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Deventer MH, Persson M, Norman C, Liu H, Connolly MJ, Daéid NN, McKenzie C, Gréen H, Stove CP. In vitro cannabinoid activity profiling of generic ban-evading brominated synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their analogs. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:616-628. [PMID: 37903509 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023]
Abstract
Following the enactment of a generic ban in China in 2021, the synthetic cannabinoid market has been evolving, now encompassing even wider structural diversity. Compounds carrying a brominated core such as ADB-5'Br-BUTINACA (ADMB-B-5Br-INACA) and tail-less analogs, such as ADB-5'Br-INACA (ADMB-5Br-INACA), MDMB-5'Br-INACA, and ADB-INACA (ADMB-INACA), have been detected since late 2021. This study investigated the cannabinoid receptor (CB) activation potential of synthesized (S)-enantiomers of these substances, as well as of two predicted analogs MDMB-5'Br-BUTINACA (MDMB-B-5Br-INACA) and ADB-5'F-BUTINACA (ADMB-B-5F-INACA), using CB1 and CB2 β-arrestin 2 recruitment assays and a CB1 intracellular calcium release assay. Surprisingly, the tail-less (S)-ADB-5'Br-INACA and (S)-MDMB-5'Br-INACA retained CB activity, albeit with a decreased potency compared to their tailed counterparts (S)-ADB-5'Br-BUTINACA and (S)-MDMB-5'Br-BUTINACA, respectively, which were potent and efficacious CB1 agonists. Also, at CB2, tail-less analogs showed a lower potency but increased efficacy. Removing the bromine substitution ((S)-ADB-INACA) resulted in a reduced activity at CB1; however, this effect was less prominent at CB2. Looking at tailed analogs, replacing the bromine with a fluorine substitution ((S)-ADB-5'F-BUTINACA) resulted in an increased potency and efficacy at both receptors. Furthermore, as ADB-5'Br-INACA and MDMB-5'Br-INACA have been frequently detected together in Scottish prisons, this study also evaluated the CB1 receptor activation potential of different mixtures of their respective reference standards, showing no unexpected cannabimimetic effect of combining both substances. Lastly, two powders seized by Belgian Customs and confirmed to contain ADB-5'Br-INACA and MDMB-5'Br-INACA, respectively, were assessed for CB activity. Based on the comparison with their reference standards, varying degrees of purity were suspected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | | | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Chiron AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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2
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Marland V, Reid R, Brandon AM, Hill K, Cruickshanks F, McKenzie C, Norman C, Nic Daéid N, Menard H. Changing trends in novel benzodiazepine use within Scottish prisons: detection, quantitation, prevalence, and modes of use. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:457-472. [PMID: 37587559 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Drug use within prisons is increasingly complex and unpredictable. Benzodiazepines are currently one of the most common drugs detected in individuals leaving Scottish prisons; however, understanding illicit benzodiazepine use within prisons and assessing the potential harm to individuals is challenging due to the lack of available analytical data on the substances circulating. Increasingly, materials, such as paper and clothing, infused with novel benzodiazepines have been identified as a smuggling route into Scottish prisons. Methods were developed for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and applied to 495 seized samples from 11 Scottish prisons, including papers, cards, blotters, powders, tablets, and clothing. Evolution in the benzodiazepines being detected was demonstrated, with etizolam being the most prevalent throughout 2020/2021 following which flubromazepam and bromazolam detections increased. Additionally, significant changes in the smuggling methods and drug formats detected occurred over time following policy changes within prisons. These data represent the first reported widescale etizolam quantitation data and demonstrate high levels of variability across all sample types, most notably within tablets (0.34-2.33 mg per tablet). Additionally, concentration mapping of a whole seized card sample revealed the total concentration of drug present (312.5 mg) and demonstrated variability across the surface of the card (1.16-1.87 mg/cm2). These data highlight the challenges of consistent dosing for individuals and the high risks of unintentional overdose. Increased understanding of the challenge of such drug smuggling and benzodiazepine use will aid in the development of strategies to reduce supply and mitigate harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Marland
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Robert Reid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Andrew M Brandon
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Kevin Hill
- Public Protection Unit, Scottish Prison Service, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Chiron AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Herve Menard
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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3
