The Preferential Infection of Astrocytes by Enterovirus 71 Plays a Key Role in the Viral Neurogenic Pathogenesis

Recent Progress in Human Milk Oligosaccharides and Its Antiviral Efficacy

Gastrointestinal (GI)-associated viruses, including rotavirus (RV), norovirus (NV), and enterovirus, usually invade host cells, transmit, and mutate their genetic information, resulting in influenza-like symptoms, acute gastroenteritis, encephalitis, or even death. The unique structures of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) enable them to shape the gut microbial diversity and endogenous immune system of human infants. Growing evidence suggests that HMOs can enhance host resistance to GI-associated viruses but without a systematic summary to review the mechanism. The present review examines the lactose- and neutral-core HMOs and their antiviral effects in the host. The potential negative impacts of enterovirus 71 (EV-A71) and other GI viruses on children are extensive and include neurological sequelae, neurodevelopmental retardation, and cognitive decline. However, the differences in the binding affinity of HMOs for GI viruses are vast. Hence, elucidating the mechanisms and positive effects of HMOs against different viruses may facilitate the development of novel HMO derived oligosaccharides.

Emerging concerns of blood-brain barrier dysfunction caused by neurotropic enteroviral infections

Enteroviruses (EVs), comprise a genus in the Picornaviridae family, which have been shown to be neurotropic and can cause various neurological disorders or long-term neurological condition, placing a huge burden on society and families. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a protective barrier that prevents dangerous substances from entering the central nervous system (CNS). Recently, numerous EVs have been demonstrated to have the ability to disrupt BBB, and further lead to severe neurological damage. However, the precise mechanisms of BBB disruption associated with these EVs remain largely unknown. In this Review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms of BBB dysfunction caused by EVs, emphasizing the invasiveness of enterovirus A71 (EVA71), which will provide a research direction for further treatment and prevention of CNS disorders.

Understanding the Neurotrophic Virus Mechanisms and Their Potential Effect on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Development

Central nervous system (CNS) pathologies are a public health concern, with viral infections one of their principal causes. These viruses are known as neurotropic pathogens, characterized by their ability to infiltrate the CNS and thus interact with various cell populations, inducing several diseases. The immune response elicited by neurotropic viruses in the CNS is commanded mainly by microglia, which, together with other local cells, can secrete inflammatory cytokines to fight the infection. The most relevant neurotropic viruses are adenovirus (AdV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), enterovirus (EV), Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), and the newly discovered SARS-CoV-2. Several studies have associated a viral infection with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and neuropsychiatric lupus (NPSLE) manifestations. This article will review the knowledge about viral infections, CNS pathologies, and the immune response against them. Also, it allows us to understand the relevance of the different viral proteins in developing neuronal pathologies, SLE and NPSLE.

A mouse model and pathogenesis study for CVA19 first isolated from hand, foot, and mouth disease

ABSTRACTCoxsackievirus A19 (CVA19) is a member of Enterovirus (EV) C group in the Picornaviridae family. Recently, we reported a case of CVA19-infected hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) for the first time. However, the current body of knowledge on the CVA19 infection, particularly the pathogenesis of encephalomyelitis and diarrhoea is still very limited, due to the lack of suitable animal models. Here, we successfully established a CVA19 mouse model via oral route based on 7-day-old ICR mice. Our results found the virus strain could directly infect the neurons, astrocytes of brain, and motor neurons of spinal cord causing neurological complications, such as acute flaccid paralysis. Importantly, viruses isolated from the spinal cords of infected mice caused severe illness in suckling mice, fulfilling Koch's postulates to some extent. CVA19 infection led to diarrhoea with typical pathological features of shortened intestinal villi, increased number of secretory cells and apoptotic intestinal cells, and inflammatory cell infiltration. Much higher concentrations of serum cytokines and more peripheral blood inflammatory cells in CVA19-infected mice indicated a systematic inflammatory response induced by CVA19 infection. Finally, we found ribavirin and CVA19 VP1 monoclonal antibody could not prevent the disease progression, but higher concentrations of antisera and interferon alpha 2 (IFN-α2) could provide protective effects against CVA19. In conclusion, this study shows that a natural mouse-adapted CVA19 strain leads to diarrhoea and encephalomyelitis in a mouse model via oral infection, which provides a useful tool for studying CVA19 pathogenesis and evaluating the efficacy of vaccines and antivirals.

