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Deventer MH, Persson M, Norman C, Liu H, Connolly MJ, Daéid NN, McKenzie C, Gréen H, Stove CP. In vitro cannabinoid activity profiling of generic ban-evading brominated synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their analogs. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:616-628. [PMID: 37903509 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023]
Abstract
Following the enactment of a generic ban in China in 2021, the synthetic cannabinoid market has been evolving, now encompassing even wider structural diversity. Compounds carrying a brominated core such as ADB-5'Br-BUTINACA (ADMB-B-5Br-INACA) and tail-less analogs, such as ADB-5'Br-INACA (ADMB-5Br-INACA), MDMB-5'Br-INACA, and ADB-INACA (ADMB-INACA), have been detected since late 2021. This study investigated the cannabinoid receptor (CB) activation potential of synthesized (S)-enantiomers of these substances, as well as of two predicted analogs MDMB-5'Br-BUTINACA (MDMB-B-5Br-INACA) and ADB-5'F-BUTINACA (ADMB-B-5F-INACA), using CB1 and CB2 β-arrestin 2 recruitment assays and a CB1 intracellular calcium release assay. Surprisingly, the tail-less (S)-ADB-5'Br-INACA and (S)-MDMB-5'Br-INACA retained CB activity, albeit with a decreased potency compared to their tailed counterparts (S)-ADB-5'Br-BUTINACA and (S)-MDMB-5'Br-BUTINACA, respectively, which were potent and efficacious CB1 agonists. Also, at CB2, tail-less analogs showed a lower potency but increased efficacy. Removing the bromine substitution ((S)-ADB-INACA) resulted in a reduced activity at CB1; however, this effect was less prominent at CB2. Looking at tailed analogs, replacing the bromine with a fluorine substitution ((S)-ADB-5'F-BUTINACA) resulted in an increased potency and efficacy at both receptors. Furthermore, as ADB-5'Br-INACA and MDMB-5'Br-INACA have been frequently detected together in Scottish prisons, this study also evaluated the CB1 receptor activation potential of different mixtures of their respective reference standards, showing no unexpected cannabimimetic effect of combining both substances. Lastly, two powders seized by Belgian Customs and confirmed to contain ADB-5'Br-INACA and MDMB-5'Br-INACA, respectively, were assessed for CB activity. Based on the comparison with their reference standards, varying degrees of purity were suspected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | | | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Chiron AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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2
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Patel M, Zheng X, Akinfiresoye LR, Prioleau C, Walker TD, Glass M, Marusich JA. Pharmacological evaluation of new generation OXIZID synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 971:176549. [PMID: 38561104 PMCID: PMC11132922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain one the largest classes of new psychoactive substances, and are increasingly associated with severe adverse effects and death compared to the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In the attempt to circumvent the rapid emergence of novel SCRAs, several nations have implemented 'generic' legislations, or 'class-wide' bans based on common structural scaffolds. However, this has only encouraged the incorporation of new chemical entities, including distinct core and linker structures, for which there is a dearth of pharmacological data. The current study evaluated five emergent OXIZID SCRAs for affinity and functional activity at the cannabinoid CB1 receptor (CB1) in HEK 293 cells, as well as pharmacological equivalence with THC in drug discrimination in mice. All OXIZID compounds behaved as agonists in Gαi protein activation and β-arrestin 2 translocation assays, possessing low micromolar affinity at CB1. All ligands also substituted for THC in drug discrimination, where potencies broadly correlated with in vitro activity, with the methylcyclohexane analogue BZO-CHMOXIZID being the most potent. Notably, MDA-19 (BZO-HEXOXIZID) exhibited partial efficacy in vitro, generating an activity profile most similar to that of THC, and partial substitution in vivo. Overall, the examined OXIZIDs were comparatively less potent and efficacious than previous generations of SCRAs. Further toxicological data will elucidate whether the moderate cannabimimetic activity for this series of SCRAs will translate to severe adverse health effects as seen with previous generations of SCRAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Patel
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Xiaoxi Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), New Zealand
| | - Luli R Akinfiresoye
- United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division, Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, 8701 Morrissette Drive, Springfield, VA, USA
| | - Cassandra Prioleau
- United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division, Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, 8701 Morrissette Drive, Springfield, VA, USA
| | - Teneille D Walker
- United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Diversion Control Division, Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, 8701 Morrissette Drive, Springfield, VA, USA
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), New Zealand.
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
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3
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Sparkes E, Timmerman A, Markham JW, Boyd R, Gordon R, Walker KA, Kevin RC, Hibbs DE, Banister SD, Cairns EA, Stove C, Ametovski A. Synthesis and Functional Evaluation of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists Related to ADB-HEXINACA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:1787-1812. [PMID: 38597712 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
ADB-HEXINACA has been recently reported as a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA), one of the largest classes of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). This compound marks the entry of the n-hexyl tail group into the SCRA landscape, which has continued in the market with recent, newly detected SCRAs. As such, a proactive characterization campaign was undertaken, including the synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of ADB-HEXINACA and a library of 41 closely related analogues. Two in vitro functional assays were employed to assess activity at CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, measuring Gβγ-coupled agonism through a fluorescence-based membrane potential assay (MPA) and β-arrestin 2 (βarr2) recruitment via a live cell-based nanoluciferase complementation reporter assay. ADB-HEXINACA was a potent and efficacious CB1 agonist (CB1 MPA pEC50 = 7.87 ± 0.12 M; Emax = 124 ± 5%; βarr2 pEC50 = 8.27 ± 0.14 M; Emax = 793 ± 42.5), as were most compounds assessed. Isolation of the heterocyclic core and alkyl tails allowed for the comprehensive characterization of structure-activity relationships in this compound class, which were rationalized in silico via induced fit docking experiments. Overall, most compounds assessed are possibly emerging NPSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Sparkes
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Axelle Timmerman
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jack W Markham
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Rebecca Gordon
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Katelyn A Walker
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Richard C Kevin
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia
- School of Clinical Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - David E Hibbs
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Samuel D Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Cairns
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adam Ametovski
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
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4
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Sim SBD, Lee HZS, Ong MC, Zhang S, Lim KA, Lim JLW, Yap TWA. Synthesis, characterization and differentiation of the structural isomers of valine and tert-leucine derived synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:420-434. [PMID: 37572031 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
The identification of the synthetic cannabinoids receptor agonists (SCRAs) has always posed a great challenge to drug testing laboratories with slight structural modifications aimed at evading drug legislation. In addition, the most prevalent synthetic cannabinoids have valine and tert-leucine amino acid moieties where re-arrangement of the carbon chains can result in structural isomers that are very similar to the parent synthetic cannabinoids. This makes their analysis and identification challenging, and the problem is compounded with the difficulty in purchasing reference standards quickly and a lack of literature for comparison. Therefore, in this investigation, four series of synthetic cannabinoids (AB-PINACA, AB-CHMINACA, MMB-FUBINACA and 5-fluoro-MDMB-PINACA) and their alkyl chain structural isomers at the amino acid moieties were synthesized and characterized using various analytical techniques-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography-infrared detection (GC-IRD) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to evaluate the ability of each analytical technique to differentiate the respective isomers for their identification. A total of 12 isomers were synthesized and analysed together with the four parent synthetic cannabinoids. NMR was able to differentiate between all the compounds, whereas GC-IRD was able to discern between most of the synthetic cannabinoids and their isomers. GC-MS had the least discriminating power and was not able to differentiate some of the compounds that has very similar mass spectra. The results from this work will be useful to other drug testing laboratories that are facing the identification of related synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sui Boon Derek Sim
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
| | - Hui Zhi Shirley Lee
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
| | - Mei Ching Ong
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
| | - Shuhua Zhang
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
| | - Kheng Aik Lim
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
| | - Jong Lee Wendy Lim
- Illicit Drugs Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore
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5
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Akca AA, Couchman L, Frinculescu A, Johnston A. Analysis of drug-impregnated paper samples seized in English prisons between 2018 and 2020. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 357:111991. [PMID: 38513529 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) in the form of impregnated papers delivered to prisoners are of particular concern in prison settings, where they are commonly used by vaping. The purpose of this study was to create a qualitative method for identifying the various emerging NPS impregnated onto paper samples sent to prisoners. It helps to demonstrate that these findings can be used to predict drug prevalence and trends in prisons. Between 2018 and 2020, 1250 non-judicial paper samples seized from 12 English prisons were analysed to determine the NPSs being circulated. Approximately 1 cm2 paper were cut and added to 50 % (v/v) methanol in LCMS-grade water. Vortex-mixing was used to prepare extracts (30 min). Q-TOF LC/MS was used to screen the extracts. This study showed that synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) was the most common drug group detected in impregnated paper seizures in English prisons between 2018 and 2020, followed by cocaine, heroin type drugs (A) and amphetamine, ketamine type drugs (B). Male prisons had a higher prevalence of SCRAs, whereas female prisons had a higher prevalence of A drugs. Furthermore, lower security prisons were found to have a higher prevalence of B drugs, pregabalin, gabapentin type drugs (C), and abused and prescription drugs than higher security prisons which unveiled a higher prevalence of nicotine. The findings of this study have revealed new information about drug use in prisons. This study will also aid in the identification of drug smuggling routes into jails, keeping prison staff up to date with the trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asena Avci Akca
- Department of Biology, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkiye; Institute of Forensic Sciences, Department of Forensic Toxicology, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkiye; Clinical Pharmacology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK.
| | - Lewis Couchman
- Analytical Services International Ltd, St. George's University of London, London, UK; Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Anca Frinculescu
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK; TICTAC Communications Ltd., St. George's University of London, London, UK.
| | - Atholl Johnston
- Clinical Pharmacology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK; Analytical Services International Ltd, St. George's University of London, London, UK.
