Resveratrol Improves Bnip3-Related Mitophagy and Attenuates High-Fat-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction

Crosstalk among mitophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis in central nervous system injuries

Central nervous system injuries have a high rate of resulting in disability and mortality; however, at present, effective treatments are lacking. Programmed cell death, which is a genetically determined form of active and ordered cell death with many types, has recently attracted increasing attention due to its functions in determining the fate of cell survival. A growing number of studies have suggested that programmed cell death is involved in central nervous system injuries and plays an important role in the progression of brain damage. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of programmed cell death in central nervous system injuries, including the pathways involved in mitophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis, and the underlying mechanisms by which mitophagy regulates pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis. We also discuss the new direction of therapeutic strategies targeting mitophagy for the treatment of central nervous system injuries, with the aim to determine the connection between programmed cell death and central nervous system injuries and to identify new therapies to modulate programmed cell death following central nervous system injury. In conclusion, based on these properties and effects, interventions targeting programmed cell death could be developed as potential therapeutic agents for central nervous system injury patients.

Toosendanin Induces Lung Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cell Apoptosis and Inhibits Tumor Progression via the BNIP3/AMPK Signaling Pathway

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) is the second most common type of non-small cell lung cancer. Toosendanin can target critical cancer cell survival and proliferation. However, the function of toosendanin in LUSC is limited. Cancer cell proliferative capacity is detected using cell morphology, colony formation, and flow cytometry. The invasiveness of the cells is detected by a Transwell assay, western blotting, and RT-qPCR. Nude mice are injected with H226 (1×106) and received an intraperitoneal injection of toosendanin every 2 days for 21 days. RNA sequence transcriptome analysis is performed on toosendanin-treated cells to identify target genes and signaling pathways. With increasing concentrations of toosendanin, the rate of cell proliferation decreases and apoptotic cells increases. The number of migrated cells significantly reduces and epithelial-mesenchymal transition is reversed. Injection of toosendanin in nude mice leads to a reduction in tumor volume, weight, and the number of metastatic tumors. Furthermore, KEGG shows that genes related to the AMPK pathway are highly enriched. BNIP3 is the most differentially expressed gene, and its expression along with phosphorylated-AMPK significantly increases in toosendanin-treated cells. Toosendanin exerts anticancer effects, induces apoptosis in LUSC cells, and inhibits tumor progression via the BNIP3/AMPK signaling pathway.

The multifaceted role of macrophage mitophagy in SiO2-induced pulmonary fibrosis: A brief review

Prolonged exposure to environments with high concentrations of crystalline silica (CS) can lead to silicosis. Macrophages play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of silicosis. In the process of silicosis, silica (SiO2) invades alveolar macrophages (AMs) and induces mitophagy which usually exists in three states: normal, excessive, and/or deficiency. Different mitophagy states lead to corresponding toxic responses, including successful macrophage repair, injury, necrosis, apoptosis, and even pulmonary fibrosis. This is a complex process accompanied by various cytokines. Unfortunately, the details have not been fully systematically summarized. Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the role of macrophage mitophagy in SiO2-induced pulmonary fibrosis by systematic analysis on the literature reports. In this review, we first summarized the current data on the macrophage mitophagy in the development of SiO2-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Then, we introduce the molecular mechanism on how SiO2-induced mitophagy causes pulmonary fibrosis. Finally, we focus on introducing new therapies based on newly developed mitophagy-inducing strategies. We conclude that macrophage mitophagy plays a multifaceted role in the progression of SiO2-induced pulmonary fibrosis, and reprogramming the macrophage mitophagy state accordingly may be a potential means of preventing and treating pulmonary fibrosis.

Role of PTEN-Induced Protein Kinase 1 as a Mitochondrial Dysfunction Regulator in Cardiovascular Disease Pathogenesis

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a global health challenge, primarily due to atherosclerosis, which leads to conditions such as coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral arterial disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction initiates endothelial dysfunction, a key contributor to CVD pathogenesis, as well as triggers the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), energy stress, and cell death in endothelial cells, which are crucial for atherosclerosis development. This review explores the role of PTEN-induced protein kinase 1 (PINK1) in mitochondrial quality control, focusing on its significance in cardiovascular health. PINK1 plays a pivotal role in mitophagy (selective removal of damaged mitochondria), contributing to the prevention of CVD progression. PINK1-mediated mitophagy also affects the maintenance of cardiomyocyte homeostasis in ischemic heart disease, thus mitigating mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, as well as regulates endothelial health in atherosclerosis through influencing ROS levels and inflammatory response. We also investigated the role of PINK1 in vascular smooth muscle cells, emphasizing on its role in apoptosis and atherosclerosis. Dysfunctional mitophagy in these cells accelerates cellular senescence and contributes to adverse effects including plaque rupture and inflammation. Mitophagy has also been explored as a potential therapeutic target for vascular calcification, a representative lesion in atherosclerosis, with a focus on lactate-induced mechanisms. Finally, we highlight the current research and clinical trials targeting mitophagy as a therapeutic avenue for CVD.

A new direction in Chinese herbal medicine ameliorates for type 2 diabetes mellitus: Focus on the potential of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Diabetes is a common chronic disease. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has a history of several thousand years in the treatment of diabetes, and active components with hypoglycemic effects extracted from various CHM, such as polysaccharides, flavonoids, terpenes, and steroidal saponins, have been widely used in the treatment of diabetes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Research exploring the potential of various CHM compounds to regulate the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex to improve type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature data were primarily obtained from authoritative databases such as PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang, and others within the last decade. The main keywords used include "type 2 diabetes mellitus", "Chinese medicine", "Chinese herbal medicine", "mitochondrial respiratory chain complex", and "mitochondrial dysfunction".

