observations regarding the prognosis, particularly with angiography, are rare.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate the long-term prognosis and living status of patients with visual defects due to HA filler injections.

METHODS

Nine patients with vision loss caused by HA filler injections and receiving different treatments were included and followed up for 2 to 6 years after their accident. Follow-ups, including outpatient ophthalmologic examinations, were performed.

RESULTS

In the follow-up observation, all patients had reintegrated into society and work. The prognosis was similar for all hyaluronidase treatments, including retrobulbar injections and superselective ophthalmic artery thrombolysis. The facial appearance was not remarkably affected, and only 3 patients reported slight scarring. Ptosis disappeared in all the patients, and slight strabismus was found in 5 patients. However, vision improvement was very limited, even in the patients whose occluded retinal central artery received reperfusion.

CONCLUSIONS

This long-term follow-up showed that the patients with vision loss caused by HA filler injections could reintegrate into society after treatment. Although the embolization of the retinal central artery led to reperfusion, vision was not restored, which further demonstrated the difficulty of recovering vision with the current treatment and the importance of prophylaxis. Autohydrolysis of HA by incorporating hyaluronidase-containing stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and a dual-pipe syringe are potential future approaches to address this catastrophic event.

Oxidized-Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes as Non-Toxic Nanocarriers for Hydroxytyrosol Delivery in Cells

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess excellent physicochemical and structural properties alongside their nano dimensions, constituting a medical platform for the delivery of different therapeutic molecules and drug systems. Hydroxytyrosol (HT) is a molecule with potent antioxidant properties that, however, is rapidly metabolized in the organism. HT immobilized on functionalized CNTs could improve its oral absorption and protect it against rapid degradation and elimination. This study investigated the effects of cellular oxidized multiwall carbon nanotubes (oxMWCNTs) as biocompatible carriers of HT. The oxidation of MWCNTs via H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ has a double effect since it leads to increased hydrophilicity, while the introduced oxygen functionalities can contribute to the delivery of the drug. The in vitro effects of HT, oxMWCNTS, and oxMWCNTS functionalized with HT (oxMWCNTS_HT) were studied against two different cell lines (NIH/3T3 and Tg/Tg). We evaluated the toxicity (MTT and clonogenic assay), cell cycle arrest, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Both cell lines coped with oxMWCNTs even at high doses. oxMWCNTS_HT acted as pro-oxidants in Tg/Tg cells and as antioxidants in NIH/3T3 cells. These findings suggest that oxMWCNTs could evolve into a promising nanocarrier suitable for targeted drug delivery in the future.

Sustainable Biodegradable Biopolymer-Based Nanoparticles for Healthcare Applications

Biopolymeric nanoparticles are gaining importance as nanocarriers for various biomedical applications, enabling long-term and controlled release at the target site. Since they are promising delivery systems for various therapeutic agents and offer advantageous properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and stability compared to various toxic metal nanoparticles, we decided to provide an overview on this topic. Therefore, the review focuses on the use of biopolymeric nanoparticles of animal, plant, algal, fungal, and bacterial origin as a sustainable material for potential use as drug delivery systems. A particular focus is on the encapsulation of many different therapeutic agents categorized as bioactive compounds, drugs, antibiotics, and other antimicrobial agents, extracts, and essential oils into protein- and polysaccharide-based nanocarriers. These show promising benefits for human health, especially for successful antimicrobial and anticancer activity. The review article, divided into protein-based and polysaccharide-based biopolymeric nanoparticles and further according to the origin of the biopolymer, enables the reader to select the appropriate biopolymeric nanoparticles more easily for the incorporation of the desired component. The latest research results from the last five years in the field of the successful production of biopolymeric nanoparticles loaded with various therapeutic agents for healthcare applications are included in this review.