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Norman C, Deventer MH, Dremann O, Reid R, Van Uytfanghe K, Guillou C, Vinckier IMJ, Nic Daéid N, Krotulski A, Stove CP. In vitro cannabinoid receptor activity, metabolism, and detection in seized samples of CH-PIATA, a new indole-3-acetamide synthetic cannabinoid. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:380-391. [PMID: 37491777 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The rapidly evolving synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) market poses significant challenges for forensic scientists. Since the enactment of a generic ban in China, a variety of new compounds have emerged capable of evading the legislation by carrying new structural features. One recent example of a SCRA with new linker and head moieties is CH-PIATA (CH-PIACA, CHX-PIATA, CHX-PIACA). CH-PIATA bears an additional methylene spacer in the linker moiety between the indole core and the traditional carbonyl component of the linker. This study describes detections in 2022 of this new SCRA in the United States, Belgium, and Scottish prisons. CH-PIATA was detected once in a seized powder by Belgian customs and 12 times in Scottish prisons in infused papers or resin. The metabolites of CH-PIATA were investigated via in vitro human liver microsome (HLM) incubations and eight metabolites were identified, dominated by oxidative biotransformations. A blood sample from the United States was confirmed to contain a mixture of SCRAs including CH-PIATA via presence of the parent and at least five of the metabolites identified from HLM incubations. Furthermore, this paper evaluates the intrinsic in vitro cannabinoid 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2) receptor activation potential of CH-PIATA reference material and the powder seized by Belgian customs by means of β-arrestin 2 recruitment assays. Both the reference and the seized powder showed a weak activity at both CB receptors with signs of antagonism found. Based on these results, the expected harm potential of this newly emerging substance remains limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Olivia Dremann
- College of Arts and Sciences, Arcadia University, Glenside, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Robert Reid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Katleen Van Uytfanghe
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claude Guillou
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy
| | | | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Alex Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Frederic Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Harries RL, Norman C, Reid R, Nic Daéid N, Nisbet LA. Detection of anabolic-androgenic steroids in e-cigarettes seized from prisons: A case study. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 356:111965. [PMID: 38359752 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The administration of new psychoactive substances (NPS), in particular synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), via e-cigarettes, within prison settings has been well publicized. This study provides an overview of five e-cigarette case samples seized from Scottish prisons between May 2022 and July 2023 where the anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) mestanolone and oxandrolone were identified following gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. These e-cigarette samples represented 2.9% of all samples containing e-cigarette cartridges (n = 170) and 9.4% of all samples found to contain AASs (n = 53) seized during the same time period. The AASs were detected in combination with other drugs, including cocaine, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), SCRAs and nicotine. This represents a new and novel route of administration for AASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Harries
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Robert Reid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Lorna A Nisbet
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
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Norman C, Marland V, McKenzie C, Ménard H, Nic Daéid N. Evaluation of fentanyl immunoassay test strips for rapid in-situ detection of fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in seized samples and alternative matrices. Int J Drug Policy 2023; 118:104102. [PMID: 37343365 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ion mobility spectrometry is used for the rapid detection of drugs at points of security but are unable to differentiate some drugs leading to the instrument alarming for a drug not present in the sample. This can be particularly problematic for samples that alarm for fentanyl. In this study, fentanyl immunoassay strips were evaluated for use as a secondary test for fentanyl, including for the testing of alternative matrices, such as powders, e-liquids, and infused papers and textiles. METHODS The limit of detection of fentanyl immunoassay strips was examined along with their selectivity to 18 fentanyl analogsand 72 other drugs and cutting agents. The effectiveness of the test strips at the detection of fentanyl in the presence of other drugs was examined by testing a series of concentrations of fentanyl in solution in combination with other drugs. The testing of alternative matrices was explored with laboratory prepared samples through sampling with cotton buds and extraction in water. RESULTS The fentanyl immunoassay strips detected fentanyl at concentrations of 45 ng/mL and reacted with 16 of 18 tested fentanyl analogs with carfentanil and norfentanyl being the only analogs to not react. There was no reactivity with other drugs or cutting agents. The effectiveness of the fentanyl test strips was not reduced when fentanyl was mixed with other drugs. Fentanyl was successfully detected with high sensitivity in all alternative matrices. CONCLUSION The fentanyl immunoassay strips were found to be an effective secondary test for fentanyl and at least 16 fentanyl analogs in seized drug samples, including when mixed with other drugs. The effectiveness of the sampling methods for alternative matrices should be further evaluated using fentanyl and fentanyl analog casework samples. The use of this method by law enforcement and other agencies should be examined to assess its effectiveness and ease of use in operational settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
| | - Victoria Marland
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK; Chiron AS, Stiklestadveien 1, 7041 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hervé Ménard