RESULTS

Chinese herbal medicine primarily regulates the activity of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes in various tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, pancreatic islets, and small intestine. It improves cellular energy metabolism through hypoglycemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and lipid-modulating effects. Different components of CHM can regulate the same mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, while the same components of a particular CHM can regulate different complex activities. The active components of CHM target different mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, regulate their aberrant changes and effectively improve T2DM and its complications.

CONCLUSION

Chinese herbal medicine can modulate the function of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes in various cell types and exert their hypoglycemic effects through various mechanisms. CHM has significant therapeutic potential in regulating mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes to improve T2DM, but further research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms and conduct clinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of these medications. This provides new perspectives and opportunities for personalized improvement and innovative developments in diabetes management.

Natural compounds modulating mitophagy: Implications for cancer therapy

Cancer is considered as the second leading cause of mortality, and cancer incidence is still growing rapidly worldwide, which poses an increasing global health burden. Although chemotherapy is the most widely used treatment for cancer, its effectiveness is limited by drug resistance and severe side effects. Mitophagy is the principal mechanism that degrades damaged mitochondria via the autophagy/lysosome pathway to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. Emerging evidence indicates that mitophagy plays crucial roles in tumorigenesis, particularly in cancer therapy. Mitophagy can exhibit dual effects in cancer, with both cancer-inhibiting or cancer-promoting function in a context-dependent manner. A variety of natural compounds have been found to affect cancer cell death and display anticancer properties by modulating mitophagy. In this review, we provide a systematic overview of mitophagy signaling pathways, and examine recent advances in the utilization of natural compounds for cancer therapy through the modulation of mitophagy. Furthermore, we address the inquiries and challenges associated with ongoing investigations concerning the application of natural compounds in cancer therapy based on mitophagy. Overcoming these limitations will provide opportunities to develop novel interventional strategies for cancer treatment.

Autophagy Behavior in Endothelial Cell Regeneration

Autophagy plays a crucial role in maintaining endothelial cell homeostasis through the turnover of intracellular components during stress conditions in a lysosomal-dependent manner. The regeneration strategy involves several aspects, including autophagy. Autophagy is a catabolic degenerative lysosomal-dependent degradation of intracellular components. Autophagy modifies cellular and subcellular endothelial cell functions, including mitochondria stress, lysosomal stress, and endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response. Activation of common signaling pathways of autophagy and regeneration and enhancement of intracellular endothelial cell metabolism serve as the bases for the induction of endothelial regeneration. Endothelial progenitor cells include induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), embryonic stem cells, and somatic cells, such as fibroblasts. Future strategies of endothelial cell regeneration involve the induction of autophagy to minimize the metabolic degeneration of the endothelial cells and optimize the regeneration outcomes.

Nurturing through Nutrition: Exploring the Role of Antioxidants in Maternal Diet during Pregnancy to Mitigate Developmental Programming of Chronic Diseases

Chronic diseases represent one of the major causes of death worldwide. It has been suggested that pregnancy-related conditions, such as gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), maternal obesity (MO), and intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) induce an adverse intrauterine environment, increasing the offspring's predisposition to chronic diseases later in life. Research has suggested that mitochondrial function and oxidative stress may play a role in the developmental programming of chronic diseases. Having this in mind, in this review, we include evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are mechanisms by which GDM, MO, and IUGR program the offspring to chronic diseases. In this specific context, we explore the promising advantages of maternal antioxidant supplementation using compounds such as resveratrol, curcumin, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), and Mitoquinone (MitoQ) in addressing the metabolic dysfunction and oxidative stress associated with GDM, MO, and IUGR in fetoplacental and offspring metabolic health. This approach holds potential to mitigate developmental programming-related risk of chronic diseases, serving as a probable intervention for disease prevention.

Chemical mitophagy modulators: Drug development strategies and novel regulatory mechanisms

Maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis is a potential therapeutic strategy for various diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, and cancer. Selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy (mitophagy) is a fundamental mitochondrial quality control mechanism conserved from yeast to humans. Indeed, small-molecule modulators of mitophagy are valuable pharmaceutical tools that can be used to dissect complex biological processes and turn them into potential drugs. In the past few years, pharmacological regulation of mitophagy has shown promising therapeutic efficacy in various disease models. However, with the increasing number of chemical mitophagy modulator studies, frequent methodological flaws can be observed, leading some studies to draw unreliable or misleading conclusions. This review attempts (a) to summarize the molecular mechanisms of mitophagy; (b) to propose a Mitophagy Modulator Characterization System (MMCS); (c) to perform a comprehensive analysis of methods used to characterize mitophagy modulators, covering publications over the past 20 years; (d) to provide novel targets for pharmacological intervention of mitophagy. We believe this review will provide a panorama of current research on chemical mitophagy modulators and promote the development of safe and robust mitophagy modulators with therapeutic potential by introducing high methodological standards.

Effects of honokiol protects against chronic kidney disease via BNIP3/NIX and FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy and AMPK pathways

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a serious health threat worldwide. Defective mitophagy has been reported to induce mitochondrial dysfunction, which is closely associated with CKD pathogenesis. Honokiol (HKL) is a bioactive component of Magnolia officinalis that has multiple efficacies. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of HKL on a CKD rat model and explore the possible mechanisms of mitophagy mediated by Bcl-2 interacting protein 3 and BNIP3-like (NIX) (also known as the BNIP3/NIX pathway) and FUN14 domain-containing 1 (the FUNDC1 pathway) and the role of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway.