Synthesis, Characterization and Biocompatibility Evaluation of Novel Chitosan Lipid Micro-Systems for Modified Release of Diclofenac Sodium

The purpose of our study was the obtaining, characterization and biocompatibility estimation of novel carrier systems for diclofenac. Diclofenac is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug with frequent gastrointestinal side effects, impairing the quality of the patient's life. Original diclofenac-loaded micro-vesicles coated with chitosan were prepared and physico-chemical analyzed. We investigated their in vitro hemocompatibility and in vivo biocompatibility in rats. The animals were treated orally as follows: group 1 (Control): distilled water 0.3 mL/100 g body weight; Group 2 (CHIT): 0.3 mL/100 g body weight 0.5% chitosan solution; Group 3 (DCF): 15 mg/kg body weight diclofenac; Group 4 (DCF-ves): lipid vesicles loaded with diclofenac 15 mg/kg body weight. Blood samples were collected for assessing: red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit and leukocyte formula. A series of specific parameters of the liver and kidney function, some markers of immune defense, as well as the activity of some enzymes involved in oxidative processes, were also investigated. At the end of the experiment, the animals were sacrificed and fragments of liver, kidney and stomach were collected for histopathological examination. No blood hemolysis was evidenced by the in vitro test with the administration of diclofenac vesicles. The animals treated with diclofenac lipid vesicles stabilized with chitosan did not display any notable differences in their hematological and biochemical profile compared to control animals. These data correlated with the histological results, which showed the absence of architectural changes in the examined tissues. Biological in vitro and in vivo evaluation revealed that the microvesicles containing diclofenac are biocompatible, with potential to be used as delivery systems to modify the drug release, thus making them an attractive candidate for biomedical applications.

Biomineralized Nanoscavenger Abrogates Proinflammatory Macrophage Polarization and Induces Neutrophil Clearance through Reverse Migration during Gouty Arthritis

The deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals induces the overexpression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and proinflammatory cytokines in residential macrophages, further promoting the infiltration of inflammatory leukocytes in the joints of gouty arthritis. Herein, a peroxidase-mimicking nanoscavenger was developed by forming manganese dioxide over albumin nanoparticles loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug, indomethacin (BIM), to block the secretion of ROS and COX2-induced proinflammatory cytokines in the MSU-induced gouty arthritis model. In the MSU-induced arthritis mouse model, the BIM nanoparticles alleviated joint swelling, which is attributed to the abrogation of ROS and inflammatory cytokine secretions from proinflammatory macrophages that induces neutrophil infiltration and fluid building up in the inflammation site. Further, the BIM nanoparticle treatment reduced the influx of macrophages and neutrophils in the injured region by blocking migration and inducing reverse migration in the zebrafish larva tail amputation model as well as in MSU-induced peritonitis and air pouch mouse models. Overall, the current strategy of employing biomineralized nanoscavengers for arthritis demonstrates clinical significance in dual blocking of peroxides and COX2 to prevent influx of inflammatory cells into the sites of inflammation.

Delivery of AntagomiR-7 through polymer nanoparticles for assisting B Cell to alleviate systemic lupus erythematosus

An autoimmune condition known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by B cell hyperresponsiveness and persistent generation of pathogenic autoantibodies that cause damage to various organs and tissues. The treatments available today are either ineffective or have adverse effects. The dysregulation of B cell activation is crucial for the emergence of SLE. MiR-7 explicitly targeted PTEN mRNA in B cells. Treatment with antagomiR-7 reduced B cell hyperresponsiveness and prevented the onset of lupus. As a result, inhibiting miR-7 may be used therapeutically to treat SLE. We developed a SA (sialic acid)-poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) (SA-PLGA) nano delivery system to deliver antagomiR-7 into splenic B cells since the stability and targeted delivery of miRNA remain significant challenges in vivo. Results show that SA-PLGA nanoparticles (SA-PLGA@antagomiR-7) loaded with antagomiR-7 display good biocompatibility and shield antagomiR-7 from degradation, extending the miRNA's duration in circulation in vivo. Additionally, in MRL/Ipr lupus mice, SA-PLGA@antagomiR-7 is successfully delivered to the splenic B cells and preferentially enriched in the diseased spleen in MRL/Ipr lupus mice. The SA-PLGA@antagomiR-7 NPs therapy effectively decreases immunological abnormalities, normalizes splenic B cell subtypes, and suppresses B cell activation. The antagomiR-7 NPs exhibit excellent therapeutic efficiency and high biosafety collectively, which may result in a more effective treatment for SLE.

