The role of probiotics in vaginal health

Moderate concentration of Lactobacillus metabolites does not adversely affect mouse sperm

Many couples in contemporary societies suffer from infertility of unexplained origins (idiopathic). A promising treatment strategy within this context involves the administration to women of preparations containing lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus) and/or their metabolites. Recent investigations underscore the role of lactobacilli in sustaining female fertility and enhancing the effectiveness of assisted reproductive techniques. There have also been reports describing the effect of lactobacilli on sperm functions, but our knowledge in this domain remains uncertain. In this study, the effect of supernatant from Lactobacillus rhamnosus culture on mouse sperm viability and motility was tested. The protective properties of lactobacilli metabolites against hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage were also verified. It was shown that the metabolites have no effect on viability, motility, and genome integrity of spermatozoa, but in excessive concentrations they become toxic. The obtained results imply that probiotic and/or postbiotic preparations taken by women should not adversely affect the sperm of their partners, provided the dose is correctly selected.

Genetic Connectivity of Gut Microbiota and Oral Ulcers: A Mendelian Randomization Study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to reveal the relationship, if any, between gut microbiota and oral ulcers.

METHODS

We performed a 2-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study to estimate the roles of gut microbiota in mouth ulcers. The summary datasets of gut microbiota were from the largest genome-wide association study (GWAS) conducted by MiBioGen, and data of mouth ulcers were obtained from UK Biobank. Random effect inverse variance-weighted, weighted median, MR Egger, simple mode and weighted mode were used to estimate the relationship. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the heterogeneity and pleiotropy of instrumental variables. MR Steiger filtering was also applied to orient the causal direction.

RESULTS

Three gut microbiota taxa were positively associated with mouth ulcers: Holdemania (odds ratio [OR] = 1.005, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.001-1.009, P = .019), Oxalobacter (OR = 1.004, 95% CI: 1.000-1.007, P = .032), and Ruminococcaceae UCG011 (OR = 1.006, 95% CI: 1.001-1.011, P = .029), while 4 gut microbiota taxa were negatively associated with mouth ulcers: Actinobacteria (OR = 0.992, 95% CI: 0.985-1.000, P = .042), Lactobacillales (OR = 0.995, 95% CI: 0.990-1.000, P = .034), Oscillospira (OR = 0.990, 95% CI: 0.984-0.997, P = .007) and Phascolarctobacterium (OR = 0.992, 95% CI: 0.986-0.997, P = .003). Sensitivity analyses validated the robustness of the association in between.

CONCLUSIONS

This MR study identified a strong association between the quality of gut microbiota and oral ulcers. The findings are likely to expand the therapeutic targets for mouth ulcers.

Simultaneous application of oral and intravaginal probiotics for Helicobacter pylori and its antibiotic-therapy-induced vaginal dysbacteriosis

Helicobacter pylori is a prevalent bacterial pathogen globally, implicated in various gastrointestinal disorders. Current recommended antibiotic therapies for H. pylori infection have been proven to be therapeutically insufficient, with low eradication rates and high recurrence rates. Emerging evidence suggests that antibiotic therapy for H. pylori can lead to gastrointestinal and subsequent vaginal dysbiosis, posing challenges for conventional antibiotic approaches. Thus, this article proposes a novel probiotic therapy involving simultaneous oral and intra-vaginal probiotic administration alongside antibiotics for H. pylori treatment, aiming to enhance eradication rates and mitigate dysbiosis. We begin by providing an overview of gastrointestinal and vaginal microbiota and their interconnectedness through the vagina-gut axis. We then review the efficacy of current antibiotic regimens for H. pylori and discuss how antibiotic treatment impacts the vaginal microenvironment. To explore the feasibility of this approach, we evaluate the effectiveness of oral and intra-vaginal probiotics in restoring normal microbiota in the gastrointestinal and vaginal tracts, respectively. Additionally, we analyze the direct mechanisms by which oral and intra-vaginal probiotics act on their respective tracts and discuss potential cross-tract mechanisms. Considering the potential synergistic therapeutic effects of probiotics in both the gastrointestinal and vaginal tracts, dual-channel probiotic therapy holds promise as a more effective approach for H. pylori eradication and dysbiosis mitigation, presenting a novel concept in the collaborative treatment of gastrointestinal and genital disorders.

Current research update on group B streptococcal infection related to obstetrics and gynecology

Group B streptococcal (GBS) is a Gram-positive bacterium that is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract and urogenital tract. GBS infestation during pregnancy is a significant contributor to maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality globally. This article aims to discuss the infectious diseases caused by GBS in the field of obstetrics and gynecology, as well as the challenges associated with the detection, treatment, and prevention of GBS.