METHODS

A CKD rat model was established by feeding the animals dietary adenine (0.75% w/w, 3 weeks). Simultaneously, the treatment group was given HKL (5 mg/kg/day, 4 weeks) by gavage. Renal function was assessed by measuring serum creatinine (Scr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. Pathological changes were analyzed by periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and Masson's trichrome staining. Protein expression was evaluated by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

HKL treatment ameliorated the decline in renal function and reduced tubular lesions and interstitial fibrosis in CKD rats. Accordingly, the renal fibrosis markers Col-IV and α-SMA were decreased by HKL. Moreover, HKL suppressed the upregulation of the proapoptotic proteins Bad and Bax and Cleaved caspase-3 expression in CKD rats. Furthermore, HKL suppressed BNIP3, NIX and FUNDC1 expression, leading to the reduction of excessive mitophagy in CKD rats. Additionally, AMPK was activated by adenine, and HKL reversed this change and significantly decreased the level of activated AMPK (phosphorylated AMPK, P-AMPK).

CONCLUSION

HKL exerted a renoprotective effect on CKD rats, which was possibly associated with BNIP3/NIX and FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy and the AMPK pathway.

Mitophagy in atherosclerosis: from mechanism to therapy

Mitophagy is a type of autophagy that can selectively eliminate damaged and depolarized mitochondria to maintain mitochondrial activity and cellular homeostasis. Several pathways have been found to participate in different steps of mitophagy. Mitophagy plays a significant role in the homeostasis and physiological function of vascular endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, and macrophages, and is involved in the development of atherosclerosis (AS). At present, many medications and natural chemicals have been shown to alter mitophagy and slow the progression of AS. This review serves as an introduction to the field of mitophagy for researchers interested in targeting this pathway as part of a potential AS management strategy.

Sphingolipid Levels and Signaling via Resveratrol and Antioxidant Actions in Cardiometabolic Risk and Disease

Resveratrol (RSV) is a phenolic compound with strong antioxidant activity, which is generally associated with the beneficial effects of wine on human health. All resveratrol-mediated benefits exerted on different systems and pathophysiological conditions are possible through resveratrol's interactions with different biological targets, along with its involvement in several key cellular pathways affecting cardiometabolic (CM) health. With regard to its role in oxidative stress, RSV exerts its antioxidant activity not only as a free radical scavenger but also by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes and regulating redox genes, nitric oxide bioavailability and mitochondrial function. Moreover, several studies have demonstrated that some RSV effects are mediated by changes in sphingolipids, a class of biolipids involved in a number of cellular functions (e.g., apoptosis, cell proliferation, oxidative stress and inflammation) that have attracted interest as emerging critical determinants of CM risk and disease. Accordingly, this review aimed to discuss the available data regarding the effects of RSV on sphingolipid metabolism and signaling in CM risk and disease, focusing on oxidative stress/inflammatory-related aspects, and the clinical implications of this relationship.

Emerging role of mitophagy in heart failure: from molecular mechanism to targeted therapy

Heart failure is defined as a drop in heart's pump function, accounting for reduced blood output and venous stasis, and constitutes the end stage of various cardiovascular diseases. Although mild mitochondrial dysfunction may hinder cardiomyocyte metabolism and impair myocardial function, severe mitochondrial injury is accompanied by cardiomyocyte apoptosis, leading to irreversible damage of the heart. Selective autophagy of mitochondria, or mitophagy, serves to rapidly remove dysfunctional mitochondria and restore the health of the mitochondrial population within cells by allowing reutilization of degradative substrates such as amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides. Although mitophagy represents a protective program that prevents the accumulation of poorly structured or damaged mitochondria, excessive mitophagy leads to mitochondrial population decline, impaired oxidative phosphorylation, and decreased ATP production. In this review, we first discuss the molecular underpinnings of mitophagy and the roles of different mitophagy adaptors. Then, the multiple and complex influence of mitophagy on heart failure is summarized. Finally, novel pharmacological strategies targeting mitophagy to relieve heart failure are briefly summarized.

Endothelial cell autophagy in the context of disease development

Endothelial cells (EC) are the anatomical boundaries between the intravascular and extravascular space. Damage to ECs is catastrophic and induces endothelial cell dysfunction. The pathogenesis is multifactorial and involves dysregulation in the signaling pathways, membrane lipids ratio disturbance, cell-cell adhesion disturbance, unfolded protein response, lysosomal and mitochondrial stress, autophagy dysregulation, and oxidative stress. Autophagy is a lysosomal-dependent turnover of intracellular components. Autophagy was recognized early in the pathogenesis of endothelial dysfunction. Autophagy is a remarkable patho (physiological) process in the cell homeostasis regulation including EC. Regulation of autophagy rate is disease-dependent and impaired with aging. Up-regulation of autophagy induces endothelial cell regeneration/differentiation and improves the function of impaired ones. The paper scrutinizes the molecular mechanisms and triggers of EC dysregulation and current perspectives for future therapeutic strategies by autophagy targeting.