Coxsackievirus A6 Infection Causes Neurogenic Pathogenesis in a Neonatal Murine Model

Coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6), a member of species A enterovirus, is associated with outbreaks of hand-foot-and-mouth disease and causes a large nationwide burden of disease. However, the molecular pathogenesis of CVA6 remains unclear. In the present study, we established a suckling Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mouse infection model to explore the neural pathogenicity of CVA6. Five-day-old mice infected with CVA6 strain F219 showed lethargy and paralysis, and died 5 or 6 days after infection via IM injection. Cerebral edema and neuronal cell swelling were observed in the infected brain tissue, and we found that the CVA6 VP1 antigen could co-localize with GFAP-positive astrocytes in infected mouse brain using an immunofluorescence assay. CVA6 strain F219 can also infect human glioma (U251) cells. Transcriptome analysis of brain tissues from infected mice and infected U251 cells showed that significantly differentially expressed genes were enriched in antiviral and immune response and neurological system processes. These results indicate that CVA6 could cause neural pathogenesis and provide basic data for exploring the mechanism of how host-cell interactions affect viral replication and pathogenesis. Importance: Coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6) surpasses the two main pathogens, enterovirus 71 (EV-A71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16), which are the leading pathogens causing HFMD in many provinces of China. In our study, CVA6 infection caused neurogenic pathogenesis in a neonatal murine model, manifesting as cerebral edema and neuronal cell swelling, CVA6 VP1 antigen could co-localize with GFAP-positive astrocytes in the infected mouse brain. Based on CVA6-infected brain tissue and U251 cell transcriptome analysis, we found upregulated antiviral and immune response-related genes such as Zbp1, Usp18, Oas2, Irf7, Ddx60, Ifit3, Ddx58, and Isg15, while the neurological system process-related genes were downregulated, including Fcrls, Ebnrb, Cdk1, and Anxa5.

Enterovirus-71 utilizes small extracellular vesicles to cross the blood-brain barrier for infecting the central nervous system via transcytosis

BACKGROUND

Central nervous system (CNS) infections caused by Enterovirus 71 (EV71) pose a serious threat to children, causing severe neurogenic complications and even fatality in some patients. However, the pathogenesis of EV71 infections in the CNS remains unclear.

METHODS

An in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) model was constructed by coculturing brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) and astrocytes in transwell inserts for simulating CNS infections. EV71 virions and small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from EV71-infected cells (EV71-sEVs) were isolated from the cell culture supernatant by density gradient centrifugation. The BBB model was separately infected with EV71 virions and EV71-sEVs. The mechanism of crossing the BBB was determined by inhibiting the different endocytic modes. A murine model of EV71 infection was constructed for confirming the results of in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

The EV71-sEVs containing viral components were endocytosed by BMECs and released on the abluminal side of the BBB model, where they infected the astrocytes without disrupting the BBB in the early stages of infection. The integrity of the tight junctions (TJs) between BMECs was breached via downregulation of PI3K/Akt signaling in the late stages of infection.

CONCLUSIONS

EV71 utilized the circulating sEVs for infecting the CNS by crossing the BBB.

Berberine prevents lethal EV71 neurological infection in newborn mice

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the major pathogen causing fatal neurological complications of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in young children. Currently no effective antiviral therapy is available. In the present study, we found that natural compound Berberine (BBR) displayed potent inhibitory effects on EV71 replication in various neural cells (IC₅₀ of 2.79–4.03 μM). In a newborn mouse model of lethal EV71 infection, Berberine at 2–5 mg/kg markedly reduced mortality and clinical scores. Consistently, the replication of EV71 and pathological changes were attenuated in various infected organs including brain and lung with BBR treatment. Interestingly, EV71 infection in the brain mainly localized in the peripheral zone of brainstem and largely in astrocytes. Primary culture of astrocytes from newborn mouse brain confirmed the efficient EV71 replication that was mostly inhibited by BBR treatment at 5 μM. Further investigations revealed remarkably elevated cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels that coincided with EV71 replication in primary cultured astrocytes and various cell lines. BBR largely abolished the virus-elevated ROS production and greatly diminished EV71 replication by up-regulating NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2 (Nrf2) via the kelch like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap)-Nrf2 axis. The nuclear localization of Nrf2 and expression of downstream antioxidant enzymes heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) were increased significantly by BBR treatment. Collectively, our findings revealed that BBR prevents lethal EV71 neurological infection via inhibiting virus replication through regulating Keap-Nrf2 axis and ROS generation in astrocytes of brainstem, thus providing a potential antiviral treatment for severe EV71 infection associated with neurological complications.