Adsorption and Release Properties of Drug Delivery System Naproxen-SBA-15: Effect of Surface Polarity, Sodium/Acid Drug Form and pH

Mesoporous silica SBA-15 was prepared via sol-gel synthesis and functionalized with different types of organosilanes containing various organic functional groups: (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (SBA-15-NH₂), (3-mercaptopropyl)triethoxysilane (SBA-15-SH), triethoxymethylsilane (SBA-15-CH₃), triethoxyphenylsilane (SBA-15-Ph), and (3-isocynatopropyl)triethoxysilane (SBA-15-NCO). The prepared materials were investigated as drug delivery systems for naproxen. As model drugs, naproxen acid (HNAP) and its sodium salt (NaNAP) were used. Mentioned medicaments belong to the group of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The prepared materials were characterized by different analytical methods such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), infrared spectroscopy (IR), nitrogen adsorption/desorption analysis (N₂), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), ¹H, ¹³C and ²³Na solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H, ¹³C and ²³Na ss-NMR). The abovementioned analytical techniques confirmed the successful grafting of functional groups to the SBA-15 surface and the adsorption of drugs after the impregnation process. The BET area values decreased from 927 m² g^-1 for SBA-15 to 408 m² g^-1 for SBA-15-NCO. After drug encapsulation, a more significant decrease in surface area was observed due to the filling of pores with drug molecules, while the most significant decrease was observed for the SBA-15-NH₂ material (115 m² g^-1 for NaNAP and 101 m² g^-1 for HNAP). By combining TG and nitrogen adsorption results, the occurrence of functional groups and the affinity of drugs to the carriers' surface were calculated. The dominant factor was the volume of functional groups and intermolecular interactions. The highest drug affinity values were observed for phenyl and amine-modified materials (SBA-15-Ph = 1.379 μmol m^-2 mmol^-1 for NaNAP, 1.761 μmol m^-2 mmol^-1 for HNAP and SBA-15-NH₂ = 1.343 μmol m^-2 mmol^-1 for NaNAP, 1.302 μmol m^-2 mmol^-1 for HNAP) due to the formation of hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions, respectively. Drug release properties and kinetic studies were performed at t = 37 °C (normal human body temperature) in different media with pH = 2 as simulated human gastric fluid and pH = 7.4, which simulated a physiological environment. Determination of drug release quantity was performed with UV-VIS spectroscopy. The surface polarity, pH and naproxen form influenced the total released amount of drug. In general, naproxen sodium salt has a higher solubility than its acid form, thus significantly affecting drug release from surface-modified SBA-15 materials. Different pH conditions involved surface protonation and formation/disruption of intermolecular interactions, influencing both the release rate and the total released amount of naproxen. Different kinetic models, zero-order, first-order, Higuchi and Hixson-Crowell models, were used to fit the drug release data. According to the obtained experimental results, the drug release rates and mechanisms were determined.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticulate Systems for the Ocular Delivery of Bioactives with Anti-Inflammatory Properties

The complexity of the eye structure and its physiology turned ocular drug administration into one of the most challenging topics in the pharmaceutical field. Ocular inflammation is one of the most common ophthalmic disorders. Topical administration of anti-inflammatory drugs is also commonly used as a side treatment in tissue repair and regeneration. The difficulty in overcoming the eye barriers, which are both physical and chemical, reduces drug bioavailability, and the frequency of administration must be increased to reach the therapeutic effect. However, this can cause serious side effects. Lipid nanoparticles seem to be a great alternative to ocular drug delivery as they are composed from natural excipients and can encapsulate both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs of different sources, and their unique properties, as their excellent biocompatibility, safety and adhesion allow to increase the bioavailability, compliance and achieve a sustained drug release. They are also very stable, easy to produce and scale up, and can be lyophilized or sterilized with no significant alterations to the release profile and stability. Because of this, lipid nanoparticles show a great potential to be an essential part of the new therapeutic technologies in ophthalmology to deliver synthetic and natural anti-inflammatory drugs. In fact, there is an increasing interest in natural bioactives with anti-inflammatory activities, and the use of nanoparticles for their site-specific delivery. It is therefore expected that, in the near future, many more studies will promote the development of new nanomedicines resulting in clinical studies of new drugs formulations.