Endothelial Autophagy Dysregulation in Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a major public health issue that affected 537 million people worldwide in 2021, a number that is only expected to increase in the upcoming decade. Diabetes is a systemic metabolic disease with devastating macro- and microvascular complications. Endothelial dysfunction is a key determinant in the pathogenesis of diabetes. Dysfunctional endothelium leads to vasoconstriction by decreased nitric oxide bioavailability and increased expression of vasoconstrictor factors, vascular inflammation through the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, a loss of microvascular density leading to low organ perfusion, procoagulopathy, and/or arterial stiffening. Autophagy, a lysosomal recycling process, appears to play an important role in endothelial cells, ensuring endothelial homeostasis and functions. Previous reports have provided evidence of autophagic flux impairment in patients with type I or type II diabetes. In this review, we report evidence of endothelial autophagy dysfunction during diabetes. We discuss the mechanisms driving endothelial autophagic flux impairment and summarize therapeutic strategies targeting autophagy in diabetes.

Differential Role of Active Compounds in Mitophagy and Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease, significantly reduce the quality of life of patients and eventually result in complete maladjustment. Disruption of the synapses leads to a deterioration in the communication of nerve cells and decreased plasticity, which is associated with a loss of cognitive functions and neurodegeneration. Maintaining proper synaptic activity depends on the qualitative composition of mitochondria, because synaptic processes require sufficient energy supply and fine calcium regulation. The maintenance of the qualitative composition of mitochondria occurs due to mitophagy. The regulation of mitophagy is usually based on several internal mechanisms, as well as on signals and substances coming from outside the cell. These substances may directly or indirectly enhance or weaken mitophagy. In this review, we have considered the role of some compounds in process of mitophagy and neurodegeneration. Some of them have a beneficial effect on the functions of mitochondria and enhance mitophagy, showing promise as novel drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative pathologies, while others contribute to a decrease in mitophagy.

Mitochondria as novel mediators linking gut microbiota to atherosclerosis that is ameliorated by herbal medicine: A review

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the main cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and is characterized by endothelial damage, lipid deposition, and chronic inflammation. Gut microbiota plays an important role in the occurrence and development of AS by regulating host metabolism and immunity. As human mitochondria evolved from primordial bacteria have homologous characteristics, they are attacked by microbial pathogens as target organelles, thus contributing to energy metabolism disorders, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Therefore, mitochondria may be a key mediator of intestinal microbiota disorders and AS aggravation. Microbial metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, trimethylamine, hydrogen sulfide, and bile acids, also affect mitochondrial function, including mtDNA mutation, oxidative stress, and mitophagy, promoting low-grade inflammation. This further damages cellular homeostasis and the balance of innate immunity, aggravating AS. Herbal medicines and their monomers can effectively ameliorate the intestinal flora and their metabolites, improve mitochondrial function, and inhibit atherosclerotic plaques. This review focuses on the interaction between gut microbiota and mitochondria in AS and explores a therapeutic strategy for restoring mitochondrial function and intestinal microbiota disorders using herbal medicines, aiming to provide new insights for the prevention and treatment of AS.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in vascular endothelial cells and its role in atherosclerosis

The mitochondria are essential organelles that generate large amounts of ATP via the electron transport chain (ECT). Mitochondrial dysfunction causes reactive oxygen species accumulation, energy stress, and cell death. Endothelial mitochondrial dysfunction is an important factor causing abnormal function of the endothelium, which plays a central role during atherosclerosis development. Atherosclerosis-related risk factors, including high glucose levels, hypertension, ischemia, hypoxia, and diabetes, promote mitochondrial dysfunction in endothelial cells. This review summarizes the physiological and pathophysiological roles of endothelial mitochondria in endothelial function and atherosclerosis.

Resveratrol regulates PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy via the lncRNA ZFAS1-miR-150-5p-PINK1 axis, and enhances the antitumor activity of paclitaxel against non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a common malignant subtype of lung cancer with high mortality. Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural molecule that regulates mitochondrial metabolism. Here, we explored the effect of RSV on NSCLC cell mitophagy and paclitaxel (PTX) resistance. LncRNA ZFAS1, miR-150-5p, and PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) expressions in NSCLC cells were analyzed by RT-qPCR. Levels of PINK1, Parkin and autophagy related molecules LC3I and LC3II were assessed by western blot. Mitophagy was demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy. Luciferase reporter assay revealed that miR-150-5p directly interacted with ZFAS1 or PINK1. MTT was performed to test the IC50 of NSCLC cells. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were measured with CCK-8, EdU, and TUNEL assays. A549/PTX cells exhibited a higher mitophagy activity, and chemoresistance, whereas RSV suppressed PTX resistance and mitophagy in NSCLC cells. Furthermore, ZFAS1 was found to be a downstream effector of RSV in NSCLC cells. We next found ZFAS1 directly interacted with miR-150-5p and regulated the expression of a key mitophagy regulator PINK1. In addition, RSV modulated PTX resistance and mitophagy in NSCLC via ZFAS1/miR-150-5p/PINK1 axis. We validate that RSV influences mitophagy and PTX resistance in NSCLC via ZFAS1/miR-150-5p mediated PINK1/Parkin pathway. Combining these 2 drugs may be a new option of NSCLC therapy.

Mitochondrial Stress in Metabolic Inflammation: Modest Benefits and Full Losses

Energy intake and metabolic balance are the pillars of health preservation. Overnutrition causes nonspecific, persistently low inflammatory state known as metabolic inflammation. This condition contributes to the pathophysiology of various metabolic disorders, such as atherosclerosis, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome. The mitochondria maintain the balance of energy metabolism. Excessive energy stress can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, which promotes metabolic inflammation. The inflammatory environment further impairs mitochondrial function. Accordingly, excellent organism design keeps the body metabolically healthy in the context of mitochondrial dysfunction, and moderate mitochondrial stress can have a beneficial effect. This review summarises the research progress on the multifaceted characterisation of mitochondrial dysfunction and its role in metabolic inflammation.