Transcriptome of human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells in response to 2B protein of enterovirus-A71

Infection with enterovirus-A71 (EV-A71) can cause hand-foot-mouth disease associated with fatal neurological complications. The host response to EV-A71 has not yet been fully elucidated, thus, hampering the development of a precise therapeutic approach. A nonstructural 2B protein of EV-A71 has been reported to involve with calcium dysregulation and apoptosis induction in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. However, the molecular mechanism has not been delineated. To address this, comprehensive study of the gene expression from SH-SY5Y cells transfected with EV-A71 2B was carried out by RNA sequencing and transcriptomic analysis. It was found that the signature of the upregulated genes of SH-SY5Y cells expressing EV-A71 2B involved the Ca²⁺-related signaling pathways participating gene expression, inflammatory response, apoptosis, and long-term potentiation of the neuron. Protein-protein interaction network analysis revealed that the products encoded by CCL2, RELB, BIRC3, and TNFRSF9 were the most significant hub proteins in the network. It indicated that EV-A71 2B protein might play a role in immunopathogenesis of the central nervous system (CNS) which probably associated with the non-canonical NF-κB pathway. The data suggest that transcriptomic profiling can provide novel information source for studying the neuropathogenesis of EV-A71 infection leading to development of an effective therapeutic measure for CNS complications.

Pathological Features of Echovirus-11-Associated Brain Damage in Mice Based on RNA-Seq Analysis

Echovirus 11 (E11) is a neurotropic virus that occasionally causes fatal neurological diseases in infected children. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the disease and pathological spectrum of E11 infection remains unclear. Therefore, we modelled E11 infection in 2-day-old type I interferon receptor knockout (IFNAR−/−) mice, which are susceptible to enteroviruses, with E11, and identified symptoms consistent with the clinical signs observed in human cases. All organs of infected suckling mice were found to show viral replication and pathological changes; the muscle tissue showed the highest viral replication, whereas the brain and muscle tissues showed the most obvious pathological changes. Brain tissues showed oedema and a large number of dead nerve cells; RNA-Seq analysis of the brain and hindlimb muscle tissues revealed differentially expressed genes to be abundantly enriched in immune response-related pathways, with changes in the Guanylate-binding protein (GBP) and MHC class genes, causing aseptic meningitis-related symptoms. Furthermore, human glioma U251 cell was identified as sensitive target cells for E11 infection. Overall, these results provide new insights into the pathogenesis and progress of aseptic meningitis caused by E11.

Pathogenesis Study of Enterovirus 71 Using a Novel Human SCARB2 Knock-In Mouse Model

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) can cause a severe hand-foot-mouth disease in children. However, the precise mechanism of EV71-associated disease, particularly the neuropathogenesis and pulmonary disorder, is still not fully understood because no suitable animal models are available. The human scavenger receptor class B, member 2 (hSCARB2), is a cellular receptor for EV71. Here, we generated a novel knock-in (KI) mouse model using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to insert the hSCARB2 gene into the mouse Rosa26 locus to study the pathogenesis of EV71. The hSCARB2 KI mice infected with clinical isolates of EV71 showed neurological symptoms, such as ataxia, paralysis, and death. Viral replication was detected in mainly astrocytes and a limited number of neurons and microglia, accompanied by gliosis. Vascular leakage and alveoli filled with erythrocytes were detected, suggesting that edema and hemorrhage, which are observed in human patients, also occurred in EV71-infected KI mice. In addition, proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were significantly increased in the serum of infected KI mice. These pathological features of the KI mice after infection resembled those of EV71 encephalomyelitis in humans. Therefore, our KI mouse model is suitable to study the pathogenesis of EV71 and is of great significance for development of antiviral drugs and vaccines to treat or prevent EV71 infection.IMPORTANCE Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is associated with severe hand-foot-mouth disease. Recently, outbreaks of EV71 infection with high mortality have been reported in the Asia-Pacific region, posing a great challenge for global public health. To date, the precise mechanism of EV71-induced disease, particularly the neuropathogenesis and respiratory disorders, is still not fully understood because no suitable animal models are available. Human scavenger receptor class B, member 2 (hSCARB2), has been identified as a cellular receptor for EV71. Here, we introduce a novel CRISPR/Cas9-mediated hSCARB2 knock-in (KI) mouse model for the study of EV71 pathogenesis, which is of great significance for the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines.

Recent advances in the understanding of enterovirus A71 infection: a focus on neuropathogenesis

Introduction: Hand, foot, and mouth disease caused by enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is more frequently associated with neurological complications and deaths compared to other enteroviruses.Areas covered: The authors discuss current understanding of the neuropathogenesis of EV-A71 based on various clinical, human, and animal model studies. The authors discuss the important advancements in virus entry, virus dissemination, and neuroinvasion. The authors highlight the role of host immune system, host genetic factors, viral quasispecies, and heparan sulfate in EV-A71 neuropathogenesis.Expert opinion: Comparison of EV-A71 with EV-D68 and PV shows similarity in primary target sites and dissemination to the central nervous system. More research is needed to understand cellular tropisms, persistence of EV-A71, and other possible invasion routes. EV-A71 infection has varied clinical manifestations which may be attributed to multiple receptors usage. Future development of antivirals and vaccines should target neurotropic enteroviruses. Repurposing drug and immunomodulators used in combination could reduce the severity of EV-A71 infection. Only a few drugs have been tested in clinical trials, and in the absence of antiviral and vaccines (except China), active virus surveillance, good hand hygiene, and physical distancing should be advocated. A better understanding of EV-A71 neuropathogenesis is critical for antiviral and multivalent vaccines development.