Recent advances in nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for rheumatoid arthritis treatment

Nanotechnology has increasingly emerged as a promising tool for exploring new approaches, from treating complex conditions to early detection of the onset of multiple disease states. Tailored designer nanoparticles can now more comprehensively interact with their cellular targets and various pathogens due to a similar size range and tunable surface properties. The basic goal of drug delivery is to employ pharmaceuticals only where they are needed, with as few adverse effects and off-target consequences as possible. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory illness that leads to progressive loss of bone and cartilage, resulting in acute impairment, decreased life expectancy, and increased death rates. Recent advancements in treatment have significantly slowed the progression of the disease and improved the lives of many RA sufferers. Some patients, on the other hand, attain or maintain illness remission without needing to continue immunosuppressive therapy. Furthermore, a large percentage of patients do not respond to current treatments or acquire tolerance to them. As a result, novel medication options for RA therapy are still needed. Nanocarriers, unlike standard medications, are fabricated to transport drugs directly to the location of joint inflammation, evading systemic and negative effects. As a result, researchers are reconsidering medicines that were previously thought to be too hazardous for systemic delivery. This article gives an overview of contemporary nanotechnology-based tactics for treating rheumatoid arthritis, as well as how the nanotherapeutic regimen could be enhanced in the future.

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Loaded with Dexamethasone Prevent Inflammatory Responses in Primary Non-Parenchymal Liver Cells

Liver inflammation represents a major clinical problem in a wide range of pathologies. Among the strategies to prevent liver failure, dexamethasone (DXM) has been widely used to suppress inflammatory responses. The use of nanocarriers for encapsulation and sustained release of glucocorticoids to liver cells could provide a solution to prevent severe side effects associated with systemic delivery as the conventional treatment regime. Here we describe a nanostructured lipid carrier developed to efficiently encapsulate and release DXM. This nano-formulation proved to be stable over time, did not interact in vitro with plasma opsonins, and was well tolerated by primary non-parenchymal liver cells (NPCs). Released DXM preserved its pharmacological activity, as evidenced by inducing robust anti-inflammatory responses in NPCs. Taken together, nanostructured lipid carriers may constitute a reliable platform for the delivery of DXM to treat pathologies associated with chronic liver inflammation.

Nanoparticles for oral delivery: targeted therapy for inflammatory bowel disease

As a group of chronic and idiopathic gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by recurrent intestinal mucosal inflammation. Oral administration is critical for the treatment of IBD. Unfortunately, it is difficult to target the bowel located in the GI tract due to multiple physical barriers. The unique physicochemical properties of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) and their enhanced permeability and retention effects in the inflamed bowel, render nanomedicines to be used to implement precise drug delivery at diseased sites in IBD therapy. In this review, we described the pathophysiological features of IBD, and designed strategies to exploit these features for intestinal targeting. In addition, we introduced the types of currently developed nano-targeted carriers, including synthetic nanoparticle-based and emerging naturally derived nanoparticles (e.g., extracellular vesicles and plant-derived nanoparticles). Moreover, recent developments in targeted oral nanoparticles for IBD therapy were also highlighted. Finally, we presented challenges associated with nanotechnology and potential directions for future IBD treatment.

A Tissue-Tended Mycophenolate-Modified Nanoparticle Alleviates Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in MRL/Lpr Mouse Model Mainly by Promoting Local M2-Like Macrophagocytes Polarization

Background

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), for which the bioactive metabolite is mycophenolic acid (MPA), is a frequently used immunosuppressant for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, its short half-life and poor biodistribution into cells and tissues hinder its clinical efficacy. Our dextran mycophenolate-based nanoparticles (MPA@Dex-MPA NPs) have greatly improved the pharmacokinetics of MMF/MPA. We here tested the therapeutic efficacy of MPA@Dex-MPA NPs against SLE and investigated the underlying mechanism.

Methods

The tissue and immune cell biodistributions of MPA@Dex-MPA NPs were traced using live fluorescence imaging system and flow cytometry, respectively. Serological proinflammatory mediators and kidney damage were detected to assess the efficacy of MPA@Dex-MPA NPs treatments of MRL/lpr lupus-prone mice. Immune cell changes in the kidney and spleen were further analyzed post-treatment via flow cytometry. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were used to investigate the potential mechanism.