Low shear stress inhibits endothelial mitophagy via caveolin-1/miR-7-5p/SQSTM1 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Mitophagy plays a crucial role in mitochondrial homeostasis and is closely associated with endothelial function. However, the mechanism underlying low blood flow shear stress (SS), detrimental cellular stress, regulating endothelial mitophagy is unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether low SS inhibits endothelial mitophagy via caveolin-1 (Cav-1)/miR-7-5p/Sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1) signaling pathway.

METHODS

Low SS in vivo modeling was induced using a perivascular SS modifier implanted in the carotid artery of mice. In vitro modeling, low and physiological SS (4 and 15 dyn/cm2, respectively) were exerted on human aortic endothelial cells using a parallel plate chamber system.

RESULTS

Compared with physiological SS, low SS significantly inhibited endothelial mitophagy shown by down-regulation of SQSTM1, PINK1, Parkin, and LC 3II expressions. Deficient mitophagy deteriorated mitochondrial dynamics shown by up-regulation of Mfn1 and Fis1 expression and led to decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential. Cav-1 plays a bridging role in the process of low SS inhibiting mitophagy. The up-regulated miR-7-5p expression induced by low SS was suppressed after Cav-1 was silenced. The results of dual-luciferase reporter assays showed that miR-7-5p targeted inhibiting the SQSTM1 gene. Oxidative stress reaction shown by the elevation of reactive oxygen species and O2●- and endothelial dysfunction by the decrease in nitric oxide and the increase in macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 were associated with the low SS inhibiting endothelial mitophagy process.

CONCLUSIONS

Cav-1/miR-7-5p/SQSTM1 signaling pathway was the mechanism underlying low SS inhibiting endothelial mitophagy that involves mitochondrial homeostasis impairment and endothelial dysfunction.

Roles of microglial mitophagy in neurological disorders

Microglia are the resident innate immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that serve as the first line innate immunity in response to pathogen invasion, ischemia and other pathological stimuli. Once activated, they rapidly release a variety of inflammatory cytokines and phagocytose pathogens or cell debris (termed neuroinflammation), which is beneficial for maintaining brain homeostasis if appropriately activated. However, excessive or uncontrolled neuroinflammation may damage neurons and exacerbate the pathologies in neurological disorders. Microglia are highly dynamic cells, dependent on energy supply from mitochondria. Moreover, dysfunctional mitochondria can serve as a signaling platform to facilitate innate immune responses in microglia. Mitophagy is a means of clearing damaged or redundant mitochondria, playing a critical role in the quality control of mitochondrial homeostasis and turnover. Mounting evidence has shown that mitophagy not only limits the inflammatory response in microglia but also affects their phagocytosis, whereas mitochondria dysfunction and mitophagy defects are associated with aging and neurological disorders. Therefore, targeting microglial mitophagy is a promising therapeutic strategy for neurological disorders. This article reviews and highlights the role and regulation of mitophagy in microglia in neurological conditions, and the research progress in manipulating microglial mitophagy and future directions in this field are also discussed.

Endothelial Autophagy in Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Cardiovascular Disease

Coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD) refers to a subset of structural and/or functional disorders of coronary microcirculation that lead to impaired coronary blood flow and eventually myocardial ischemia. Amid the growing knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms and the development of advanced tools for assessment, CMD has emerged as a prevalent cause of a broad spectrum of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including obstructive and nonobstructive coronary artery disease, diabetic cardiomyopathy, and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Of note, the endothelium exerts vital functions in regulating coronary microvascular and cardiac function. Importantly, insufficient or uncontrolled activation of endothelial autophagy facilitates the pathogenesis of CMD in diverse CVDs. Here, we review the progress in understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of autophagy in coronary endothelial cells and discuss their potential role in CMD and CVDs.

Mitophagy and mitochondrial dynamics in type 2 diabetes mellitus treatment

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is associated with inflammatory bowels diseases, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and even a spectrum of cancer such as colon cancer and liver cancer, resulting in a substantial healthcare burden on our society. Autophagy is a key regulator in metabolic homeostasis such as lipid metabolism, energy management and the balance of cellular mineral substances. Mitophagy is selective autophagy for clearing the damaged mitochondria and dysfunctional mitochondria. A myriad of evidence has demonstrated a major role of mitophagy in the regulation of type 2 diabetes and metabolic homeostasis. It is well established that defective mitophagy has been linked to the development of insulin resistance. Moreover, insulin resistance is further progressed to various diseases such as nephropathy, retinopathy and cardiovascular diseases. Concordantly, restoration of mitophagy will be a reliable and therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes. Recently, various phytochemicals have been proved to prevent dysfunctions of β-cells by mitophagy inductions during diabetes developments. In agreement with the above phenomenon, mitophagy inducers should be warranted as potential and novel therapeutic agents for treating diabetes. This review focuses on the role of mitophagy in type 2 diabetes relevant diseases and the pharmacological basis and therapeutic potential of autophagy regulators in type 2 diabetes.

Role of Mitophagy in the Pathogenesis of Stroke: From Mechanism to Therapy

Mitochondria can supply adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the tissue, which can regulate metabolism during the pathologic process and is also involved in the pathophysiology of neuronal injury after stroke. Recent studies have suggested that selective autophagy could play important roles in the pathophysiological process of stroke, especially mitophagy. It is usually mediated by the PINK1/Parkin-independent pathway or PINK1/Parkin-dependent pathway. Moreover, mitophagy may be a potential target in the therapy of stroke because the control of mitophagy is neuroprotective in stroke in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we briefly summarize recent researches in mitophagy, introduce the role of mitophagy in the pathogenesis of stroke, then highlight the strategies targeting mitophagy in the treatment of stroke, and finally propose several issues in the treatment of stroke by targeting mitophagy.