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6
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Patel M, Grimsey NL, Banister SD, Finlay DB, Glass M. Evaluating signaling bias for synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists at the cannabinoid CB 2 receptor. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2023; 11:e01157. [PMID: 38018694 PMCID: PMC10685394 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.1157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid structural evolution and emergence of novel synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) in the recreational market remains a key public health concern. Despite representing one of the largest classes of new psychoactive substances, pharmacological data on new SCRAs is limited, particularly at the cannabinoid CB2 receptor (CB2 ). Hence, the current study aimed to characterize the molecular pharmacology of a structurally diverse panel of SCRAs at CB2 , including 4-cyano MPP-BUT7AICA, 4F-MDMB-BUTINACA, AMB-FUBINACA, JWH-018, MDMB-4en-PINACA, and XLR-11. The activity of SCRAs was assessed in a battery of in vitro assays in CB2 -expressing HEK 293 cells: G protein activation (Gαi3 and GαoB ), phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and β-arrestin 1/2 translocation. The activity profiles of the ligands were further evaluated using the operational analysis to identify ligand bias. All SCRAs activated the CB2 signaling pathways in a concentration-dependent manner, although with varying potencies and efficacies. Despite the detection of numerous instances of statistically significant bias, compound activities generally appeared only subtly distinct in comparison with the reference ligand, CP55940. In contrast, the phytocannabinoid THC exhibited an activity profile distinct from the SCRAs; most notably in the translocation of β-arrestins. These findings demonstrate that CB2 is able to accommodate a structurally diverse array of SCRAs to generate canonical agonist activity. Further research is required to elucidate whether the activation of CB2 contributes to the toxicity of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | - Natasha L. Grimsey
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical and Health SciencesUniversity of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind CentreUniversity of SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - David B. Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
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7
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Yano H, Chitsazi R, Lucaj C, Tran P, Hoffman AF, Baumann MH, Lupica CR, Shi L. A subtle structural modification of a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist drastically increases its efficacy at the CB1 receptor. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.10.544442. [PMID: 37398099 PMCID: PMC10312643 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.10.544442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) as illicit psychoactive substances has posed considerable public health risks that include fatalities. Many SCRAs exhibit much higher efficacy and potency, compared with the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), at the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R), a G protein-coupled receptor involved in modulating neurotransmitter release. In this study, we investigated structure activity relationships (SAR) of aminoalkylindole SCRAs at CB1Rs, focusing on 5F-pentylindoles containing an amide linker attached to different head moieties. Using in vitro bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assays, we identified a few of SCRAs exhibiting significantly higher efficacy in engaging the Gi protein and recruiting β-arrestin than the reference CB1R full agonist CP55940. Importantly, adding a methyl group at the head moiety of 5F-MMB-PICA yielded 5F-MDMB-PICA, an agonist exhibiting a large increase in efficacy and potency at the CB1R. This pharmacological observation was supported by a functional assay of the effects of these SCRAs on glutamate field potentials recorded in hippocampal slices. Molecular modeling and simulations of the CB1R bound with either of the SCRAs revealed critical structural determinants contributing to the higher efficacy of 5F-MDMB-PICA, and how these subtle differences propagated to the receptor-G protein interface. Thus, we find that apparently minor structural changes in the head moiety of SCRAs can cause major changes in efficacy. Our results highlight the need for close monitoring of structural modifications of newly emerging SCRAs and their potential for toxic drug responses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideaki Yano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University
| | - Rezvan Chitsazi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
| | - Christopher Lucaj
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University
| | - Phuong Tran
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
| | - Alexander F Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
| | - Carl R Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224
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Gioé-Gallo C, Ortigueira S, Brea J, Raïch I, Azuaje J, Paleo MR, Majellaro M, Loza MI, Salas CO, García-Mera X, Navarro G, Sotelo E. Pharmacological insights emerging from the characterization of a large collection of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists designer drugs. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 164:114934. [PMID: 37236027 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) constitute the largest and most defiant group of abuse designer drugs. These new psychoactive substances (NPS), developed as unregulated alternatives to cannabis, have potent cannabimimetic effects and their use is usually associated with episodes of psychosis, seizures, dependence, organ toxicity and death. Due to their ever-changing structure, very limited or nil structural, pharmacological, and toxicological information is available to the scientific community and the law enforcement offices. Here we report the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation (binding and functional) of the largest and most diverse collection of enantiopure SCRAs published to date. Our results revealed novel SCRAs that could be (or may currently be) used as illegal psychoactive substances. We also report, for the first time, the cannabimimetic data of 32 novel SCRAs containing an (R) configuration at the stereogenic center. The systematic pharmacological profiling of the library enabled the identification of emerging Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) and Structure-Selectivity Relationship (SSR) trends, the detection of ligands exhibiting incipient cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R) subtype selectivity and highlights the significant neurotoxicity of representative SCRAs on mouse primary neuronal cells. Several of the new emerging SCRAs are currently expected to have a rather limited potential for harm, as the evaluation of their pharmacological profiles revealed lower potencies and/or efficacies. Conceived as a resource to foster collaborative investigation of the physiological effects of SCRAs, the library obtained can contribute to addressing the challenge posed by recreational designer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Gioé-Gallo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Sandra Ortigueira
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - José Brea
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CiMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
| | - Iu Raïch
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain; Institute of Neurosciences (NeuroUB), Campus Mundet, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain
| | - Jhonny Azuaje
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - M Rita Paleo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Maria Majellaro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - María Isabel Loza
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CiMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Cristian O Salas
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago 7820436, Chile
| | - Xerardo García-Mera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain; Institute of Neurosciences (NeuroUB), Campus Mundet, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
| | - Eddy Sotelo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
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9
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Dobšíková K, Spálovská D, Kuchař M, Paškanová N, Setnička V. Indazole-derived synthetic cannabinoids: Absolute configuration determination and structure characterization by circular dichroism and DFT calculations. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 291:122373. [PMID: 36657287 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.122373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
An increasing number of products containing synthetic cannabinoids pose a growing crisis to public health worldwide. Recently, a rising number of cases of serious adverse health effects, intoxications, and death cases associated with synthetic cannabinoids were reported. The current study represents the comprehensive structural analysis of three new synthetic cannabinoids (AB-, ADB- and AMB-FUBINACA) in solution investigated by electronic and vibrational circular dichroism together with the conventional methods of infrared and ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy, all supported by the density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The best level of theory to reproduce the experimental wavenumbers and wavelengths was found to be the B3PW91 method with a 6-311++G(d,p) basis set including the implicit solvent effect simulation. Very good agreement between the experimental and simulated spectra allowed us to determine the absolute configuration and a detailed interpretation of the IR absorption, VCD, ECD and UV spectra of AB-, ADB- and AMB-FUBINACA. In addition, the HOMO and LUMO electronic transitions were calculated.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Dobšíková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, Prague 6, 166 28, Czech Republic.
| | - D Spálovská
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, Prague 6, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - M Kuchař
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, Prague 6, 166 28, Czech Republic; National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, Klecany 250 67, Czech Republic
| | - N Paškanová
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, Prague 6, 166 28, Czech Republic
| | - V Setnička
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, Prague 6, 166 28, Czech Republic
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10
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Giorgetti A, Brunetti P, Haschimi B, Busardò FP, Pelotti S, Auwärter V. Human phase-I metabolism and prevalence of two synthetic cannabinoids bearing an ethyl ester moiety: 5F-EDMB-PICA and EDMB-PINACA. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:299-313. [PMID: 36366743 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Around 2017, with the appearance of 5F-EDMB-PINACA, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) carrying an ethyl ester moiety at the linked group started spreading on the market of new psychoactive substances (NPS). In 2020 and 2021, the indole analog of 5F-EDMB-PINACA (5F-EDMB-PICA) and the non-fluorinated analog of this compound (EDMB-PINACA) were analytically characterized. Here, we present suitable urinary markers to prove the consumption of these two ethyl analogs. Ten authentic urine samples for each compound were analyzed by liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-qToF-MS). Anticipated phase-I metabolites detected in urine samples were confirmed in vitro by applying a pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) assay. Prevalence data were obtained from urines collected for abstinence control and submitted to a screening method for SC metabolites. Ten phase-I metabolites of 5F-EDMB-PICA and 18 of EDMB-PINACA were detected by LC-qToF-MS analysis of authentic urine specimens. The main in-vivo metabolites were built by ester hydrolysis, often coupled to further metabolic processes. Investigation of phase-I biotransformation led to the identification of ester hydrolysis, monohydroxylation, and defluorination products as the most suitable urinary biomarkers for 5F-EDMB-PICA. Metabolites formed by ester hydrolysis coupled to ketone formation and by monohydroxylation are suggested for the detection of EDMB-PINACA. From October 1, 2020 to February 1, 2022, among positive urine samples, 5.4% and 10.1% tested positive 5F-EDMB-PICA and EDMB-PINACA, respectively. Due to common metabolites shared among structurally related SCs, the unequivocal detection of their consumption remains challenging for forensic laboratories and requires sensitive methods to monitor multiple metabolites, ideally including highly specific species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna.,Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Pietro Brunetti
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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11
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Bergerhoff M, Moosmann B. Novel Receptor-Binding-Based Assay for the Detection of Opioids in Human Urine Samples. Anal Chem 2023; 95:2723-2731. [PMID: 36706344 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of opioids is a growing global health problem. The gold standard for drugs of abuse screening is immunochemical assays. However, this method comes with some disadvantages when screening for a wide variety of opioids. Detection of the binding of a compound at the human μ-opioid receptor (MOR) offers a promising alternative target. Here, we set up a urine assay to allow for detection of compounds that bind at the MOR, thus allowing the assay to be utilized as a screening tool for opioid intake. The assay is based on the incubation of MOR-containing cell membranes with the selective MOR-ligand DAMGO and urine. After filtration, the amount of DAMGO in the eluate is analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS). The absence of DAMGO in the eluate corresponds to a competing MOR ligand in the urine sample, thus indicating opiate/opioid intake by the suspect. Sensitivity and specificity were determined by the analysis of 200 consecutive forensic routine casework urine samples. A pronounced displacement of DAMGO was observed in 29 of the 35 opiate/opioid-positive samples. Detection of fentanyl intake proved to be the most challenging aspect. Applying a cut-off value of, e.g., 10% DAMGO binding would lead to a sensitivity of 83% and a specificity of 95%. Consequently, the novel assay proved to be a promising screening tool for opiate/opioid presence in urine samples. The nontargeted approach and possible automation of the assay make it a promising alternative to conventional methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Bergerhoff