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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Deventer MH, Norman C, Reid R, McKenzie C, Nic Daéid N, Stove CP. In vitro characterization of the pyrazole-carrying synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist 5F-3,5-AB-PFUPPYCA and its structural analogs. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 343:111565. [PMID: 36640535 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) market is undergoing important changes since the enactment of the 2021 class-wide generic SCRA ban in China, one of the most important source countries for new psychoactive substances (NPS). Recently, various compounds with new structural features, synthesized to bypass this legislation, have entered the recreational drug market. Certain monocyclic pyrazole-carrying "FUPPYCA" SCRAs have been sporadically detected since 2015 without gaining further popularity. However, as evidenced by their recent detection in Scottish prisons, 5F-3,5-AB-PFUPPYCA and 3,5-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA have re-emerged, potentially triggered by the new legislative ban. The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro intrinsic CB1 and CB2 receptor activation potential of 5F-3,5-AB-PFUPPYCA and 3,5-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA, as well as 4 analogs (5F-3,5-ADB-PFUPPYCA, 3,5-AB-CHMFUPPYCA, 5,3-AB-CHMFUPPYCA and 5,3-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA) using live cell β-arrestin 2 recruitment assays. Most analogs were essentially inactive at either CB1 or CB2, with only 3,5-AB-CHMFUPPYCA, 5,3-AB-CHMFUPPYCA and 5,3-ADB-4en-PFUPPYCA showing a limited activation potential at CB1. Furthermore, the importance of the position of the tail structure was demonstrated, with 5,3 regioisomers being more active than their 3,5 analogs. Moreover, all compounds exhibited antagonistic behavior at both receptors, which may be associated with their structural resemblance to cannabinoid antagonists and inverse agonists. Although the 3,5 regioisomers of these "FUPPYCA" SCRAs circumvent the Chinese ban, it is unlikely that these SCRAs will pose a major threat to public health, given the lack of pronounced CB receptor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Robert Reid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK; Chiron AS, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Galais V, Fleming H, Nic Daéid N, Ménard H. Scientometric analysis of the forensic science literature for fibre as an evidence type: Access and data availability. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2022; 5:100269. [PMID: 35634573 PMCID: PMC9133568 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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8
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Ménard H, Cole C, Gray A, Mudie R, Klu JK, Nic Daéid N. Creation of a universal experimental protocol for the investigation of transfer and persistence of trace evidence: Part 1 - From design to implementation for particulate evidence. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2021; 3:100165. [PMID: 34527896 PMCID: PMC8433255 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the transfer and persistence of different types of trace evidence between different donor and receiving surfaces under specific conditions, circumstances and alleged competing defence and prosecution hypotheses is a significant need. Acquiring such a knowledge base enables hypothesis testing to be undertaken more readily and with greater confidence. A longstanding goal has been to develop a unified approach to transfer and persistence studies which are fit for purpose but also scalable. Here we propose a low cost, universal experimental protocol using a recognised and well researched proxy material for the development and aggregation of ground truth transfer and persistence data at scale. We also propose and provide the tools to enable the creation of an open source and open access data repository of experimental data to act as a resource for practitioners and researchers in addressing transfer and persistence questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Ménard
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Christian Cole
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Alexander Gray
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Roy Mudie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Joyce K Klu
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
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9
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Ménard H, Cole C, Mudie R, Klu JK, Lawson M, Green S, Doyle S, MacNeill EH, Hamilton B, Sheridan K, Nic Daéid N. Creation of a universal experimental protocol for the investigation of transfer and persistence of trace evidence: Part 2 - Implementation and preliminary data. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2021; 3:100164. [PMID: 34527895 PMCID: PMC8429916 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This is the second paper on the development and implementation of a universal experimental protocol for transfer and persistence of trace evidence. Here, we present the results of five individual researchers who implemented the universal experimental protocol for the first time. Over 2500 images were collected, computationally analysed and statistically compared. The results were shown to be reliable and consistent under all conditions tested and were used to model the rate of loss of transferred particles over a 7-day timescale. The protocol was additionally extended to include a test of camera settings. The protocol was found to be useable and robust in this preliminary trial paving the way for it to be deployed more widely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Ménard
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Christian Cole
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Roy Mudie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Joyce K. Klu
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Melissa Lawson
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW, UK
| | - Stephanie Green
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW, UK
| | - Stewart Doyle
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW, UK
| | - Emma H. MacNeill
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW, UK