Role of Mitophagy in Coronary Heart Disease: Targeting the Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Inflammatory Regulation

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is one of the main causes of death worldwide. In the past few decades, several in-depth research on the pathological mechanisms and effective treatment methods for CHD have been conducted. At present, the intervention of a variety of therapeutic drugs and treatment technologies have greatly reduced the burden on global public health. However, severe arrhythmia and myocardial fibrosis accompanying CHD in the later stages need to be addressed urgently. Mitochondria are important structural components for energy production and the main sites for aerobic respiration in cells. Mitochondria are involved in arrhythmia, myocardial fibrosis, and acute CHD and play a crucial role in regulating myocardial ischemia/hypoxia. Mitochondrial dysfunction or mitophagy disorders (including receptor-dependent mitophagy and receptor-independent mitophagy) play an important role in the pathogenesis of CHD, especially mitophagy. Mitophagy acts as a “mediator” in the inflammatory damage of cardiomyocytes or vascular endothelial cells and can clear mitochondria or organelles damaged by inflammation under normal conditions. We reviewed experimental advances providing evidence that mitochondrial homeostasis or mitochondrial quality control are important in the pathological mechanism of CHD. Further, we reviewed and summarized relevant regulatory drugs that target mitochondrial function and quality control.

Resveratrol Ameliorates Intestinal Damage Challenged With Deoxynivalenol Through Mitophagy in vitro and in vivo

Deoxynivalenol (DON) reduces growth performance and damage intestinal function, and resveratrol (RES) has positive effects on growth performance and intestinal function. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective mechanism of RES in vitro and vivo challenged with DON. The results showed that dietary supplementation with DON significantly increase the mRNA expression levels of mitophagy- related genes, and protein level for PINK1, Parkin, Beclin-1, Lamp, Atg5, Map1lc, Bnip3, Fundc1, Bcl2l1 and SQSTMS1 (P < 0.05), while supplementation with both RES and DON decreased those indexes in the ileum. Besides DON significantly decreased protein level for Pyruvate Dehydrogenase, Cytochrome c, MFN1, OPA1, and PHB1 (P < 0.05), while supplementation with both RES and DON increased protein level for PHB1, SDHA, and VDAC in the ileum. Moreover, in vitro, we found that DON significantly decreased mitochondrial respiration (P < 0.05), while RES + DON increased the rate of spare respiratory capacity. Also, DON significantly decreased total NAD and ATP (P < 0.05), while RES + DON increased the total NAD and ATP. These results indicate that RES may ameliorates the intestinal damage challenged with deoxynivalenol through mitophagy in weaning piglets.

SIRT1 and Autophagy: Implications in Endocrine Disorders

Autophagy is a cellular process involved in the selective degradation and recycling of dysfunctional intracellular components. It plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and survival by removing damaged and harmful proteins, lipids, and organelles. SIRT1, an NAD⁺-dependent multifunctional enzyme, is a key regulator of the autophagy process. Through its deacetylase activity, SIRT1 participates in the regulation of different steps of autophagy, from initiation to degradation. The levels and function of SIRT1 are also regulated by the autophagy process. Dysregulation in SIRT1-mediated autophagy hinders the proper functioning of the endocrine system, contributing to the onset and progression of endocrine disorders. This review provides an overview of the crosstalk between SIRT1 and autophagy and their implications in obesity, type-2 diabetes mellitus, diabetic cardiomyopathy, and hepatic steatosis.

Mitophagy in depression: Pathophysiology and treatment targets

Mitochondria, the 'powerhouse' of eukaryotic cells, play a key role in cellular homeostasis. However, defective mitochondria increase mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) production and cell-free mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release, leading to increased inflammation. Mitophagy is a vital pathway, which selectively removes defective mitochondria through the process of autophagy. Thus, an impairment in the mitophagy pathway might trigger the gradual accumulation of defective mitochondria. Accumulating evidence suggest that inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction are linked to the pathogenesis of depression. In this article, we have reviewed the role of impaired mitophagy as a contributing factor in depression pathophysiology. Further, we have discussed the potential therapeutic interventions aimed at modulating mitophagy in depression.

Emerging Role of Mitophagy in the Heart: Therapeutic Potentials to Modulate Mitophagy in Cardiac Diseases

The normal function of the mitochondria is crucial for most tissues especially for those that demand a high energy supply. Emerging evidence has pointed out that healthy mitochondrial function is closely associated with normal heart function. When these processes fail to repair the damaged mitochondria, cells initiate a removal process referred to as mitophagy to clear away defective mitochondria. In cardiomyocytes, mitophagy is closely associated with metabolic activity, cell differentiation, apoptosis, and other physiological processes involved in major phenotypic alterations. Mitophagy alterations may contribute to detrimental or beneficial effects in a multitude of cardiac diseases, indicating potential clinical insights after a close understanding of the mechanisms. Here, we discuss the current opinions of mitophagy in the progression of cardiac diseases, such as ischemic heart disease, diabetic cardiomyopathy, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and arrhythmia, and focus on the key molecules and related pathways involved in the regulation of mitophagy. We also discuss recently reported approaches targeting mitophagy in the therapy of cardiac diseases.