TAR DNA-Binding Protein 43 is Cleaved by the Protease 3C of Enterovirus A71

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is one of the etiological pathogens leading to hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), which can cause severe neurological complications. The neuropathogenesis of EV-A71 infection is not well understood. The mislocalization and aggregation of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is the pathological hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, whether TDP-43 was impacted by EV-A71 infection is unknown. This study demonstrated that TDP-43 was cleaved during EV-A71 infection. The cleavage of TDP-43 requires EV-A71 replication rather than the activated caspases due to viral infection. TDP-43 is cleaved by viral protease 3C between the residues 331Q and 332S, while mutated TDP-43 (Q331A) was not cleaved. In addition, mutated 3C which lacks the protease activity failed to induce TDP-43 cleavage. We also found that TDP-43 was translocated from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and the mislocalization of TDP-43 was induced by viral protease 2A rather than 3C. Taken together, we demonstrated that TDP-43 was cleaved by viral protease and translocated to the cytoplasm during EV-A71 infection, implicating the possible involvement of TDP-43 in the pathogenesis of EV-A71infection.

Immune response and blood-brain barrier dysfunction during viral neuroinvasion

The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which protects the CNS from pathogens, is composed of specialized brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) joined by tight junctions and ensheathed by pericytes and astrocyte endfeet. The stability of the BBB structure and function is of great significance for the maintenance of brain homeostasis. When a neurotropic virus invades the CNS via a hematogenous or non-hematogenous route, it may cause structural and functional disorders of the BBB, and also activate the BBB anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory innate immune response. This article focuses on the structural and functional changes that occur in the three main components of the BBB (endothelial cells, astrocytes, and pericytes) in response to infection with neurotropic viruses transmitted by hematogenous routes, and also briefly describes the supportive effect of three cells on the BBB under normal physiological conditions. For example, all three types of cells express several PRRs, which can quickly sense the virus and make corresponding immune responses. The pro-inflammatory immune response will exacerbate the destruction of the BBB, while the anti-inflammatory immune response, based on type I IFN, consolidates the stability of the BBB. Exploring the details of the interaction between the host and the pathogen at the BBB during neurotropic virus infection will help to propose new treatments for viral encephalitis. Enhancing the defense function of the BBB, maintaining the integrity of the BBB, and suppressing the pro-inflammatory immune response of the BBB provide more ideas for limiting the neuroinvasion of neurotropic viruses. In the future, these new treatments are expected to cooperate with traditional antiviral methods to improve the therapeutic effect of viral encephalitis.

Molecular Pathogenicity of Enteroviruses Causing Neurological Disease

Enteroviruses are single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses that primarily cause self-limiting gastrointestinal or respiratory illness. In some cases, these viruses can invade the central nervous system, causing life-threatening neurological diseases including encephalitis, meningitis and acute flaccid paralysis (AFP). As we near the global eradication of poliovirus, formerly the major cause of AFP, the number of AFP cases have not diminished implying a non-poliovirus etiology. As the number of enteroviruses linked with neurological disease is expanding, of which many had previously little clinical significance, these viruses are becoming increasingly important to public health. Our current understanding of these non-polio enteroviruses is limited, especially with regards to their neurovirulence. Elucidating the molecular pathogenesis of these viruses is paramount for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes the clinical diseases associated with neurotropic enteroviruses and discusses recent advances in the understanding of viral invasion of the central nervous system, cell tropism and molecular pathogenesis as it correlates with host responses.

Enterovirus and Encephalitis

Enterovirus-induced infection of the central nervous system (CNS) results in acute inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) and constitutes a significant global burden to human health. These viruses are thought to be highly cytolytic, therefore normal brain function could be greatly compromised following enteroviral infection of the CNS. A further layer of complexity is added by evidence showing that some enteroviruses may establish a persistent infection within the CNS and eventually lead to pathogenesis of certain neurodegenerative disorders. Interestingly, enterovirus encephalitis is particularly common among young children, suggesting a potential causal link between the development of the neuroimmune system and enteroviral neuroinvasion. Although the CNS involvement in enterovirus infections is a relatively rare complication, it represents a serious underlying cause of mortality. Here we review a selection of enteroviruses that infect the CNS and discuss recent advances in the characterization of these enteroviruses with regard to their routes of CNS infection, tropism, virulence, and immune responses.