| | - Bethany Hamilton
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University Newcastle, Ellison Building, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Kelly Sheridan
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University Newcastle, Ellison Building, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN, UK
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Shahbazi S, Boseley R, Grant B, Chen D, Becker T, Adegoke O, Nic Daéid N, Jia G, Lewis SW. Luminescence detection of latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces with heavy-metal-free quantum dots. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Norman C, Walker G, McKirdy B, McDonald C, Fletcher D, Antonides LH, Sutcliffe OB, Nic Daéid N, McKenzie C. Detection and quantitation of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in infused papers from prisons in a constantly evolving illicit market. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:538-554. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Norman
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Gillian Walker
- Public Protection Unit, Scottish Prison Service Edinburgh UK
| | - Brian McKirdy
- Public Protection Unit, Scottish Prison Service Edinburgh UK
| | - Ciara McDonald
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Department of Pure and Applied ChemistryUniversity of Strathclyde UK
| | - Daniel Fletcher
- Drug Discovery Unit, School of Life SciencesUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Lysbeth H. Antonides
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic ScienceUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Oliver B. Sutcliffe
- Division of Chemistry and Environmental ScienceManchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic ScienceUniversity of Dundee UK
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, School of Science and EngineeringUniversity of Dundee UK
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12
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Leung Tang P, Alqassim M, Nic Daéid N, Berlouis L, Seelenbinder J. Nondestructive Handheld Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Analysis of Spectroscopic Changes and Multivariate Modeling of Thermally Degraded Plain Portland Cement Concrete and its Slag and Fly Ash-Based Analogs. Appl Spectrosc 2016; 70:923-931. [PMID: 27059444 DOI: 10.1177/0003702816638306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Concrete is by far the world's most common construction material. Modern concrete is a mixture of industrial pozzolanic cement formulations and aggregate fillers. The former acts as the glue or binder in the final inorganic composite; however, when exposed to a fire the degree of concrete damage is often difficult to evaluate nondestructively. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy through techniques such as transmission, attenuated total reflectance, and diffuse reflectance have been rarely used to evaluate thermally damaged concrete. In this paper, we report on a study assessing the thermal damage of concrete via the use of a nondestructive handheld FT-IR with a diffuse reflectance sample interface. In situ measurements can be made on actual damaged areas, without the need for sample preparation. Separate multivariate models were developed to determine the equivalent maximal temperature endured for three common industrial concrete formulations. The concrete mixtures were successfully modeled displaying high predictive power as well as good specificity. This has potential uses in forensic investigation and remediation services particularly for fires in buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammad Alqassim
- General Department of Forensic Evidence and Criminology, Dubai Police GHQ, Dubai, UAE University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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Farrugia KJ, Bandey H, Dawson L, Daéid NN. A comparison of enhancement techniques for footwear impressions on dark and patterned fabrics. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58:1472-85. [PMID: 23786301 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2012] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The use of chemical enhancement techniques on porous substrates, such as fabrics, poses several challenges predominantly due to the occurrence of background staining and diffusion as well as visualization difficulties. A range of readily available chemical and lighting techniques were utilized to enhance footwear impressions made in blood, soil, and urine on dark and patterned fabrics. Footwear impressions were all prepared at a set force using a specifically built footwear rig. In most cases, results demonstrated that fluorescent chemical techniques were required for visualization as nonfluorescent techniques provided little or no contrast with the background. Occasionally, this contrast was improved by oblique lighting. Successful results were obtained for the enhancement of footwear impressions in blood; however, the enhancement of footwear impressions in urine and soil on dark and patterned fabrics was much more limited. The results demonstrate that visualization and fluorescent enhancement on porous substrates such as fabrics is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Farrugia
- Centre for Forensic Science, WestCHEM, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XW, UK; Division of Forensic and Bio Sciences, School of Contemporary Sciences, University of Abertay, Bell Street, Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK
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15
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Kunalan V, Kerr WJ, Nic Daéid N. Investigation of the Reaction Impurities Associated with Methylamphetamine Synthesized Using the Nagai Method. Anal Chem 2012; 84:5744-52. [DOI: 10.1021/ac3009302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vanitha Kunalan
- Centre for Forensic Science,
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, WestCHEM, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW,