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen 9007, Switzerland
| | - Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen 9007, Switzerland
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12
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Janssens LK, Ametovski A, Sparkes E, Boyd R, Lai F, Maloney CJ, Rhook D, Gerona RR, Connolly M, Liu H, Hibbs DE, Cairns EA, Banister SD, Stove CP. Comprehensive Characterization of a Systematic Library of Alkyl and Alicyclic Synthetic Cannabinoids Related to CUMYL-PICA, CUMYL-BUTICA, CUMYL-CBMICA, and CUMYL-PINACA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:35-52. [PMID: 36530139 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 200 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) have been identified as new psychoactive substances. Effective monitoring and characterization of SCRAs are hindered by the rapid pace of structural evolution. Ahead of possible appearance on the illicit drug market, new SCRAs were synthesized to complete a systematic library of cumyl-indole- (e.g., CUMYL-CPrMICA, CUMYL-CPMICA) and cumyl-indazole-carboxamides (e.g., CUMYL-CPrMINACA, CUMYL-CPMINACA), encompassing butyl, pentyl, cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, and cyclohexylmethyl tails. Comprehensive pharmacological characterization was performed with three assay formats, monitoring the recruitment of either wild-type or C-terminally truncated (βarr2d366) β-arrestin2 to the activated cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1) or monitoring Gβγ-mediated membrane hyperpolarization. Altered compound characterization was observed when comparing derived potency (EC50) and efficacy (Emax) values from both assays monitoring the same or a different signaling event, whereas ranges and ranking orders were similar. Structure-activity relationships (SAR) were assessed in threefold, resulting in the identification of the pendant tail as a critical pharmacophore, with the optimal chain length for CB1 activation approximating an n-pentyl (e.g., cyclopentylmethyl or cyclohexylmethyl tail). The activity of the SCRAs encompassing cyclic tails decreased with decreasing number of carbons forming the cyclic moiety, with CUMYL-CPrMICA showing the least CB1 activity in all assay formats. The SARs were rationalized via molecular docking, demonstrating the importance of the optimal steric contribution of the hydrophobic tail. While SAR conclusions remained largely unchanged, the differential compound characterization by both similar and different assay designs emphasizes the importance of detailing specific assay characteristics to allow adequate interpretation of potencies and efficacies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesl K Janssens
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adam Ametovski
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Felcia Lai
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Callan J Maloney
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Dane Rhook
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Roy R Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | | | | | - David E Hibbs
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Cairns
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Samuel D Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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13
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Wilson CD, Hiranita T, Fantegrossi WE. Cannabimimetic effects of abused indazole-carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists AB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA and 5F-ADB-PINACA in mice: Tolerance, dependence and withdrawal. Drug Alcohol Depend 2022; 236:109468. [PMID: 35643039 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic abuse of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), known as "K2″ or "Spice", threatens public health and safety. Recently, SCRAs of the indazole-carboxamide structural class have become more prevalent. Preclinical studies investigating the tolerance and dependence potentially involved in chronic SCRA abuse is limited. The present study determined the in vivo effects of chronic exposure to indazole-carboxamide SCRAs, AB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA and 5F-ADB-PINACA compared to the first-generation SCRA, JWH-018. METHODS Adult male C57Bl/6 mice were used for dose-effect determinations of hypothermic effects. Adult male NIH Swiss mice were used in biotelemetry studies to assess tolerance to hypothermic effects following repeated SCRA administration over 5 consecutive days, and to determine the role of Phase I drug metabolism via acute CYP450 inhibition in the presence of 1-ABT, a nonspecific CYP450 inhibitor. SCRA dependence was determined in adult male NIH Swiss mice via assessment of rimonabant-precipitated observable sign of withdrawal (i.e., front paw tremors). RESULTS All SCRAs elicited dose-dependent hypothermia mediated through cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs). 1-ABT increased duration of hypothermia for all SCRAs tested, and increased the magnitude of hypothermia for all SCRAs except 5F-ADB-PINACA. Upon repeated administration, tolerance to hypothermic effects of AB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA and 5F-ADB-PINACA was much less than that of JWH-018. Similarly, rimonabant-precipitated front paw tremors were much less frequent in mice treated with 5F-AB-PINACA and 5F-ADB-PINACA than in mice treated with JWH-018. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest a decreased potential for tolerance and withdrawal among indazole-carboxamide SCRAs, and may imply structural class-dependent profiles of in vivo effects among SCRAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catheryn D Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
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14
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Abstract
Newly emerging synthetic cannabinoid compounds continue to be found in the designer drug market. They are often targeted as a 'legal high' alternative to traditional cannabinoids via 'darknet' markets and their increased potency and efficacy are becoming a growing concern internationally. The purpose of this study was to determine whether 4-CN-CUMYL-BUTINACA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, 5F-AEB, 5F-CUMYL-P7AICA and EMB-FUBINACA exhibited similar behavioral effects as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). Locomotor activity was assessed in an open-field assay using Swiss-Webster mice. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate between intraperitoneal injections of Δ9-THC (3 mg/kg) and vehicle. Following successful training, substitution tests for 4-CN-CUMYL-BUTINACA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, 5F-AEB, 5F-CUMYL-P7AICA and EMB-FUBINACA were conducted. All of the test compounds decreased locomotor activity. 4-CN-CUMYL-BUTINACA (ED50 = 0.26 mg/kg), 4F-MDMB-BINACA (ED50 = 0.019 mg/kg), 5F-CUMYL-P7AICA (ED50 = 0.13 mg/kg) and EMB-FUBINACA (ED50 = 0.13 mg/kg) each fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of the training dose of Δ9-THC, whereas 5F-AEB produced only a maximum of 67% drug-appropriate responding at 0.5 mg/kg. Higher doses produced piloerection, exophthalmos and convulsions. 4-CN-CUMYL-BUTINACA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, 5F-CUMYL-P7AICA and EMB-FUBINACA are likely to produce similar subjective effects in humans as those produced by abused synthetic cannabinoids, and may therefore share similar abuse liability. In contrast, 5F-AEB may have a reduced abuse liability given its weaker THC-like discriminative stimulus effects but maybe more dangerous due to the adverse effects observed at doses needed to produce discriminative stimulus effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience Discovery, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
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15
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Sparkes E, Cairns EA, Kevin RC, Lai F, Grafinger KE, Chen S, Deventer MH, Ellison R, Boyd R, Martin LJ, McGregor IS, Gerona RR, Hibbs DE, Auwärter V, Glass M, Stove C, Banister SD. Structure-activity relationships of valine, tert-leucine, and phenylalanine amino acid-derived synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists related to ADB-BUTINACA, APP-BUTINACA, and ADB-P7AICA. RSC Med Chem 2022; 13:156-174. [PMID: 35308023 PMCID: PMC8864554 DOI: 10.1039/d1md00242b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain one the most prevalent classes of new psychoactive substances (NPS) worldwide, and examples are generally poorly characterised at the time of first detection. We have synthesised a systematic library of amino acid-derived indole-, indazole-, and 7-azaindole-3-carboxamides related to recently detected drugs ADB-BUTINACA, APP-BUTINACA and ADB-P7AICA, and characterised these ligands for in vitro binding and agonist activity at cannabinoid receptor subtypes 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2), and in vivo cannabimimetic activity. All compounds showed high affinity for CB1 (K i 0.299-538 nM) and most at CB2 (K i = 0.912-2190 nM), and most functioned as high efficacy agonists of CB1 and CB2 in a fluorescence-based membrane potential assay and a βarr2 recruitment assay (NanoBiT®), with some compounds being partial agonists in the NanoBiT® assay. Key structure-activity relationships (SARs) were identified for CB1/CB2 binding and CB1/CB2 functional activities; (1) for a given core, affinities and potencies for tert-leucinamides (ADB-) > valinamides (AB-) ≫ phenylalaninamides (APP-); (2) for a given amino acid side-chain, affinities and potencies for indazoles > indoles ≫ 7-azaindoles. Radiobiotelemetric evaluation of ADB-BUTINACA, APP-BUTINACA and ADB-P7AICA in mice demonstrated that ADB-BUTINACA and ADB-P7AICA were cannabimimetic at 0.1 mg kg-1 and 10 mg kg-1 doses, respectively, as measured by pronounced decreases in core body temperature. APP-BUTINACA failed to elicit any hypothermic response up to the maximally tested 10 mg kg-1 dose, yielding an in vivo potency ranking of ADB-BUTINACA > ADB-P7AICA > APP-BUTINACA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Sparkes
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Cairns
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Richard C Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Felcia Lai
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Katharina Elisabeth Grafinger
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Shuli Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago Dunedin 9016 New Zealand
| | - Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460 9000 Ghent Belgium
| | - Ross Ellison
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California San Francisco CA 94143 USA
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Lewis J Martin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Roy R Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California San Francisco CA 94143 USA
| | - David E Hibbs
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago Dunedin 9016 New Zealand
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460 9000 Ghent Belgium
| | - Samuel D Banister
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney NSW 2050 Australia
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16
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Orazietti V, Basile G, Giorgetti R, Giorgetti A. Effects of synthetic cannabinoids on psychomotor, sensory and cognitive functions relevant for safe driving. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:998828. [PMID: 36226105 PMCID: PMC9548613 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.998828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Recreational use of Synthetic Cannabinoids (SCs), one of the largest groups of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), has increased globally over the past few years. Driving is a structured process requiring the cooperation of several cognitive and psychomotor functions, organized in different levels of complexity. Each of these functions can be affected when Driving Under the Influence (DUI) of SCs. In order to reduce the likelihood of SC-related road accidents, it is essential to understand which areas of psychomotor performance are most affected by these substances, as well as the severity of impairment. For this purpose, a multiple database- literature review of recent experimental studies in humans and animals regarding the psychomotor effects of SCs has been performed. Despite the many limitations connected to experimental studies on humans, results showed a consistency between animal and human data. SCs appear to impair psychomotor performance in humans, affecting different domains related to safe driving even at low doses. Cases of DUI of SC have been repeatedly reported, although the exact prevalence is likely to be underestimated due to current analytical and interpretative issues. For this reason, an accurate physical examination performed by trained and experienced personnel has a primary role in recognizing signs of impairment in case of strong suspicion of SC consumption. The identification of a suspected case should be followed by reliable laboratory examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasco Orazietti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Basile
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Galeazzi Orthopedics Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University of Ancona, Ancona, Italy.,Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Identification of synthetic cannabinoid methyl 2-{[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1 H-indol-3-yl] formamido}-3-methylbutanoate using modern mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. OPEN CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/chem-2021-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The samples of plant material suspected to contain new psychoactive substances are very often the subject of chemical-toxicological analyses. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS), liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight-MS, and liquid chromatography-tandem MS were applied with the aim to identify synthetic cannabinoid, methyl 2-{[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indol-3-yl] formamido}-3-methylbutanoate (MMB-CHMICA) without the analytical standard, which is very often the case when a new drug arrives. The structure of compound was also confirmed by one-dimensional and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and conformational analysis. After identification, methanolic extract of plant material containing MMB-CHMICA was successfully used for developing a multiple reaction monitoring method on liquid chromatography-tandem MS instrument. The optimization procedure is shown in detail. The complete fragmentation pattern and also the optimization of the extraction procedure of MMB-CHMICA from plant material were shown. The obtained data are useful for forensic, toxicological, and clinical purposes.