Enterovirus A71 capsid protein VP1 increases blood-brain barrier permeability and virus receptor vimentin on the brain endothelial cells

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is the major cause of severe hand-foot-and-mouth diseases (HFMD), especially encephalitis and other nervous system diseases. EV-A71 capsid protein VP1 mediates virus attachment and is the important virulence factor in the EV-A71pathogenesis. In this study, we explored the roles of VP1 in the permeability of blood-brain barrier (BBB). Sera albumin, Evans blue, and dextran leaked into brain parenchyma of the 1-week-old C57BL/6J mice intracranially injected with VP1 recombinant protein. VP1 also increased the permeability of the brain endothelial cells monolayer, an in vitro BBB model. Tight junction protein claudin-5 was reduced in the brain tissues or brain endothelial cells treated with VP1. In contrast, VP1 increased the expression of virus receptor vimentin, which could be blocked with VP1 neutralization antibody. Vimentin expression in the VP1-treated brain endothelial cells was regulated by TGF-β/Smad-3 and NF-κB signal pathways. Moreover, vimentin over-expression was accompanied with compromised BBB. From these studies, we conclude that EV-A71 virus capsid protein VP1 disrupted BBB and increased virus receptor vimentin, which both may contribute to the virus entrance into brain and EV-A71 CNS infection.

Mechanism for the lethal effect of enterovirus A71 intracerebral injection in neonatal mice

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection is primarily responsible for fatal hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) cases. Infants and younger children are more likely to suffer central nervous system damage as a result of EV-A71 infection, but this virus mostly does not affect older children and adults. This study investigated the possible mechanism underlying the age-dependent lethal effect of EV-A71 infection by comparing neonatal and adult mouse models of EV-A71 infection. Although viral proliferation is absent in both neonatal and adult mice, we observed that EV-A71, as a stimulus for astrocytes, elevates the levels of cytokines and monoamine neurotransmitters in neonatal mice. Then, we selected IL-6 and adrenaline as targets in a pharmacological approach to further validate the roles of these factors in mediating the mortality of neonatal mice after EV-A71 infection. Intracerebral injection of IL-6 and adrenaline enhanced the severity of EV-A71 infection, while treatment with an anti-IL-6-neutralizing antibody or the adrenergic-antagonist phenoxybenzamine reversed the lethal effect of EV-A71 in neonatal mice. These results suggest that the central nervous system (CNS) damage in neonatal cases of EV-A71 infection might be caused by an activated fetal cerebral immune response to the virus, including the disruption of brainstem function through increased levels of cytokines and neurotransmitters, rather than the typical cytopathic effect (CPE) of viral infection.

Electrostatic interactions at the five-fold axis alter heparin-binding phenotype and drive enterovirus A71 virulence in mice

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) causes hand, foot and mouth disease epidemics with neurological complications and fatalities. However, the neuropathogenesis of EV-A71 remains poorly understood. In mice, adaptation and virulence determinants have been mapped to mutations at VP2-149, VP1-145 and VP1-244. We investigate how these amino acids alter heparin-binding phenotype and shapes EV-A71 virulence in one-day old mice. We constructed six viruses with varying residues at VP1-98, VP1-145 (which are both heparin-binding determinants) and VP2-149 (based on the wild type 149K/98E/145Q, termed KEQ) to generate KKQ, KKE, KEE, IEE and IEQ variants. We demonstrated that the weak heparin-binder IEE was highly lethal in mice. The initially strong heparin-binding IEQ variant acquired an additional mutation VP1-K244E, which confers weak heparin-binding phenotype resulting in elevated viremia and increased virus antigens in mice brain, with subsequent high virulence. IEE and IEQ-244E variants inoculated into mice disseminated efficiently and displayed high viremia. Increasing polymerase fidelity and impairing recombination of IEQ attenuated the virulence, suggesting the importance of population diversity in EV-A71 pathogenesis in vivo. Combining in silico docking and deep sequencing approaches, we inferred that virus population diversity is shaped by electrostatic interactions at the five-fold axis of the virus surface. Electrostatic surface charges facilitate virus adaptation by generating poor heparin-binding variants for better in vivo dissemination in mice, likely due to reduced adsorption to heparin-rich peripheral tissues, which ultimately results in increased neurovirulence. The dynamic switching between heparin-binding and weak heparin-binding phenotype in vivo explained the neurovirulence of EV-A71.