Scotland, U.K
- Department of Chemistry, Jalan Sultan, 46661 Petaling
Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - William J. Kerr
- Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, WestCHEM, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, Scotland, U.K
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Science,
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, WestCHEM, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1XW,
Scotland, U.K
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Farrugia KJ, Bandey H, Dawson L, Nic Daéid N. Chemical enhancement of soil based footwear impressions on fabric. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 219:12-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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McGregor LA, Gauchotte-Lindsay C, Daéid NN, Thomas R, Kalin RM. Multivariate statistical methods for the environmental forensic classification of coal tars from former manufactured gas plants. Environ Sci Technol 2012; 46:3744-3752. [PMID: 22335394 DOI: 10.1021/es203708w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Compositional disparity within a set of 23 coal tar samples (obtained from 15 different former manufactured gas plants) was compared and related to differences between historical on-site manufacturing processes. Samples were prepared using accelerated solvent extraction prior to analysis by two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. A suite of statistical techniques, including univariate analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, two-dimensional cluster analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA), were investigated to determine the optimal method for source identification of coal tars. The results revealed that multivariate statistical analysis (namely, PCA of normalized, preprocessed data) has the greatest potential for environmental forensic source identification of coal tars, including the ability to predict the processes used to create unknown samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A McGregor
- David Livingstone Centre for Sustainability, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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Nic Daéid N. Review of: Kirk’s Fire Investigation, 7th edn. J Forensic Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01954.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Farrugia KJ, Savage KA, Bandey H, Nic Daéid N. Chemical enhancement of footwear impressions in blood on fabric – Part 1: Protein stains. Sci Justice 2011; 51:99-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Daéid NN, Meier-Augenstein W, Kemp HF. Investigating the provenance of un-dyed spun cotton fibre using multi-isotope profiles and chemometric analysis. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2011; 25:1812-1816. [PMID: 21638356 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.5046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of un-dyed spun cotton fibres can be challenging within a forensic science context where discrimination of one fibre from another is of importance. Conventional microscopic and chemical analysis of these fibres is generally unsuccessful because of their similar morphology. In this work we have explored the potential of isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) as a tool for spun cotton fibre analysis in an attempt to reveal any discriminatory information available. Seven different batches of un-dyed spun cotton fibre from four different countries were analysed. A combination of the hydrogen and oxygen isotopic data facilitated the correct association of the samples, demonstrating, for the first time, the applicability of IRMS to fibre analysis in this way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Sciences, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, WestCHEM, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK.
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Desa WNSM, Daéid NN, Ismail D, Savage K. Application of Unsupervised Chemometric Analysis and Self-organizing Feature Map (SOFM) for the Classification of Lighter Fuels. Anal Chem 2010; 82:6395-400. [DOI: 10.1021/ac100381a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wan N. S. Mat Desa
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX
| | - Dzulkiflee Ismail
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX
| | - Kathleen Savage
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX
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Buchanan HAS, Daéid NN, Kerr WJ, Carter JF, Hill JC. Role of Five Synthetic Reaction Conditions on the Stable Isotopic Composition of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Anal Chem 2010; 82:5484-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac1002432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hilary A. S. Buchanan
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Mass Spec Analytical Ltd, Building 20F Golf Course Lane, P.O. Box 77, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, England, U.K
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Mass Spec Analytical Ltd, Building 20F Golf Course Lane, P.O. Box 77, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, England, U.K
| | - William J. Kerr
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Mass Spec Analytical Ltd, Building 20F Golf Course Lane, P.O. Box 77, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, England, U.K
| | - James F. Carter
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Mass Spec Analytical Ltd, Building 20F Golf Course Lane, P.O. Box 77, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, England, U.K
| | - Jenny C. Hill
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Mass Spec Analytical Ltd, Building 20F Golf Course Lane, P.O. Box 77, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, England, U.K