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18
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Gaunitz F, Andresen-Streichert H. Analytical findings in a non-fatal intoxication with the synthetic cannabinoid 5F-ADB (5F-MDMB-PINACA): a case report. Int J Legal Med 2021; 136:577-589. [PMID: 34921326 PMCID: PMC8847293 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-021-02717-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The case report centres on analytical findings from a spice sample (mixed with tobacco (as a cigarette) for consumption), and its corresponding plasma sample, smoked by a 31-year-old man who was attended by emergency services following collapse. The man was fully conscious and cooperative during initial medical treatment. Suddenly, he suffered a complete loss of self-control, whereupon the police was notified. The man encountered the police officers when exiting the apartment, at which point he threatened them with clenched fists and reached for a plant bucket in order to strike out in the direction of the officers. At the trial, he described himself as confused and as being completely overwhelmed, having lost self-control, suffered a panic attack and “just wanted to get out the situation”. Furthermore, he stated that he had no recollection of the incident. He feared death due to palpitations, heart pain, dizziness and repetitive anxiety states. Routine systematic as well as extended toxicological analysis of the plasma sample, taken approximately 2 h after the incident, confirmed the use of cannabis and spice. Plasma concentrations of THC, OH-THC and THC-COOH were 8.0 μg/L, 4.0 μg/L and 147 μg/L, respectively. Furthermore, analysis confirmed uptake of 5F-ADB (5F-MDMB-PINACA) via detection of both 5F-ADB and the 5F-ADB N-(5-OH-pentyl) metabolite. The spice sample additionally contained 5F-MDMB-PICA, which was not detected in the plasma sample. A differentiation between a possible co-use and a recent use of cannabis was not possible. In summary, this case once more underlines the health risks of spice use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Gaunitz
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Hilke Andresen-Streichert
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital, Cologne, Germany
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19
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Gilbert N, Costello A, Ellison JR, Khan U, Knight M, Linnell MJ, Ralphs R, Mewis RE, Sutcliffe OB. Synthesis, characterisation, detection and quantification of a novel hexyl-substituted synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist: (S)-N-(1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-hexyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (ADB-HINACA). Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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20
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Kronstrand R, Norman C, Vikingsson S, Biemans A, Valencia Crespo B, Edwards D, Fletcher D, Gilbert N, Persson M, Reid R, Semenova O, Al Teneiji F, Wu X, Dahlén J, NicDaéid N, Tarbah F, Sutcliffe OB, McKenzie C, Gréen H. The metabolism of the synthetic cannabinoids ADB-BUTINACA and ADB-4en-PINACA and their detection in forensic toxicology casework and infused papers seized in prisons. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:634-652. [PMID: 34811926 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Early warning systems detect new psychoactive substances (NPS), while dedicated monitoring programs and routine drug and toxicology testing identify fluctuations in prevalence. We report the increasing prevalence of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) ADB-BUTINACA (N-[1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-butyl-1H-indazole-3-carbox-amide). ADB-BUTINACA was first detected in a seizure in Sweden in 2019, and we report its detection in 13 routine Swedish forensic toxicology cases soon after. In January 2021, ADB-BUTINACA was detected in SCRA-infused papers seized in Scottish prisons and has rapidly increased in prevalence, being detected in 60.4% of the SCRA-infused papers tested between January and July 2021. In this work, ADB-BUTINACA was incubated with human hepatocytes (HHeps), and 21 metabolites were identified in vitro, 14 being detected in authentic case samples. The parent drug and metabolites B9 (mono-hydroxylation on the n-butyl tail) and B16 (mono-hydroxylation on the indazole ring) are recommended biomarkers in blood, while metabolites B4 (dihydrodiol formation on the indazole core), B9, and B16 are suitable biomarkers in urine. ADB-4en-PINACA (N-[1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-[pent-4-en-1-yl]-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide) was detected in Scottish prisons in December 2020, but, unlike ADB-BUTINACA, prevalence has remained low. ADB-4en-PINACA was incubated with HHeps, and 11 metabolites were identified. Metabolites E3 (dihydrodiol formed in the tail moiety) and E7 (hydroxylation on the linked/head group) are the most abundant metabolites in vitro and are suggested as urinary biomarkers. The in vitro potencies of ADB-BUTINACA (EC50 , 11.5 nM and ADB-4en-PINACA (EC50 , 11.6 nM) are similar to that of MDMB-4en-PINACA (EC50 , 4.3 nM). A third tert-leucinamide SCRA, ADB-HEXINACA was also detected in prison samples and warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kronstrand
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden.,Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden.,Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,RTI International, Research Triangle, North Carolina, USA
| | - Anoek Biemans
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Bryan Valencia Crespo
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Darren Edwards
- Drug Discovery Unit, Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Daniel Fletcher
- Drug Discovery Unit, Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.,BioAscent, Motherwell, UK
| | - Nicolas Gilbert
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Robert Reid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Olga Semenova
- Drug Discovery Unit, Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Faisal Al Teneiji
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.,General Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Toxicology Department, Dubai Police, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Xiongyu Wu
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Johan Dahlén
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Niamh NicDaéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Fuad Tarbah
- General Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Toxicology Department, Dubai Police, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Oliver B Sutcliffe
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.,Chiron AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden.,Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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21
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Krotulski AJ, Garibay N, Walther D, Walton SE, Mohr ALA, Logan BK, Baumann MH. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the synthetic cannabinoid, 5F-MDMB-PICA, in male rats. Neuropharmacology 2021; 199:108800. [PMID: 34547333 PMCID: PMC8511335 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
5F-MDMB-PICA is a popular synthetic cannabinoid associated with analytically confirmed intoxications. In vitro studies show 5F-MDMB-PICA is a potent cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB1) agonist, but little information is available about in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. To this end, the present study had three aims: 1) to develop a validated method for detection of 5F-MDMB-PICA and its metabolites in rat plasma, 2) to utilize the method for investigating pharmacokinetics of 5F-MDMB-PICA in rats, and 3) to relate 5F-MDMB-PICA pharmacokinetics to pharmacodynamic effects. 5F-MDMB-PICA and its metabolites were quantified using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and method validation followed forensic standards. Male Sprague-Dawley rats bearing surgically implanted jugular catheters and subcutaneous (s.c.) temperature transponders received 5F-MDMB-PICA (50, 100, or 200 μg/kg, s.c.) or its vehicle. Blood samples were drawn at 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 480 min post-injection, and plasma was assayed using LC-MS/MS. At each blood draw, body temperature, and catalepsy scores were recorded. Maximum plasma concentrations (Cmax) of 5F-MDMB-PICA rose linearly with increasing dose (1.72-6.20 ng/mL), and plasma half-life (t1/2) ranged from 400 to 1000 min 5F-MDMB-PICA-3,3-dimethylbutanoic acid and 5OH-MDMB-PICA were the only metabolites detected, and plasma concentrations were much lower than the parent drug. 5F-MDMB-PICA induced robust hypothermia and catalepsy-like symptoms that were significantly correlated with concentrations of 5F-MDMB-PICA. Radioligand binding in rat brain membranes revealed 5F-MDMB-PICA displays high affinity for CB1 (IC50 = 2 nM) while metabolites do not. In summary, 5F-MDMB-PICA is a potent CB1 agonist in rats whose pharmacodynamic effects are related to circulating concentrations of the parent drug and not its metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA; College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA.