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is the primary cause of hand, foot and mouth disease, and it can also infect the central nervous system and cause fatal outbreaks in young children. EV-A71 pathogenesis remains elusive. In this study, we demonstrated that EV-A71 variants with strong affinity to heparan sulfate (heparin) have a growth advantage in cell culture, but are disadvantaged in vivo. When inoculated into one-day old mice, strong heparin-binding virus variants are more likely to be adsorbed to peripheral tissues, resulting in impaired ability to disseminate, and are cleared from the bloodstream rapidly. The lower viremia level resulted in no neuroinvasion. In contrast, weak heparin-binding variants show greater levels of viremia, dissemination and subsequent neurovirulence in mice. We also provide evidence that the EV-A71 heparin-binding pattern is mediated by electrostatic surface charges on the virus capsid surface. In mice, EV-A71 undergoes adaptive mutation to acquire greater negative surface charges, thus generating new virulent variants with weak heparin-binding ability which allows greater viral spread. Our study underlines the importance of electrostatic surface charges in shaping EV-A71 virulence.

EV71 infection induces neurodegeneration via activating TLR7 signaling and IL-6 production

As a neurotropic virus, human Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection causes hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) and may develop severe neurological disorders in infants. Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) acts as an innate immune receptor and is also a death receptor in the central nervous system (CNS). However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of TLR7-mediated brain pathogenesis upon EV71 infection remain largely elusive. Here we reveal a novel mechanism by which EV71 infects astrocytes in the brain and induces neural pathogenesis via TLR7 and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in C57BL/6 mice and in human astroglioma U251 cells. Upon EV71 infection, wild-type (WT) mice displayed more significant body weight loss, higher clinical scores, and lower survival rates as compared with TLR7^-/- mice. In the cerebral cortex of EV71-infected mice, neurofilament integrity was disrupted, and inflammatory cell infiltration and neurodegeneration were induced in WT mice, whereas these were largely absent in TLR7^-/- mice. Similarly, IL-6 production, Caspase-3 cleavage, and cell apoptosis were significantly higher in EV71-infected WT mice as compared with TLR7^-/- mice. Moreover, EV71 preferentially infected and induced IL-6 in astrocytes of mice brain. In U251 cells, EV71-induced IL-6 production and cell apoptosis were suppressed by shRNA-mediated knockdown of TLR7 (shTLR7). Moreover, in the cerebral cortex of EV71-infected mice, the blockade of IL-6 with anti-IL-6 antibody (IL-6-Ab) restored the body weight loss, attenuated clinical scores, improved survival rates, reduced the disruption of neurofilament integrity, decreased cell apoptotic induction, and lowered levels of Caspase-3 cleavage. Similarly, in EV71-infected U251 cells, IL-6-Ab blocked EV71-induced IL-6 production and cell apoptosis in response to viral infection. Collectively, it’s exhibited TLR7 upregulation, IL-6 induction and astrocytic cell apoptosis in EV71-infected human brain. Taken together, we propose that EV71 infects astrocytes of the cerebral cortex in mice and human and triggers TLR7 signaling and IL-6 release, subsequently inducing neural pathogenesis in the brain.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection causes aseptic meningitis, poliomyelitis-like paralysis and fatal encephalitis in infants. Besides an immune receptor, toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) serves as a death receptor in central nervous system (CNS). However, the role of TLR7 in EV71-induced neural pathogenesis remains ambiguous. This study reveals a distinct mechanism by which EV71 induces neurodegeneration via TLR7 and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Upon EV71 infection, TLR7^-/- mice displayed less body weight loss, lower clinical score, and higher survival rate as compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Meanwhile, a severer histopathologic neurofilaments disruption, neurodegeneration and cell apoptosis were observed in brain of EV71-infected WT mice. IL-6 release, cell apoptosis, and Caspase-3 cleavage were attenuated by shRNA targeting TLR7 (shTLR7) in EV71-infected U251 cells. Moreover, anti-IL-6 antibody (IL-6-Ab) suppressed EV71-induced body weight loss, clinical score increase, and survival rate decrease as well as neurofilaments disruption and neurodegeneration in mice, and it also attenuated EV71-induced cell apoptosis and Caspase-3 cleavage in U251 cells. It’s retrospectively observed that TLR7 upregulation, IL-6 induction and astrocytic cell apoptosis in EV71-infected human brain. Therefore, TLR7 is required for neural pathogenesis by IL-6 induction upon EV71 infection.

Neurotropism of Enterovirus D68 Isolates Is Independent of Sialic Acid and Is Not a Recently Acquired Phenotype

Since 2014, numerous outbreaks of childhood infections with enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) have occurred worldwide. Most infections are associated with flu-like symptoms, but paralysis may develop in young children. It has been suggested that infection only with recent viral isolates can cause paralysis. To address the hypothesis that EV-D68 has recently acquired neurotropism, murine organotypic brain slice cultures, induced human motor neurons and astrocytes, and mice lacking the alpha/beta interferon receptor were infected with multiple virus isolates. All EV-D68 isolates, from 1962 to the present, can infect neural cells, astrocytes, and neurons. Furthermore, our results show that sialic acid binding does not play a role in EV-D68 neuropathogenesis. The study of EV-D68 infection in organotypic brain slice cultures, induced motor neurons, and astrocytes will allow for the elucidation of the mechanism by which the virus infection causes disease.

Acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) is a rare but serious illness of the nervous system, specifically affecting the gray matter of the spinal cord, motor-controlling regions of the brain, and cranial nerves. Most cases of AFM are pathogen associated, typically with poliovirus and enterovirus infections, and occur in children under the age of 6 years. Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) was first isolated from children with pneumonia in 1962, but an association with AFM was not observed until the 2014 outbreak. Organotypic mouse brain slice cultures generated from postnatal day 1 to 10 mice and adult ifnar knockout mice were used to determine if neurotropism of EV-D68 is shared among virus isolates. All isolates replicated in organotypic mouse brain slice cultures, and three isolates replicated in primary murine astrocyte cultures. All four EV-D68 isolates examined caused paralysis and death in adult ifnar knockout mice. In contrast, no viral disease was observed after intracranial inoculation of wild-type mice. Six of the seven EV-D68 isolates, including two from 1962 and four from the 2014 outbreak, replicated in induced human neurons, and all of the isolates replicated in induced human astrocytes. Furthermore, a putative viral receptor, sialic acid, is not required for neurotropism of EV-D68, as viruses replicated within neurons and astrocytes independent of binding to sialic acid. These observations demonstrate that EV-D68 is neurotropic independent of its genetic lineage and can infect both neurons and astrocytes and that neurotropism is not a recently acquired characteristic as has been suggested. Furthermore, the results show that in mice the innate immune response is critical for restricting EV-D68 disease.

STAT3 Regulates the Type I IFN-Mediated Antiviral Response by Interfering with the Nuclear Entry of STAT1

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a multifunctional factor that regulates inflammation and immunity. Knowledge of its regulatory mechanisms is very limited. Here, we showed that enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection induced the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the expression of its downstream inflammatory regulators. Knockdown of STAT3 with siRNAs significantly restricted viral RNA and protein levels, and also reduced viral titers. With further investigation, we found that importin α family member Karyopherin-α1 (KPNA1) was employed by both STAT1 and STAT3 for their nuclear import. The phosphorylated and un-phosphorylated STAT3 competed with STAT1 for binding to the decreased KPNA1 post infection and repressed downstream ISG expression. STAT3 knockdown alleviated the repressed type I IFN-mediated antiviral response upon infection and led to decreased viral replication. Taken together, our data suggested the role of STAT3 in maintaining the balance of inflammation and antiviral responses in the central nervous system (CNS) upon infection.

Comparative analysis of putative novel microRNA expression profiles induced by enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 infections in human umbilical vein endothelial cells using high-throughput sequencing

Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) is mainly caused by human enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CA16), which circulate alternatively or together in epidemic areas. Although the two viruses exhibit genetic homology, their clinical manifestations have some discrepancies. However, the factors underlying these differences remain unclear. Herein, we mainly focused on the alterations and roles of putative novel miRNAs in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) following EV71 and CA16 infections using high-throughput sequencing. The results identified 247 putative novel, differentially expressed miRNAs, of which only 11 miRNAs presented an opposite trend between the EV71- and CA16-infected samples and were used for target prediction. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway enrichment analysis of the predicted targets displayed the top 15 significant biological processes, molecular functions, cell components and pathways. Subsequently, regulatory miRNA-predicted targets and miRNA-GO and miRNA-pathway networks were constructed to further reveal the complex regulatory mechanisms of the miRNAs during infection. Therefore, our data provide useful insights that will help elucidate the different host-pathogen interactions following EV71 and CA16 infections and may offer novel therapeutic targets for these infections.

Varicella zoster virus differentially alters morphology and suppresses proinflammatory cytokines in primary human spinal cord and hippocampal astrocytes

BACKGROUND

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous alphaherpesvirus that produces varicella and zoster. VZV can infect multiple cell types in the spinal cord and brain, including astrocytes, producing myelopathy and encephalopathy. While studies of VZV-astrocyte interactions are sparse, a recent report showed that quiescent primary human spinal cord astrocytes (qHA-sps) did not appear activated morphologically during VZV infection. Since astrocytes play a critical role in host defenses during viral infections of the central nervous system, we examined the cytokine responses of qHA-sps and quiescent primary human hippocampal astrocytes (qHA-hps) to VZV infection in vitro, as well as the ability of conditioned supernatant to recruit immune cells.