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Kunalan V, Nic Daéid N, Kerr WJ, Buchanan HAS, McPherson AR. Characterization of route specific impurities found in methamphetamine synthesized by the Leuckart and reductive amination methods. Anal Chem 2009; 81:7342-8. [PMID: 19637924 PMCID: PMC3662403 DOI: 10.1021/ac9005588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Impurity profiling of seized methamphetamine can provide very useful information in criminal investigations and, specifically, on drug trafficking routes, sources of supply, and relationships between seizures. Particularly important is the identification of “route specific” impurities or those which indicate the synthetic method used for manufacture in illicit laboratories. Previous researchers have suggested impurities which are characteristic of the Leuckart and reductive amination (Al/Hg) methods of preparation. However, to date and importantly, these two synthetic methods have not been compared in a single study utilizing methamphetamine hydrochloride synthesized in-house and, therefore, of known synthetic origin. Using the same starting material, 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P), 40 batches of methamphetamine hydrochloride were synthesized by the Leuckart and reductive amination methods (20 batches per method). Both basic and acidic impurities were extracted separately and analyzed by GC/MS. From this controlled study, two route specific impurities for the Leuckart method and one route specific impurity for the reductive amination method are reported. The intra- and inter-batch variation of these route specific impurities was assessed. Also, the variation of the “target impurities” recently recommended for methamphetamine profiling is discussed in relation to their variation within and between production batches synthesized using the Leuckart and reductive amination routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanitha Kunalan
- Centre for Forensic Science, WestCHEM, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland, UK
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Daéid NN, McColl D, Ballany J. The level of random background glass recovered from fleece jackets of individuals who worked in Law enforcement or related professions. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 191:19-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2008] [Revised: 05/29/2009] [Accepted: 06/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Nic Daéid N, Cassidy M, McHugh S. An investigation into the correlation of knife damage in clothing and the lengths of skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int 2008; 179:107-10. [PMID: 18562139 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2007] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Buchanan HAS, Daéid NN, Meier-Augenstein W, Kemp HF, Kerr WJ, Middleditch M. Emerging Use of Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry as a Tool for Discrimination of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine by Synthetic Route. Anal Chem 2008; 80:3350-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ac702559s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hilary A. S. Buchanan
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
| | - Niamh Nic Daéid
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
| | - Wolfram Meier-Augenstein
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
| | - Helen F. Kemp
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
| | - William J. Kerr
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
| | - Michael Middleditch
- Centre for Forensic Science, Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1WX, Stable Isotope Forensic Facility, Environmental Engineering Research Centre, Queen's University Belfast, David Keir Building, Belfast BT9 5AG
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Abstract
Luminol, leuchomalachite green, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, Hemident, and Bluestar are all used as presumptive tests for blood. In this study, the tests were subjected to dilute blood (from 1:10,000 to 1:10,000,000), many common household substance, and chemicals. Samples were tested for DNA to determine whether the presumptive tests damaged or destroyed DNA. The DNA loci tested were D2S1338 and D19S433. Leuchomalachite green had a sensitivity of 1:10,000, while the remaining tests were able to detect blood to a dilution of 1:100,000. Substances tested include saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 M ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulfate, 10% ferric sulfate, and 10% nickel chloride. Of all the substances tested, not one of the household items reacted with every test; however, the chemicals did. DNA was recovered and amplified from luminol, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, and Bluestar, but not from leuchomalachite green or Hemident.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanan S Tobe
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Centre for Forensic Science, Strathclyde University, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK
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Nic Daéid N, Lynch J, Wideman DA. Statistical differences between offender groups. Forensic Sci Int 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(98)00160-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Daéid NN. Suicide amongst the agricultural sector in Ireland; 1982-1994. J Ir Coll Physicians Surg 1997; 26:180-2. [PMID: 11619447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
A large number of suicides (20%) which occur in Ireland are amongst the agricultural sector. Statistical records were examined and suicide fatalities amongst the agricultural sector identified and collated. Significant differences (X2, p=0.01) were found between the marital status, methods employed and age profiles of both men and women involved within the agricultural sector as compared with suicides as a whole over the same time period. Such information may be relevant to future suicide prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- N N Daéid
- Forensic Science Unit, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow
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