| | - Nancy Garibay
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Sara E Walton
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA; College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA; College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA; NMS Labs, 200 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA, 19044, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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22
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Hehet P, Köke N, Zahn D, Frömel T, Rößler T, Knepper TP, Pütz M. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their human metabolites in sewage water: Stability assessment and identification of transformation products. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1758-1767. [PMID: 34272823 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Since their first appearance in 2008, synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain the most popular new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the EU. Following consumption, these drugs and their metabolites are urinary excreted and enter the sewage system enabling the application of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Knowing the fate of target analytes in sewage water is essential for successful application of WBE. This study investigates the stability of several chemically diverse SCRAs and selected human metabolites under sewage conditions utilizing a combination of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Target analytes included SCRAs with indole (5F-PB-22, PB-22 pentanoic acid), indazole (AMB-FUBINACA, 5F-ADB, 5F-ADB dimethylbutanoic acid), carbazole (MDMB-CHMCZCA, EG-018), and γ-carboline (Cumyl-PeGaClone) chemical core structures representing most of the basic core structures that have occurred up to now. Stability tests were performed using wastewater effluent containing 5% activated sludge as inoculum to monitor degradation processes and formation of transformation products (TPs). The majority of investigated SCRAs, excluding the selected human metabolites, was recalcitrant to microbial degradation in sewage systems over a period of 29 days. Their stability was rather controlled by physico-chemical processes like sorption and hydrolysis. Considering a typical hydraulic in-sewer retention time of 24 h, the concentration of AMB-FUBINACA decreased by 90% thus representing the most unstable SCRA investigated in this study. Among the 10 newly identified TPs, three could be considered as relevant markers and should be included into future WBE studies to gain further insight into use and prevalence of SCRAs on the drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Hehet
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany.,Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA), Forensic Science Institute, Wiesbaden, Germany
| | - Niklas Köke
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany
| | - Daniel Zahn
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany
| | - Tobias Frömel
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany
| | - Thorsten Rößler
- Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA), Forensic Science Institute, Wiesbaden, Germany
| | - Thomas P Knepper
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany
| | - Michael Pütz
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Institute for Analytical Research, Idstein, Germany.,Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA), Forensic Science Institute, Wiesbaden, Germany
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23
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Grafinger KE, Vandeputte MM, Cannaert A, Ametovski A, Sparkes E, Cairns E, Juchli PO, Haschimi B, Pulver B, Banister SD, Stove CP, Auwärter V. Systematic evaluation of a panel of 30 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists structurally related to MMB-4en-PICA, MDMB-4en-PINACA, ADB-4en-PINACA, and MMB-4CN-BUTINACA using a combination of binding and different CB1 receptor activation assays. Part III: The G protein pathway and critical comparison of different assays. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1412-1429. [PMID: 33908179 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The present work is the last of a three-part study investigating a panel of 30 systematically designed synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) including features such as the 4-pentenyl tail and varying head groups including amides and esters of l-valine (MMB, AB), l-tert-leucine (ADB), and l-phenylalanine (APP), as well as adamantyl (A) and cumyl moieties (CUMYL). Here, we evaluated these SCRAs for their capacity to activate the human cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1 ) via indirect measurement of G protein recruitment. Furthermore, we comparatively evaluated the results obtained from three in vitro assays, based on the recruitment of β-arrestin 2 (βarr2 assay) or Gαi protein (mini-Gαi assay), or binding of [35 S]-GTPγS. The observed efficacies (Emax ) varied depending on the conducted assay. Statistical analysis suggests that the population means of the relative intrinsic activity (RAi ) significantly differ for the [35 S]-GTPγS assay and the other two assays, but the population means of the βarr2 and mini-Gαi assays were not statistically different. Our data suggest that differences observed between the βarr2 and mini-Gαi assays are the best predictor for 'biased agonism' towards βarr or G protein recruitment in our study. SCRAs carrying an ADB or MPP moiety as a head group tended to produce elevated Emax values in the βarr2 assay, which might result in a tendency of these compounds to cause pronounced tolerance in users-a hypothesis that should be evaluated further by future studies. In general, a comparison of efficacies derived from different assays is difficult and should only be conducted very cautiously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Elisabeth Grafinger
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adam Ametovski
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Cairns
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Benedikt Pulver
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Samuel D Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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24
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Zagzoog A, Brandt AL, Black T, Kim ED, Burkart R, Patel M, Jin Z, Nikolaeva M, Laprairie RB. Assessment of select synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist bias and selectivity between the type 1 and type 2 cannabinoid receptor. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10611. [PMID: 34012003 PMCID: PMC8134483 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90167-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The first synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) were designed as tool compounds to study the endocannabinoid system's two predominant cannabinoid receptors, CB1R and CB2R. Unfortunately, novel SCRAs now represent the most rapidly proliferating novel psychoactive substances (NPS) of abuse globally. Unlike ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the CB1R and CB2R partial agonist and the intoxicating constituent of Cannabis, many SCRAs characterized to date are full agonists of CB1R. Gaining additional insight into the pharmacological activity of these SCRAs is critical to assess and regulate NPSs as they enter the marketplace. The purpose of this study was to assess select SCRAs recently identified by Canadian police, border service agency, private companies and the illicit market as potential CB1R and CB2R agonists. To this end, fifteen SCRAs were screened for in vitro activity and in silico interactions at CB1R and CB2R. Several SCRAs were identified as being highly biased for cAMP inhibition or βarrestin2 recruitment and receptor subtype selectivity between CB1R and CB2R. The indazole ring and halogen-substituted butyl or pentyl moieties were identified as two structural features that may direct βarrestin2 bias. Two highly-biased SCRAs-JWH-018 2'-napthyl-N-(3-methylbutyl) isomer (biased toward cAMP inhibition) and 4-fluoro MDMB-BINACA (biased toward βarrestin2 recruitment) displayed unique and differential in vivo activity in mice. These data provide initial insight into the correlations between structure, signalling bias, and in vivo activity of the SCRAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayat Zagzoog
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Asher L Brandt
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Tallan Black
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Eunhyun D Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Riley Burkart
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Robert B Laprairie
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 3B36, Health Sciences Building, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada.
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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25
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Qin S, Xin G, Wei J, He G, Yuan Z, Liu H, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhang WF, Lu J. Metabolic Profiles of 5F-MDMB-PICA in Human Urine, Serum, and Hair Samples Using LC-Q Exactive HF MS. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:408-420. [PMID: 33860792 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2020, 5F-MDMB-PICA (5F-MDMB-2201) was one of the most common synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) identified in drugs seized by the Beijing Drug Control Agency and it was categorized as Schedule II by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in March 2020. It is difficult to detect 5F-MDMB-PICA in biological matrices due to its fast metabolic rate in vivo. In this work, 5F-MDMB-PICA metabolic profiles were investigated by liquid chromatography-Q Exactive HF Hybrid Quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (LC-QE-HF-MS), with accurate mass measurements in human urine, serum, and pubic hair. To obtain intact metabolites, solid-phase extraction (SPE) for urine and serum and direct ultrasonic extraction for pubic hair were applied to clean the samples without enzymatic hydrolysis. The differences in 5F-MDMB-PICA metabolism in the three different matrices were compared for the first time to determine the best detection biomarkers for monitoring 5F-MDMB-PICA misuse. Urine samples were determined to be the preferred biological material for identifying 5F-MDMB-PICA abuse. Forty-seven intact metabolites were detected in human urine, the ester-hydrolyzed with glucuronidated metabolite in urine samples can be used as the primary biomarker to identify drug misuse. Fifteen metabolites were found in serum samples. Ester hydrolysis was considered to be the major metabolic pathway, and a large number of metabolites were involved with it. Zero metabolites apart from the parent drug were detected in pubic hair samples. Twenty-eight new metabolites and their metabolic pathways were characterized and tentatively identified by LC-QE-HF-MS, and a new potential biomarker (M5 Ester hydrolysis + propionic acid) was also identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyang Qin
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Guobin Xin
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Juanna Wei
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Genye He
- National Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zengping Yuan
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Hua Liu
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Xu Zhang
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Yuanfeng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Evidence Science, China University of Political Science and Law, No 26 Houtun South Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100025, China.,China Collaborative Innivation Center of Judical Civilization, No 26 Houtun South Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100025, China
| | - Wen Fang Zhang
- The Criminal Investigation Department of Beijing Public Security Bureau, 1st Longgang Road, Haidian District Beijing 100085, China (Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security)
| | - Jianghai Lu
- Drug and Food Anti-doping Laboratory, China Anti-Doping Agency, 1st Anding Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China
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26
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Grafinger KE, Cannaert A, Ametovski A, Sparkes E, Cairns E, Banister SD, Auwärter V, Stove CP. Systematic evaluation of a panel of 30 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists structurally related to MMB-4en-PICA, MDMB-4en-PINACA, ADB-4en-PINACA, and MMB-4CN-BUTINACA using a combination of binding and different CB 1 receptor activation assays-Part II: Structure activity relationship assessment via a β-arrestin recruitment assay. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1402-1411. [PMID: 33769699 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are the second largest class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and are associated with serious adverse effects and even death. Despite this, little pharmacological data are available for many of the most recent SCRAs. This study consists of three different parts, aiming to systematically evaluate a panel of 30 SCRAs using binding and different in vitro human cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1 ) activation assays. The present Part II investigated the SCRA analogs for their CB1 activation via a β-arrestin recruitment assay. The panel was systematically designed to include key structural sub-features of recent SCRAs. Thus, the 4-pentenyl tail of MMB-4en-PICA and MDMB-4en-PINACA was retained while incorporating varying head groups from other prevalent SCRAs, including amides and esters of L-valine, L-tert-leucine, and L-phenylalanine, and adamantyl and cumyl moieties. All 30 SCRAs activated CB1 , with indazoles generally showing the greatest potency (EC50 = 1.88-281 nM), followed by indoles (EC50 = 11.5-2293 nM), and the corresponding 7-azaindoles (EC50 = 62.4-9251 nM). Several subunit-linked structure-activity relationships were identified: (i) tert-leucine-functionalized SCRAs were more potent than the corresponding valine derivatives; (ii) no major difference in potency or efficacy was observed between tert-leucine/valine-derived amides and the corresponding methyl esters; however, phenylalanine analogs were affected by this change; and (iii) minor structural changes to the 4-pentenyl substituent had little influence on activity. These findings elucidate structural features that modulate the CB1 activation potential of currently prevalent SCRAs and a systematic panel of analogs, some of which may appear in NPS markets in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Elisabeth Grafinger
- Laboratory of Toxicology Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adam Ametovski
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Cairns
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Samuel D Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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A Systematic Study of the In Vitro Pharmacokinetics and Estimated Human In Vivo Clearance of Indole and Indazole-3-Carboxamide Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists Detected on the Illicit Drug Market. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26051396. [PMID: 33807614 PMCID: PMC7961380 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26051396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro pharmacokinetic studies were conducted on enantiomer pairs of twelve valinate or tert-leucinate indole and indazole-3-carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) detected on the illicit drug market to investigate their physicochemical parameters and structure-metabolism relationships (SMRs). Experimentally derived Log D7.4 ranged from 2.81 (AB-FUBINACA) to 4.95 (MDMB-4en-PINACA) and all SCRAs tested were highly protein bound, ranging from 88.9 ± 0.49% ((R)-4F-MDMB-BINACA) to 99.5 ± 0.08% ((S)-MDMB-FUBINACA). Most tested SCRAs were cleared rapidly in vitro in pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) and pooled cryopreserved human hepatocytes (pHHeps). Intrinsic clearance (CLint) ranged from 13.7 ± 4.06 ((R)-AB-FUBINACA) to 2944 ± 95.9 mL min−1 kg−1 ((S)-AMB-FUBINACA) in pHLM, and from 110 ± 34.5 ((S)-AB-FUBINACA) to 3216 ± 607 mL min−1 kg−1 ((S)-AMB-FUBINACA) in pHHeps. Predicted Human in vivo hepatic clearance (CLH) ranged from 0.34 ± 0.09 ((S)-AB-FUBINACA) to 17.79 ± 0.20 mL min−1 kg−1 ((S)-5F-AMB-PINACA) in pHLM and 1.39 ± 0.27 ((S)-MDMB-FUBINACA) to 18.25 ± 0.12 mL min−1 kg−1 ((S)-5F-AMB-PINACA) in pHHeps. Valinate and tert-leucinate indole and indazole-3-carboxamide SCRAs are often rapidly metabolised in vitro but are highly protein bound in vivo and therefore predicted in vivo CLH is much slower than CLint. This is likely to give rise to longer detection windows of these substances and their metabolites in urine, possibly as a result of accumulation of parent drug in lipid-rich tissues, with redistribution into the circulatory system and subsequent metabolism.