METHODS

At 3 days post-infection, mock- and VZV-infected qHA-sps and qHA-hps were examined for morphological changes by immunofluorescence antibody assay using antibodies directed against glial fibrillary acidic protein and VZV. Conditioned supernatants were analyzed for proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor-α] using the Meso Scale Discovery multiplex ELISA platform. Finally, the ability of conditioned supernatants to attract peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was determined using a chemotaxis assay. Quiescent primary human perineurial cells (qHPNCs) served as a control for VZV-induced cytokine production and PBMC migration. To confirm that the astrocytes have the ability to increase cytokine secretion, qHA-sps and qHA-hps were treated with IL-1β and examined for morphological changes and IL-6 secretion.

RESULTS

VZV-infected qHA-sps displayed extensive cellular processes, whereas VZV-infected qHA-hps became swollen and clustered together. Astrocytes had the capacity to secrete IL-6 in response to IL-1β. Compared to mock-infected cells, VZV-infected qHA-sps showed significantly reduced secretion of IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-12p70, and IL-13, while VZV-infected qHA-hps showed significantly reduced IL-8 secretion. In contrast, levels of all 10 cytokines examined were significantly increased in VZV-infected qHPNCs. Consistent with these results, conditioned supernatant from VZV-infected qHPNCs, but not that from VZV-infected qHA-sps and qHA-hps, recruited PBMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

VZV-infected qHA-sps and qHA-hps have distinct morphological alterations and patterns of proinflammatory cytokine suppression that could contribute to ineffective viral clearance in VZV myelopathy and encephalopathy, respectively.

Pulmonary edema following central nervous system lesions induced by a non- mouse-adapted EV71 strain in neonatal BALB/c mice

Background

Enterovirus (EV) infection has been a serious health issue in Asia-Pacific region. It has been indicated that the occurrence of fatal hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD) cases following EV71 infection is mainly attributed to pulmonary edema. However, the development of pulmonary disorders after EV71 infection remains largely unknown. To establish an EV71-infected animal model and further explore the underlying association of central nervous system (CNS) invasion with pulmonary edema, we isolated a clinical source EV71 strain (ZZ1350) from a severe case in Henan Province.

Methods

We evaluated the cytotoxicity of ZZ1350 strain and the susceptibility in 3-day-old BALB/c mice with intraperitoneal, intracerebral and intramuscular inoculation. Various histopathological and immunohistochemical techniques were applied to determine the target organs or tissue damage after infection. Correlation analysis was used to identify the relationship between CNS injury and pulmonary disorders.

Results

Our experimental results suggested that ZZ1350 (C4 subtype) had high cytotoxicity against African green monkey kidney (Vero) cells and human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells and neonatal BALB/c mice were highly susceptible to the infection with ZZ1350 through three different inoculation routes (2 × 10⁶ pfu/mouse) exhibiting severe neurological and respiratory symptoms that were similar to clinical observation. Viral replication was found in brain, spinal cord, skeletal muscle, lung, spleen, liver, heart of infected mice and these sections also showed histopathological changes. We found that brain histology score was positive correlated with lung histology score in total experimental mice and mice under the three inoculation routes (P < 0.05). At the same time, there were positive correlations between spinal cord score and lung score in total experimental mice and mice with intracerebral inoculation (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

ZZ1350 strain is effective to establish animal model of EV71 infection with severe neurological and respiratory symptoms. The development of pulmonary disorders after EV71 infection is associated with severity of CNS damage.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi: 10.1186/s12985-017-0911-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Morphological characteristics of fatal pediatric hand, foot and mouth disease: A clinicopathological study with related receptors of EV71

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the pathological features of fatal pediatric hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD).

METHODS

The histopathological features of HFMD were first summarized from literature, and then confirmed by in-house autopsies. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry was conducted to detect the distribution and expression level of two enterovirus 71 (EV71) receptors scavenger receptor class B, member 2 (SCARB2), and P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL1) in the samples of autopsies.

RESULTS

The main symptoms of HFMD included hand and foot rashes, as well as oral herpes. The fatal HFMD patients had typical histopathological change in the central nervous system, such as encephaledema and encephalitis. As for respiratory system, the fatal HFMD patients suffered acute pulmonary edema and congestion. SCARB2 positive signaling was distributed equally in bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial cells, alveolar epithelial cells and inflammatory cells of all HFMD patients, healthy children and adults without significant difference. PSGL-1 dispersed in bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial cells of healthy adults, but no PSGL-1 expression was detected in HFMD patients and healthy children.

CONCLUSIONS

Both of the central nervous and respiratory systems may be involved in the fatal HFMD patients. The EV71 receptor PSGL-1 might play essential parts in the pathogenesis of fatal HFMD, however, the hypothesis needs to be further investigated.