Results

MPA@Dex-MPA NPs exhibited superior therapeutic efficacy and safety in the MRL/lpr mice using significantly lower administration dosage (one-fifth) and frequency (once/3 days) compared to MMF/MPA used in ordinary practice. The overall prognosis of the mice was improved as they showed lower levels of serological proinflammatory mediators. Moreover, kidney injury was alleviated with reduced pathological signs and decreased urine protein-creatinine ratio. Further investigations of the underlying mechanism revealed a preferential penetration and persistent retention of MPA@Dex-MPA NPs in the spleen and kidney, where they were mostly phagocytosed by macrophages. The macrophages were found to be polarized towards a CD206⁺ M2-like phenotype, with a downregulation of surface CD80 and CD40, and reduced TNF-α production in the spleen and kidney and in vitro. The expansion of T cells was also significantly inhibited in these two organs.

Conclusion

Our research improved the efficacy of MPA for MRL/lpr mice through synthesizing MPA@Dex-MPA NPs to enhance its tissue biodistribution and explored the possible mechanism, providing a promising strategy for SLE therapy.

Nanostructured Antibiotics and Their Emerging Medicinal Applications: An Overview of Nanoantibiotics

Bacterial strains resistant to antimicrobial treatments, such as antibiotics, have emerged as serious clinical problems, necessitating the development of novel bactericidal materials. Nanostructures with particle sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers have appeared recently as novel antibacterial agents, which are also known as “nanoantibiotics”. Nanomaterials have been shown to exert greater antibacterial effects on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria across several studies. Antibacterial nanofilms for medical implants and restorative matters to prevent bacterial harm and antibacterial vaccinations to control bacterial infections are examples of nanoparticle applications in the biomedical sectors. The development of unique nanostructures, such as nanocrystals and nanostructured materials, is an exciting step in alternative efforts to manage microorganisms because these materials provide disrupted antibacterial effects, including better biocompatibility, as opposed to minor molecular antimicrobial systems, which have short-term functions and are poisonous. Although the mechanism of action of nanoparticles (NPs) is unknown, scientific suggestions include the oxidative-reductive phenomenon, reactive ionic metals, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many synchronized gene transformations in the same bacterial cell are essential for antibacterial resistance to emerge; thus, bacterial cells find it difficult to build resistance to nanoparticles. Therefore, nanomaterials are considered as advanced solution tools for the fields of medical science and allied health science. The current review emphasizes the importance of nanoparticles and various nanosized materials as antimicrobial agents based on their size, nature, etc.

Dose-Dependent Efficacy of Umbelliferone and Gelatin-Coated ZnO/ZnS Core-Shell Nanoparticles: A Novel Arthritis Agent for Severe Knee Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a well-known autoimmune disorder that affects 1% of the global population. Zinc (Zn) is crucial for bone homeostasis, when compared with normal human bone, Zn level found to be decreased in RA patients and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats. Notably, Zn-based medicinal products play a prominent role in reducing disease symptoms and acute side effects of patients with bone-related diseases. In this study, we report the clinical efficiency of gelatin- (Gel-) coated ZnO-ZnS core-shell nanoparticles (CSNPs) with umbelliferon (Uf) drug (Uf-Gel-ZnO-ZnS CSNPs) on the normal and CIA-induced Wistar rats. The formed ZnO-ZnS CSNPs are spherical in shape, with an average particle diameter of 150 ± 7 nm. It showed strong cytocompatibility when tested on L929 and foreskin fibroblasts (BJ) cells by MTT assay. While comparing with free Uf, various doses (2.5 and 5 mg) of Uf-Gel-ZnO-ZnS CSNPs showed strong inhibition of CIA by attenuated proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β, IL-6, PEG2, and IL-17. The Uf-Gel-ZnO-ZnS CSNPs show more effectiveness in reducing joint swelling and also increase the level of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, CSNPs significantly reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the knee joint. Thus, the current study concludes that Uf-Gel-ZnO-ZnS CSNPs feasibly reduce the incidence of arthritis in a dose-dependent manner by attenuation of inflammation.