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Overview of Synthetic Cannabinoids ADB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA: Clinical, Analytical, and Forensic Implications. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14030186. [PMID: 33669071 PMCID: PMC7996508 DOI: 10.3390/ph14030186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
ADB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA are two synthetic indazole-derived cannabinoid receptor agonists, up to 140- and 85-fold more potent, respectively, than trans-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC), the main psychoactive compound of cannabis. Synthesised in 2009 as a pharmaceutical drug candidate, the recreational use of ADB-FUBINACA was first reported in 2013 in Japan, with fatal cases being described in 2015. ADB-FUBINACA is one of the most apprehended and consumed synthetic cannabinoid (SC), following AMB-FUBINACA, which emerged in 2014 as a drug of abuse and has since been responsible for several intoxication and death outbreaks. Here, we critically review the physicochemical properties, detection methods, prevalence, biological effects, pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of both drugs. When smoked, these SCs produce almost immediate effects (about 10 to 15 s after use) that last up to 60 min. They are rapidly and extensively metabolised, being the O-demethylated metabolite of AMB-FUBINACA, 2-(1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide)-3-methylbutanoic acid, the main excreted in urine, while for ADB-FUBINACA the main biomarkers are the hydroxdimethylpropyl ADB-FUBINACA, hydroxydehydrodimethylpropyl ADB-FUBINACA and hydroxylindazole ADB-FUBINACA. ADB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA display full agonism of the CB1 receptor, this being responsible for their cardiovascular and neurological effects (e.g., altered perception, agitation, anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, loss of consciousness and memory, chest pain, hypertension, tachycardia, seizures). This review highlights the urgent requirement for additional studies on the toxicokinetic properties of AMB-FUBINACA and ADB-FUBINACA, as this is imperative to improve the methods for detecting and quantifying these drugs and to determine the best exposure markers in the various biological matrices. Furthermore, it stresses the need for clinicians and pathologists involved in the management of these intoxications to describe their findings in the scientific literature, thus assisting in the risk assessment and treatment of the harmful effects of these drugs in future medical and forensic investigations.
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Chen X, Wu X, Luan T, Jiang R, Ouyang G. Sample preparation and instrumental methods for illicit drugs in environmental and biological samples: A review. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1640:461961. [PMID: 33582515 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.461961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Detection of illicit drugs in the environmental samples has been challenged as the consumption increases globally. Current review examines the recent developments and applications of sample preparation techniques for illicit drugs in solid, liquid, and gas samples. For solid samples, traditional sample preparation methods such as liquid-phase extraction, solid-phase extraction, and the ones with external energy including microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted, and pressurized liquid extraction were commonly used. The sample preparation methods mainly applied for liquid samples were microextraction techniques including solid-phase microextraction, microextraction by packed sorbent, dispersive solid-phase extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, hollow fiber-based liquid-phase microextraction, and so on. Capillary microextraction of volatiles and airborne particulate sampling were primarily utilized to extract illicit drugs from gas samples. Besides, the paper introduced recently developed instrumental techniques applied to detect illicit drugs. Liquid chromatograph mass spectrometry and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were the most widely used methods for illicit drugs samples. In addition, the development of ambient mass spectrometry techniques, such as desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and paper spray mass spectrometry, created potential for rapid in-situ analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlv Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Xinyan Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Tiangang Luan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Psychoactive Substances Monitoring and safety, Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, 100 Waihuanxi Road, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ruifen Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China.
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou, 510070, China; Chemistry College, Center of Advanced Analysis and Gene Sequencing, Zhengzhou University, Kexue Avenue 100, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
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30
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Norman C, Halter S, Haschimi B, Acreman D, Smith J, Krotulski AJ, Mohr ALA, Logan BK, NicDaéid N, Auwärter V, McKenzie C. A transnational perspective on the evolution of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists market: Comparing prison and general populations. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:841-852. [PMID: 33463894 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) market is transnational, and the availability of individual SCRAs changes regularly in response to national and international legislative controls. This generates a cyclic pattern and near constant evolution of SCRA compounds. This study reports toxicology-based and/or seized sample-based prevalence data relating to SCRA use in prisons from Germany, the United Kingdom (UK; Scotland and Wales), and the United States (US), representing 4427 individual test results. The study examines SCRA detections in prisons from July 2018 to September 2020, and where possible, prison-based data are compared with SCRA prevalence data in the wider population. The relative influence of Chinese, other international, and national drug legislation on the prevalence of individual SCRAs in prisons is also considered. tert-Leucinate- and valinate-indole- and indazole-3-carboxamides were the most common SCRA detections, and MDMB-4en-PINACA was one of the most commonly detected SCRAs in all jurisdictions by September 2020. However, despite there being a global production and supply market, there were notable regional differences. Analog controls in German and US legislation may have led to increased compound diversity that is not reflected in the UK which has both analog controls and a blanket ban on psychoactive substances. While there were regional differences, SCRA prevalence in prisons closely aligned with the SCRAs detected on the local market, demonstrating that SCRA (and possibly other NPS) monitoring programs in prisons can act as early warning systems for the wider population in that given jurisdiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Sebastian Halter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dean Acreman
- Welsh Emerging Drugs and Identification of Novel Substances Project, Public Health, Wales, UK
| | - Josie Smith
- Welsh Emerging Drugs and Identification of Novel Substances Project, Public Health, Wales, UK
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA.,NMS Labs, Horsham, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Niamh NicDaéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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Cannaert A, Sparkes E, Pike E, Luo JL, Fang A, Kevin RC, Ellison R, Gerona R, Banister SD, Stove CP. Synthesis and in Vitro Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Activity of Recently Detected Synthetic Cannabinoids 4F-MDMB-BICA, 5F-MPP-PICA, MMB-4en-PICA, CUMYL-CBMICA, ADB-BINACA, APP-BINACA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, MDMB-4en-PINACA, A-CHMINACA, 5F-AB-P7AICA, 5F-MDMB-P7AICA, and 5F-AP7AICA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:4434-4446. [PMID: 33253529 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are an evolving class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) with structurally diverse compounds emerging each year. Due to the rapid pace at which these drugs enter the market, there is often little or nil information regarding the pharmacology of these substances despite widespread human use. In this study, 12 recently emerged SCRAs (reported between 2018 and 2020) were synthesized, analytically characterized, and pharmacologically evaluated using a live cell-based nanoluciferase complementation reporter assay that monitors in vitro cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) activation via its interaction with β-arrestin 2 (βarr2). All synthesized SCRAs acted as agonists of CB1, although differences in potency (EC50 = 2.33-5475 nM) and efficacy (Emax = 37-378%) were noted, and several structure-activity relationships were identified. SCRAs featuring indazole cores (EC50 = 2.33-159 nM) were generally of equal or greater potency than indole analogues (EC50 = 32.9-330 nM) or 7-azaindole derivatives (EC50 = 64.0-5475 nM). Interestingly, with the exception of APP-BINACA (Emax = 75.7%) and 5F-A-P7AICA (Emax = 37.4%), all SCRAs showed greater efficacy than the historical SCRA JWH-018 to which responses were normalized (Emax = 142-378%). The most potent CB1 agonists in the study were ADB-BINACA (EC50 = 6.36 nM), 4F-MDMB-BINACA (EC50 = 7.39 nM), and MDMB-4en-PINACA (EC50 = 2.33 nM). Notably, all of these SCRAs featured an indazole core as well as a "bulky" tert-butyl moiety in the pendant amino acid side chain. This study confirms that recently detected SCRAs 4F-MDMB-BICA, 5F-MPP-PICA, MMB-4en-PICA, CUMYL-CBMICA, ADB-BINACA, APP-BINACA, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, MDMB-4en-PINACA, A-CHMINACA, 5F-AB-P7AICA, 5F-MDMB-P7AICA, and 5F-AP7AICA were all able to activate the CB1 receptor in vitro, albeit to different extents, and are potentially psychoactive in vivo. These results indicate that further evaluation of these widely used NPS is warranted to better understand the risks associated with human consumption of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent B-9000, Belgium
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Edward Pike
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
- Department of Chemistry, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Jia Lin Luo
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Ada Fang
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Richard C. Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Ross Ellison
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Roy Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent B-9000, Belgium
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32
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Presley BC, Castaneto MS, Logan BK, Jansen-Varnum SA. Metabolic profiling of synthetic cannabinoid 5F-ADB and identification of metabolites in authentic human blood samples via human liver microsome incubation and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34:e8908. [PMID: 32710798 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids, a prevalent class of recreational drugs, are a major clinical, forensic and public health challenge. One such compound, 5F-ADB, has been implicated in fatalities worldwide. Understanding its metabolism and distribution facilitates the development of laboratory assays to substantiate its consumption. Synthetic cannabinoid metabolites have been extensively studied in urine; studies identifying metabolites in blood are limited and no data on the metabolic stability (half-life, clearance and extraction ratio) of 5F-ADB have been published prior to this report. METHODS The in vitro metabolism of 5F-ADB was elucidated via incubation with human liver microsomes for 2 h at 37°C. Samples were collected at multiple time points to determine its metabolic stability. Upon identification of metabolites, authentic forensic human blood samples underwent liquid-liquid extraction and were screened for metabolites. Extracts were analyzed via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/QTOFMS) operated in positive electrospray ionization mode. RESULTS Seven metabolites were identified including oxidative defluorination (M1); carboxypentyl (M2); monohydroxylation of the fluoropentyl chain (M3.1/M3.2) and indazole ring system (M4); ester hydrolysis (M5); and ester hydrolysis with oxidative defluorination (M6). The half-life (3.1 min), intrinsic clearance (256.2 mL min-1 kg-1 ), hepatic clearance (18.6 mL min-1 kg-1 ) and extraction ratio (0.93) were determined for the first time. In blood, M1 was present in each sample as the most abundant substance; two samples contained M5; one contained 5F-ADB, M1 and M5. CONCLUSIONS 5F-ADB is rapidly metabolized in HLM. 5F-ADB, M1 and M5 are pharmacologically active at the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 /CB2 ) and M1 and M5 may contribute to a user's impairment profile. The results demonstrate that it is imperative that synthetic cannabinoid assays screen for pharmacologically active metabolites, especially for drugs with short half-lives. The authors propose that M1 and M5 are appropriate markers to include in laboratory blood tests screening for 5F-ADB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Presley