Curcumin Improves Pulmonary Hypertension Rats by Regulating Mitochondrial Function

Objective

To investigate the role of curcumin in regulating pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) derived from pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) model.

Methods

Male Sprague Dawley rats were injected with monocrotaline (MCT) to establish the PAH experimental model. The rats were divided into control group, MCT group, and curcumin group. At the end of the study, hemodynamic data were measured to determine pulmonary hypertension. Proliferation ability of PASMCs, a remodeling indicator of pulmonary artery and right ventricle, was detected. In addition, the morphology and function of mitochondria, antiglycolysis and antiproliferation pathways, and genes were also analyzed.

Results

Curcumin may function by reversing MCT-mediated pulmonary vascular remodeling in rats. Curcumin effectively improved pulmonary vascular remodeling, promoted PASMC apoptosis, and protected mitochondrial function. In addition, curcumin treatment suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway in PASMCs and regulated the expression of antiproliferative genes.

Conclusion

Curcumin can improve energy metabolism and reverse the process of PAHS. However, there were side effects of curcumin in MCT-induced rats, suggesting that the dosage should be treated with caution and its toxicological mechanism should be further studied and evaluated.

Phytochemicals: Targeting Mitophagy to Treat Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic disorders include metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and cardiovascular diseases. Due to unhealthy lifestyles such as high-calorie diet, sedentary and physical inactivity, the prevalence of metabolic disorders poses a huge challenge to global human health, which is the leading cause of global human death. Mitochondrion is the major site of adenosine triphosphate synthesis, fatty acid β-oxidation and ROS production. Accumulating evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction-related oxidative stress and inflammation is involved in the development of metabolic disorders. Mitophagy, a catabolic process, selectively degrades damaged or superfluous mitochondria to reverse mitochondrial dysfunction and preserve mitochondrial function. It is considered to be one of the major mechanisms responsible for mitochondrial quality control. Growing evidence shows that mitophagy can prevent and treat metabolic disorders through suppressing mitochondrial dysfunction-induced oxidative stress and inflammation. In the past decade, in order to expand the range of pharmaceutical options, more and more phytochemicals have been proven to have therapeutic effects on metabolic disorders. Many of these phytochemicals have been proved to activate mitophagy to ameliorate metabolic disorders. Given the ongoing epidemic of metabolic disorders, it is of great significance to explore the contribution and underlying mechanisms of mitophagy in metabolic disorders, and to understand the effects and molecular mechanisms of phytochemicals on the treatment of metabolic disorders. Here, we investigate the mechanism of mitochondrial dysfunction in metabolic disorders and discuss the potential of targeting mitophagy with phytochemicals for the treatment of metabolic disorders, with a view to providing a direction for finding phytochemicals that target mitophagy to prevent or treat metabolic disorders.

Resveratrol and endothelial function: A literature review

Endothelial dysfunction is a major contributing factor to diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, obesity, hypertension, acute lung injury, preeclampsia, among others. Resveratrol (RSV) is a naturally occurring bioactive polyphenol found in grapes and red wine. According to experimental studies, RSV modulates several events involved in endothelial dysfunction such as impaired vasorelaxation, eNOS uncoupling, leukocyte adhesion, endothelial senescence, and endothelial mesenchymal transition. The endothelial protective effects of RSV are found to be mediated by numerous molecular targets (e.g. Silent Information Regulator 1 (SIRT1), 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), nuclear factor-erythroid-derived 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), Krüppel-like factor-2 (KLF2), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB)). Herein, we present an updated review addressing pharmacological effects and molecular targets of RSV in maintaining endothelial function, and the potential of this phytochemical for endothelial dysfunction-associated disorders.

Natural products as geroprotectors: An autophagy perspective

Over the past decade, significant attention has been given to repurposing Food and Drug Administration approved drugs to treat age-related diseases. In contrast, less consideration has been given to natural bioactive compounds. Consequently, there have been limited attempts to translate these compounds. Autophagy is a fundamental biological pathway linked to aging, and numerous strategies to enhance autophagy have been shown to extend lifespan. Interestingly, there are a number of natural products that are reported to modulate autophagy, and here we describe a number of them that activate autophagy through diverse molecular and cellular mechanisms. Among these, Urolithin A, Spermidine, Resveratrol, Fatty Acids and Phospholipids, Trehalose and Lithium are featured in detail. Finally, we outline possible strategies to optimise and increase the translatability of natural products, with the overall aim of delaying the ageing process and improving human healthspan.

Coronary microvascular injury in myocardial infarction: perception and knowledge for mitochondrial quality control

Endothelial cells (ECs) constitute the innermost layer in all blood vessels to maintain the structural integrity and microcirculation function for coronary microvasculature. Impaired endothelial function is demonstrated in various cardiovascular diseases including myocardial infarction (MI), which is featured by reduced myocardial blood flow as a result of epicardial coronary obstruction, thrombogenesis, and inflammation. In this context, understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the function of coronary ECs is essential for the early diagnosis and optimal treatment of MI. Although ECs contain relatively fewer mitochondria compared with cardiomyocytes, they function as key sensors of environmental and cellular stress, in the regulation of EC viability, structural integrity and function. Mitochondrial quality control (MQC) machineries respond to a broad array of stress stimuli to regulate fission, fusion, mitophagy and biogenesis in mitochondria. Impaired MQC is a cardinal feature of EC injury and dysfunction. Hence, medications modulating MQC mechanisms are considered as promising novel therapeutic options in MI. Here in this review, we provide updated insights into the key role of MQC mechanisms in coronary ECs and microvascular dysfunction in MI. We also discussed the option of MQC as a novel therapeutic target to delay, reverse or repair coronary microvascular damage in MI. Contemporary available MQC-targeted therapies with potential clinical benefits to alleviate coronary microvascular injury during MI are also summarized.