The interaction between nanoparticles and immune system: application in the treatment of inflammatory diseases

Nanoparticle (NP) is an emerging tool applied in the biomedical field. With combination of different materials and adjustment of their physical and chemical properties, nanoparticles can have diverse effects on the organism and may change the treating paradigm of multiple diseases in the future. More and more results show that nanoparticles can function as immunomodulators and some formulas have been approved for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases. However, our current understanding of the mechanisms that nanoparticles can influence immune responses is still limited, and systemic clinical trials are necessary for the evaluation of their security and long-term effects. This review provides an overview of the recent advances in nanoparticles that can interact with different cellular and molecular components of the immune system and their application in the management of inflammatory diseases, which are caused by abnormal immune reactions. This article focuses on the mechanisms of interaction between nanoparticles and the immune system and tries to provide a reference for the future design of nanotechnology for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Pioglitazone-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: Towards the Most Reliable Synthesis Method

Recent findings have proved the benefits of Pioglitazone (PGZ) against atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes. Since the systematic and controllable release of this drug is of significant importance, encapsulation of this drug in nanoparticles (NPs) can minimize uncontrolled issues. In this context, drug delivery approaches based on several poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles have been rising in popularity due to their promising capabilities. However, a fully reliable and reproducible synthetic methodology is still lacking. In this work, we present a rational optimization of the most critical formulation parameters for the production of PGZ-loaded PLGA NPs by the single emulsification-solvent evaporation or nanoprecipitation methods. We examined the influence of several variables (e.g., component concentrations, phases ratio, injection flux rate) on the synthesis of the PGZ-NPs. In addition, a comparison of these synthetic methodologies in terms of nanoparticle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ζ_p), drug loading (DL%), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and stability is offered. According to the higher entrapment efficiency content, enhanced storage time and suitable particle size, the nanoprecipitation approach appears to be the simplest, most rapid and most reliable synthetic pathway for these drug nanocarriers, and we demonstrated a very slow drug release in PBS for the best formulation obtained by this synthesis.

Polymeric nanoparticles as therapeutic agents against coronavirus disease

Nanotechnology has the potential to improve the combat against life-threatening conditions. Considering the COVID-19 scenario, and future outbreaks, nanotechnology can play a pivotal role in several steps, ranging from disinfection protocols, manufacture of hospital clothes, to implementation of healthcare settings. Polymeric nanoparticles are colloidal particles with size ranging from 10 to 999 nm, composed of natural or synthetic polymers. The versatility of polymeric-based nanoparticle engineering can provide (i) specificity, (ii) tunable release kinetics, and (iii) multimodal drug composition, making it possible to overcome common limitations encountered during traditional drug development. Consequently, these particles have been widely used as drug delivery systems against several diseases, such as cancer. Due to inherent competitive advantages, polymeric-based nanoparticles hold astonishing potential to counteract the new coronavirus disease (COVID-19). For this reason, in the present study, the latest advancements in polymer-based nanotechnology approaches used to fight against SARS-CoV-2 are compiled and discussed. Moreover, the importance of forefront in vitro technologies - such as 3D bioprinting and organ-on-chip - to evaluate the efficacy of nanotherapeutic agents is also highlighted. Polymeric nanoparticles can be functionalized to enhance its potential as a nanotherapeutic agent. Due to its many advantages, polymeric-based nanoparticles systems are a promising approach against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Drug repurposing in cardiovascular inflammation: Successes, failures, and future opportunities

Drug repurposing is an attractive, pragmatic approach to drug discovery that has yielded success across medical fields over the years. The use of existing medicines for novel indications enables dramatically reduced development costs and timescales compared with de novo drug discovery and is therefore a promising strategy in cardiovascular disease, where new drug approvals lag significantly behind that of other fields. Extensive evidence from pre-clinical and clinical studies show that chronic inflammation is a driver of pathology in cardiovascular disease, and many efforts have been made to target cardiovascular inflammation therapeutically. This approach has been met with significant challenges however, namely off-target effects associated with broad-spectrum immunosuppression, particularly in long-term conditions such as cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, multiple anti-inflammatory medicines have been assessed for efficacy in cardiovascular clinical trials, with most of these being repurposed from their original indications in autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis. In this review, we discuss the mixed successes of clinical trials investigating anti-inflammatory drugs in cardiovascular disease, with examples such as anti-cytokine monoclonal antibodies, colchicine, and methotrexate. Looking to the future, we highlight potential new directions for drug repurposing in cardiovascular inflammation, including the emerging concepts of drug re-engineering and chrono-pharmacology.