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13 St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Marisol S Castaneto
- Department of Pathology, Tripler Army Medical Center, 1 Jarrett White Rd., Honolulu, HI, 96859, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
| | - Susan A Jansen-Varnum
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13 St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
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33
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Patel M, Finlay DB, Glass M. Biased agonism at the cannabinoid receptors - Evidence from synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Cell Signal 2020; 78:109865. [PMID: 33259937 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The type 1 and type 2 cannabinoid receptors are G protein-coupled receptors implicated in a variety of physiological processes and diseases. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) were originally developed to explore the therapeutic benefits of cannabinoid receptor activation, although more recently, these compounds have been diverted to the recreational drug market and are increasingly associated with incidences of toxicity. A prominent concept in contemporary pharmacology is functional selectivity or biased agonism, which describes the ability of ligands to elicit differential activation of signalling pathways through stabilisation of distinct receptor conformations. Biased agonists may maximise drug effectiveness by reducing on-target adverse effects if they are mediated by signalling pathways distinct from those that drive the therapeutic effects. For the cannabinoid receptors, it remains unclear as to which signalling pathways mediate desirable and adverse effects. However, given their structural diversity and potential to induce a plethora of signalling effects, SCRAs provide the most promising prospect for detecting and studying bias at the cannabinoid receptors. This review summarises the emerging evidence of SCRA bias at the cannabinoid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - David B Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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34
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Lie W, Cheong EJY, Goh EML, Moy HY, Cannaert A, Stove CP, Chan ECY. Diagnosing intake and rationalizing toxicities associated with 5F-MDMB-PINACA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA abuse. Arch Toxicol 2020; 95:489-508. [PMID: 33236189 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02948-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
5F-MDMB-PINACA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA are synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) that elicit cannabinoid psychoactive effects. Defining pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationships governing SCs and their metabolites are paramount to investigating their in vivo toxicological outcomes. However, the disposition kinetics and cannabinoid receptor (CB) activities of the primary metabolites of SCs are largely unknown. Additionally, reasons underlying the selection of ester hydrolysis metabolites (EHMs) as urinary biomarkers are often unclear. Here, metabolic reaction phenotyping was performed to identify key metabolizing enzymes of the parent SCs. Hepatic clearances of parent SCs and their EHMs were estimated from microsomal metabolic stability studies. Renal clearances were simulated using a mechanistic kidney model incorporating in vitro permeability and organic anionic transporter 3 (OAT3)-mediated uptake data. Overall clearances were considered in tandem with estimated volumes of distribution for in vivo biological half-lives (t1/2) predictions. Interactions of the compounds with CB1 and CB2 were investigated using a G-protein coupled receptor activation assay. We demonstrated that similar enzymatic isoforms were implicated in the metabolism of 5F-MDMB-PINACA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA. Our in vivo t1/2 determinations verified the rapid elimination of parent SCs and suggest prolonged circulation of their EHMs. The pronounced attenuation of the potencies and efficacies of the metabolites against CB1 and CB2 further suggests how toxic manifestations of SC abuse are likely precipitated by augmented exposure to parent SCs. Notably, basolateral OAT3-mediated uptake of the EHMs substantiates their higher urinary abundance. These novel insights underscore the importance of mechanistic, quantitative and systematic characterization of PK-PD relationships in rationalizing the toxicities of SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Lie
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Eleanor Jing Yi Cheong
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Evelyn Mei Ling Goh
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, 11 Outram Road, Singapore, 169078, Singapore
| | - Hooi Yan Moy
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, 11 Outram Road, Singapore, 169078, Singapore
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Eric Chun Yong Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore.
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Ametovski A, Macdonald C, Manning JJ, Haneef SAS, Santiago M, Martin L, Sparkes E, Reckers A, Gerona RR, Connor M, Glass M, Banister SD. Exploring Stereochemical and Conformational Requirements at Cannabinoid Receptors for Synthetic Cannabinoids Related to SDB-006, 5F-SDB-006, CUMYL-PICA, and 5F-CUMYL-PICA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:3672-3682. [PMID: 33054155 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) represent the most rapidly expanding class of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). Despite the prevalence and potency of recent chiral indole-3-carboxamide SCRAs, few pharmacological data are available regarding the enantiomeric bias of these NPSs toward human CB1 and CB2 receptors. A series of homochiral indole-3-carboxamides derived from (S)- and (R)-α-methylbenzylamine and featuring variation of the 1-alkyl substituent were prepared, pharmacologically evaluated, and compared to related achiral congeners derived from cumyl- and benzylamine. Competitive binding assays demonstrated that all analogues derived from either enantiomer of α-methylbenzylamine (14-17) showed affinities for CB1 (Ki = 47.9-813 nM) and CB2 (Ki = 47.9-347 nM) that were intermediate to that of the corresponding benzylic (10-13, CB1 Ki = 550 nM to >10 μM; CB2 Ki = 61.7 nM to >10 μM) and cumyl derivatives (6-9, CB1 Ki = 12.6-21.4 nM; CB2 Ki = 2.95-24.5 nM). In a fluorometric membrane potential assay, all α-methylbenzyl analogues (excluding 17) were potent, efficacious agonists of CB1 (EC50 = 32-464 nM; Emax = 89-104%) and low efficacy agonists of CB2 (EC50 = 54-500 nM; Emax = 52-77%), with comparable or greater potency than the benzyl analogues and much lower potency than the cumyl derivatives, consistent with binding trends. The relatively greater affinity and potency of (S)-14-17 compared to (R)-14-17 analogues at CB1 highlighted an enantiomeric bias for this series of SCRAs. Molecular dynamics simulations provided a conformational basis for the observed differences in agonist potency at CB1 pending benzylic substitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ametovski
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Christa Macdonald
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jamie J. Manning
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - S. A. Syed Haneef
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Marina Santiago
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Lewis Martin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Andrew Reckers
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Roy R. Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
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Walsh KB, Andersen HK. Molecular Pharmacology of Synthetic Cannabinoids: Delineating CB1 Receptor-Mediated Cell Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6115. [PMID: 32854313 PMCID: PMC7503917 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a class of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) that exhibit high affinity binding to the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and display a pharmacological profile similar to the phytocannabinoid (-)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). SCs are marketed under brand names such as K2 and Spice and are popular drugs of abuse among male teenagers and young adults. Since their introduction in the early 2000s, SCs have grown in number and evolved in structural diversity to evade forensic detection and drug scheduling. In addition to their desirable euphoric and antinociceptive effects, SCs can cause severe toxicity including seizures, respiratory depression, cardiac arrhythmias, stroke and psychosis. Binding of SCs to the CB1 receptor, expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, stimulates pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins (Gi/Go) resulting in the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, a decreased opening of N-type Ca2+ channels and the activation of G protein-gated inward rectifier (GIRK) channels. This combination of signaling effects dampens neuronal activity in both CNS excitatory and inhibitory pathways by decreasing action potential formation and neurotransmitter release. Despite this knowledge, the relationship between the chemical structure of the SCs and their CB1 receptor-mediated molecular actions is not well understood. In addition, the potency and efficacy of newer SC structural groups has not been determined. To address these limitations, various cell-based assay technologies are being utilized to develop structure versus activity relationships (SAR) for the SCs and to explore the effects of these compounds on noncannabinoid receptor targets. This review focuses on describing and evaluating these assays and summarizes our current knowledge of SC molecular pharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth B. Walsh
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, University of South Carolina, School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29208, USA;
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37
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Schmid MG, Hägele JS. Separation of enantiomers and positional isomers of novel psychoactive substances in solid samples by chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques – A selective review. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1624:461256. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Presley BC, Castaneto MS, Logan BK, Jansen-Varnum SA. Assessment of synthetic cannabinoid FUB-AMB and its ester hydrolysis metabolite in human liver microsomes and human blood samples using UHPLC-MS/MS. Biomed Chromatogr 2020; 34:e4884. [PMID: 32415732 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
FUB-AMB, an indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid recreational drug, was one of the compounds most frequently reported to governmental agencies worldwide between 2016 and 2019. It has been implicated in intoxications and fatalities, posing a risk to public health. In the current study, FUB-AMB was incubated with human liver microsomes (HLM) to assess its metabolic fate and stability and to determine if its major ester hydrolysis metabolite (M1) was present in 12 authentic forensic human blood samples from driving under the influence of drug cases and postmortem investigations using UHPLC-MS/MS. FUB-AMB was rapidly metabolized in HLM, generating M1 that was stable through a 120-min incubation period, a finding that indicates a potential long detection window in human biological samples. M1 was identified in all blood samples, and no parent drug was detected. The authors propose that M1 is a reliable marker for inclusion in laboratory blood screens for FUB-AMB; this metabolite may be pharmacologically active like its precursor FUB-AMB. M1 frequently appears in samples in which the parent drug is undetectable and can point to the causative agent. The results suggest that it is imperative that synthetic cannabinoid laboratory assay panels include metabolites, especially known or potential pharmacologically active metabolites, particularly for compounds with short half-lives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Presley
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Barry K Logan
- The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA
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39
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Janssens L, Cannaert A, Connolly MJ, Liu H, Stove CP. In vitro
activity profiling of Cumyl‐PEGACLONE variants at the CB
1
receptor: Fluorination
versus
isomer exploration. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1336-1343. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liesl Janssens
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Ghent University Ghent Belgium
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Ghent University Ghent Belgium
| | | | | | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Ghent University Ghent Belgium
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40