Quercetin Improves Cardiomyocyte Vulnerability to Hypoxia by Regulating SIRT1/TMBIM6-Related Mitophagy and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Cardiomyocyte apoptosis is an important pathological mechanism underlying cardiovascular diseases and is commonly caused by hypoxia. Moreover, hypoxic injury occurs not only in common cardiovascular diseases but also following various treatments of heart-related conditions. One of the major mechanisms underlying hypoxic injury is oxidative stress. Quercetin has been shown to exert antioxidant stress and vascular protective effects, making it a promising candidate for treating cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, we examined the protective effect of quercetin on human cardiomyocytes subjected to hypoxia-induced oxidative stress damage and its underlying mechanism. Human cardiomyocytes were subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) in vitro with or without quercetin pretreatment; thereafter, flow cytometry, Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, laser scanning confocal microscopy, quantitative PCR, western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were performed to analyze the effects of quercetin on cardiomyocytes. We found that H/R induced reactive oxygen species overproduction and endoplasmic reticulum stress, as well as inhibited the function of the mitochondria/endoplasmic reticulum and mitophagy, eventually leading to apoptosis and decreasing the viability of human cardiomyocytes. Quercetin pretreatment inhibited H/R-mediated overproduction of reactive oxygen species and damage caused by oxidative stress, increased mitophagy, regulated mRNA and protein expression of transmembrane BAX inhibitor-1 motif-containing 6 (TMBIM6), regulated endoplasmic reticulum stress, and improved the vulnerability of human cardiomyocytes to H/R. Furthermore, transfection with short interfering RNA against silent information regulator protein 1 (SIRT1) counteracted the protective effects of quercetin on cardiomyocytes. Thus, quercetin was predicted to regulate mitophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress through SIRT1/TMBIM6 and inhibit H/R-induced oxidative stress damage. These findings may be useful for developing treatments for hypoxic injury-induced cardiovascular diseases and further highlight the potential of quercetin for regulating mitochondrial quality control and endoplasmic reticulum function.

Puerarin Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammatory Responses and Oxidative Stress Injury in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells through Mitochondrial Quality Control

Atherosclerosis is closely associated with the inflammatory reaction of vascular endothelial cells. Puerarin (Pue), the main active component isolated from the rhizome of Pueraria lobata, is an isoflavone compound with potent antioxidant properties. Although Pue exhibits promising antiatherosclerotic pharmacological effects, only a few studies have reported its protective effect on endothelial cells. This study found that Pue could partly regulate mitochondrial function in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and reduce or inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress injury in HUVECs, likely via mitochondrial quality control. Furthermore, the protective effect of Pue on HUVECs was closely related to the SIRT-1 signaling pathway. Pue increased autophagy and mitochondrial antioxidant potential via increased SIRT-1 expression, reducing excessive production of ROS and inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress injury. Therefore, Pue may improve mitochondrial respiratory function and energy metabolism, increasing the vulnerability of HUVECs to an inflammatory state.

The Pleiotropic Function of Human Sirtuins as Modulators of Metabolic Pathways and Viral Infections

Sirtuins (SIRTs) are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent histone deacetylases that incorporate complex functions in the mechanisms of cell physiology. Mammals have seven distinct members of the SIRT family (SIRT1-7), which play an important role in a well-maintained network of metabolic pathways that control and adapt the cell to the environment, energy availability and cellular stress. Until recently, very few studies investigated the role of SIRTs in modulating viral infection and progeny. Recent studies have demonstrated that SIRT1 and SIRT2 are promising antiviral targets because of their specific connection to numerous metabolic and regulatory processes affected during infection. In the present review, we summarize some of the recent progress in SIRTs biochemistry and their emerging function as antiviral targets. We also discuss the potential of natural polyphenol-based SIRT modulators to control their functional roles in several diseases including viral infections.

The Mitochondrial Permeability Transition: Nexus of Aging, Disease and Longevity

The activity of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, mPTP, a highly regulated multi-component mega-channel, is enhanced in aging and in aging-driven degenerative diseases. mPTP activity accelerates aging by releasing large amounts of cell-damaging reactive oxygen species, Ca²⁺ and NAD⁺. The various pathways that control the channel activity, directly or indirectly, can therefore either inhibit or accelerate aging or retard or enhance the progression of aging-driven degenerative diseases and determine lifespan and healthspan. Autophagy, a catabolic process that removes and digests damaged proteins and organelles, protects the cell against aging and disease. However, the protective effect of autophagy depends on mTORC2/SKG1 inhibition of mPTP. Autophagy is inhibited in aging cells. Mitophagy, a specialized form of autophagy, which retards aging by removing mitochondrial fragments with activated mPTP, is also inhibited in aging cells, and this inhibition leads to increased mPTP activation, which is a major contributor to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The increased activity of mPTP in aging turns autophagy/mitophagy into a destructive process leading to cell aging and death. Several drugs and lifestyle modifications that enhance healthspan and lifespan enhance autophagy and inhibit the activation of mPTP. Therefore, elucidating the intricate connections between pathways that activate and inhibit mPTP, in the context of aging and degenerative diseases, could enhance the discovery of new drugs and lifestyle modifications that slow aging and degenerative disease.