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Presley BC, Logan BK, Jansen-Varnum SA. In Vitro Metabolic Profile Elucidation of Synthetic Cannabinoid APP-CHMINACA (PX-3). J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:226-236. [PMID: 31665324 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids remain the most prevalent subclass of new psychoactive substances (NPS) reported internationally. However, the metabolic and pharmacological properties of many of these compounds remain unknown. Elucidating these characteristics allows members of the clinical and forensic communities to identify causative agents in patient samples, as well as render conclusions regarding their toxic effects. This work presents a detailed report on the in vitro phase I metabolism of indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid APP-CHMINACA (PX-3). Incubation of APP-CHMINACA with human liver microsomes, followed by analysis of extracts via high-resolution mass spectrometry, yielded 12 metabolites, encompassing 7 different metabolite classes. Characterization of the metabolites was achieved by evaluating the product ion spectra, accurate mass and chemical formula generated for each metabolite. The predominant biotransformations observed were hydrolysis of the distal amide group and hydroxylation of the cyclohexylmethyl (CHM) substituent. Nine metabolites were amide hydrolysis products, of which five were monohydroxylated, one dihydroxylated and two were ketone products. The metabolites in greatest abundance in the study were products of amide hydrolysis with no further biotransformation (M1), followed by amide hydrolysis with monohydroxylation (M2.1). Three APP-CHMINACA-specific metabolites were generated, all of which were hydroxylated on the CHM group; one mono-, di- and tri-hydroxylated metabolite each was produced, with dihydroxylation (M6) present in the greatest abundance. The authors propose that metabolites M1, M2.1 and M6 are the most appropriate markers to determine consumption of APP-CHMINACA. The methods used in the current study have broad applicability and have been used to determine the in vitro metabolic profiles of multiple synthetic cannabinoids and other classes of NPS. This research can be used to guide analytical scientists in method development, synthesis of reference material, pharmacological testing of proposed metabolites and prediction of metabolic processes of compounds yet to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Presley
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave., Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | - Susan A Jansen-Varnum
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
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41
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Carroll FI, Lewin AH, Mascarella SW, Seltzman HH, Reddy PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective (II). Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1489:48-77. [PMID: 32396701 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
During 2012-2018, the clandestine manufacture of new psychoactive substances (NPS) designed to circumvent substance control regulations increased exponentially worldwide, with concomitant increase in fatalities. This review focuses on three compound classes identified as synthetic opioids, synthetic amphetamines, and synthetic cannabinoids and highlights the medicinal chemistry precedents utilized by clandestine laboratories to develop new NPS with increased brain penetration, longer duration of action, and greater potency. Chemical approaches to illicit drug abuse treatment options, particularly for opioid use disorder, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ivy Carroll
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Anita H Lewin
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - S Wayne Mascarella
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Herbert H Seltzman
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - P Anantha Reddy
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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42
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Takeda A, Doi T, Asada A, Suzuki T, Yuzawa K, Ando H, Kubo Y, Nagasawa A, Kaihoko F, Hasegawa Y, Tanaka K, Igarashi K, Maeno T, Suzuki A, Shimizu S, Uemura N, Nakajima J, Suzuki J, Tagami T. Evaluation of carboxamide-type synthetic cannabinoids on the functional activities at cannabinoid receptors and biological effects via inhalation exposure test. Forensic Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-020-00534-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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43
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Norman C, Walker G, McKirdy B, McDonald C, Fletcher D, Antonides LH, Sutcliffe OB, Nic Daéid N, McKenzie C. Detection and quantitation of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in infused papers from prisons in a constantly evolving illicit market. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:538-554. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Norman
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Gillian Walker
- Public Protection Unit, Scottish Prison Service Edinburgh UK
| | - Brian McKirdy
- Public Protection Unit, Scottish Prison Service Edinburgh UK
| | - Ciara McDonald
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Department of Pure and Applied ChemistryUniversity of Strathclyde UK
| | - Daniel Fletcher
- Drug Discovery Unit, School of Life SciencesUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Lysbeth H. Antonides
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic ScienceUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Oliver B. Sutcliffe
- Division of Chemistry and Environmental ScienceManchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic ScienceUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
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Cannaert A, Ramírez Fernández MDM, Theunissen EL, Ramaekers JG, Wille SMR, Stove CP. Semiquantitative Activity-Based Detection of JWH-018, a Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonist, in Oral Fluid after Vaping. Anal Chem 2020; 92:6065-6071. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c00484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Maria del Mar Ramírez Fernández
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 98, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eef L. Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Sarah M. R. Wille
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 98, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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45
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Alam RM, Keating JJ. Adding more "spice" to the pot: A review of the chemistry and pharmacology of newly emerging heterocyclic synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:297-315. [PMID: 31854124 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) first appeared on the international recreational drug market in the early 2000s in the form of SCRA-containing herbal blends. Due to the cannabimimetic effects associated with the consumption of SCRAs, they have acquired an ill-informed reputation for being cheap, safe, and legal alternatives to illicit cannabis. Possessing high potency and affinity for the human cannabinoid receptor subtype-1 (CB1 ) and -2 (CB2 ), it is now understood that the recreational use of SCRAs can have severe adverse health consequences. The major public health problem arising from SCRA use has pressed legislators around the world to employ various control strategies to curb their recreational use. To circumvent legislative control measures, SCRA manufacturers have created a wide range of SCRA analogs that contain, more recently, previously unencountered azaindole, γ-carbolinone, or carbazole heterocyclic scaffolds. At present, little information is available regarding the chemical syntheses of these newly emerging classes of SCRA, from a clandestine perspective. When compared with previous generations of indole- and indazole-type SCRAs, current research suggests that many of these heterocyclic SCRA analogs maintain high affinity and efficacy at both CB1 and CB2 but largely evade legislative control. This review highlights the importance of continued research in the field of SCRA chemistry and pharmacology, as recreational SCRA use remains a global public health issue and represents a serious control challenge for law enforcement agencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Alam
- Analytical & Biological Chemistry Research Facility (ABCRF), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John J Keating
- Analytical & Biological Chemistry Research Facility (ABCRF), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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46
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Krotulski AJ, Mohr ALA, Diamond FX, Logan BK. Detection and characterization of the new synthetic cannabinoid APP-BINACA in forensic casework. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:136-144. [PMID: 31788963 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) continue to emerge around the world. APP-BINACA (or APP-BUTINACA), a novel synthetic cannabinoid, was first reported in Europe in January 2019 and later in the United States in March 2019. APP-BINACA was identified in the United States for the first time in blood sample extracts from forensic casework by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). To date, APP-BINACA has been identified in 11 forensic toxicology cases from five states and in both medicolegal death investigations and drug impaired driving investigations. APP-BINACA was commonly found in combination with 4F-MDMB-BINACA. Subsequent to its discovery in biological samples, APP-BINACA was detected and characterized in seized drug material by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), LC-QTOF-MS, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Further analysis of biological specimens resulted in the identification of five metabolites, including 4-HO-APP-BINACA and APP-BINACA 3-phenylpropanoic acid. The frequency of APP-BINACA detection appears to be increasing and this new synthetic cannabinoid has been identified as a possible contributory factor in adverse events, including death. This is the first literature report regarding the characterization of the new synthetic cannabinoid APP-BINACA in humans. Since it is not widely tested for, it is not yet known the extent to which APP-BINACA is contributing to morbidity and mortality, but forensic scientists, public health officials, and others should be aware of its possible presence and impact. Laboratories should incorporate APP-BINACA into testing workflows for detection and confirmation, where possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,NMS Labs, Willow Grove, PA, USA
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47
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Wouters E, Walraed J, Banister SD, Stove CP. Insights into biased signaling at cannabinoid receptors: synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 169:113623. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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48
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Finlay DB, Manning JJ, Ibsen MS, Macdonald CE, Patel M, Javitch JA, Banister SD, Glass M. Do Toxic Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists Have Signature in Vitro Activity Profiles? A Case Study of AMB-FUBINACA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:4350-4360. [PMID: 31513380 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Recreational consumption of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) is a growing crisis in public health in many parts of the world. AMB-FUBINACA is a member of this class of drugs and is responsible for a large proportion of SCRA-related toxicity both in New Zealand and internationally. Strikingly, little is currently known about the mechanisms by which SCRAs exert toxic effects or whether their activity through the CB1 cannabinoid receptor (the mediator of cannabinoid-related psychoactivity) is sufficient to explain clinical observations. The current study therefore set out to perform a basic molecular pharmacology characterization of AMB-FUBINACA (in comparison to traditional research cannabinoids CP55,940, WIN55,212-2, and Δ9-THC) in fundamental pathways of receptor activity, including cAMP inhibition, pERK activation, ability to drive CB1 internalization, and ability to induce translocation of β-arrestins-1 and -2. Activity pathways were then compared by operational analysis to indicate whether AMB-FUBINACA may be a biased ligand. Results revealed that AMB-FUBINACA is highly efficacious and potent in all pathways assayed. However, surprisingly, bias analysis suggested that Δ9-THC, not AMB-FUBINACA, may be a biased ligand, with it being less active in both arrestin pathways than predicted by the activity of the other ligands tested. These data may help predict molecular characteristics of SCRAs. However, more research is required to determine whether these molecular effects manifest in toxicity at tissue/system level.
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Affiliation(s)
- David B. Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jamie J. Manning
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Mikkel Søes Ibsen
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Christa E. Macdonald
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Monica Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan A. Javitch
- Department of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Campterdown, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
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