Premature rupture of membranes and changes in the vaginal microbiome - Probiotics

Preterm birth affects approximately 15 million women worldwide, of which 30 % is due to preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM). The reasons for shortening the duration of pregnancy are seen in genetic, hormonal, immunological and socio-economic conditions. Recent years have provided a lot of evidence on the impact of the microbiota and whole microbiome on pregnant women, suggesting that the microorganisms inhabiting the vagina significantly affect the risk of preterm delivery. The aim of the study was to review studies evaluating the composition of the vaginal microflora and its role in the occurrence of preterm labor caused by PPROM, and to evaluate the potential beneficial effect of probiotics on preventing the development of preterm labor. Vaginal microbial dysbiosis is observed in PPROM, which, due to its association with a high risk of prematurity and infection, increases neonatal morbidity and mortality. Further research on biomarkers for screening, early prognosis and diagnosis of PPROM seems advisable. Probiotics as a potential intervention can prevent the development of pathological vaginal flora, reducing the risk of infection in women planning pregnancy and pregnant women.

Does "all disease begin in the gut"? The gut-organ cross talk in the microbiome

The human microbiome, a diverse ecosystem of microorganisms within the body, plays pivotal roles in health and disease. This review explores site-specific microbiomes, their role in maintaining health, and strategies for their upkeep, focusing on oral, lung, vaginal, skin, and gut microbiota, and their systemic connections. Understanding the intricate relationships between these microbial communities is crucial for unraveling mechanisms underlying human health. Recent research highlights bidirectional communication between the gut and distant microbiome sites, influencing immune function, metabolism, and disease susceptibility. Alterations in one microbiome can impact others, emphasizing their interconnectedness and collective influence on human physiology. The therapeutic potential of gut microbiota in modulating distant microbiomes offers promising avenues for interventions targeting various disorders. Through interdisciplinary collaboration and technological advancements, we can harness the power of the microbiome to revolutionize healthcare, emphasizing microbiome-centric approaches to promote holistic well-being while identifying areas for future research.

Effects of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics on the prevention and treatment of cervical cancer: Mexican consensus and recommendations

Gut microbiota plays a crucial role in modulating immune responses, including effector response to infection and surveillance of tumors. This article summarizes the current scientific evidence on the effects of supplementation with prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics on high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, precancerous lesions, and various stages of cervical cancer development and treatment while also examining the underlying molecular pathways involved. Our findings indicate that a higher dietary fiber intake is associated with a reduced risk of HPV infection, while certain probiotics have shown promising results in clearing HPV-related lesions. Additionally, certain strains of probiotics, prebiotics such as inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides, and synbiotics decrease the frequency of gastrointestinal adverse effects in cervical cancer patients. These agents attain their results by modulating crucial metabolic pathways, including the reduction of inflammation and oxidative stress, promoting apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, and suppressing the activity of oncogenes, thus attenuating tumorigenesis. We conclude that although further human studies are necessary, robust evidence in preclinical models demonstrates that prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics play an essential role in cervical cancer, from infection to carcinogenesis and its medical treatment. Consequently, we strongly recommend conducting high-quality clinical trials using these agents as adjuvants since they have proven safe.

Interpretation of vaginal metagenomic characteristics in different types of vaginitis

Although vaginitis is closely related to vaginal microecology in females, the precise composition and functional potential of different types of vaginitis remain unclear. Here, metagenomic sequencing was applied to analyze the vaginal flora in patients with various forms of vaginitis, including cases with a clue cell proportion ranging from 1% to 20% (Clue1_20), bacterial vaginitis (BV), vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), and BV combined with VVC (VVC_BV). Our results identified Prevotella as an important biomarker between BV and Clue1_20. Moreover, a gradual decrease was observed in the relative abundance of shikimic acid metabolism associated with bacteria producing indole as well as a decline in the abundance of Gardnerella vaginalis in patients with BV, Clue1_20, and healthy women. Interestingly, the vaginal flora of patients in the VVC_BV group exhibited structural similarities to that of the VVC group, and its potentially functional characteristics resembled those of the BV and VVC groups. Finally, Lactobacillus crispatus was found in high abundance in healthy samples, greatly contributing to the stability of the vaginal environment. For the further study of L. crispatus, we isolated five strains of L. crispatus from healthy samples and evaluated their capacity to inhibit G. vaginalis biofilms and produce lactic acid in vitro to select the potential probiotic candidate for improving vaginitis in future clinical studies. Overall, we successfully identified bacterial biomarkers of different vaginitis and characterized the dynamic shifts in vaginal flora between patients with BV and healthy females. This research advances our understanding and holds great promise in enhancing clinical approaches for the treatment of vaginitis.

IMPORTANCE

Vaginitis is one of the most common gynecological diseases, mostly caused by infections of pathogens such as Candida albicans and Gardnerella vaginalis. In recent years, it has been found that the stability of the vaginal flora plays an important role in vaginitis. Furthermore, the abundant Lactobacillus-producing rich lactic acid in the vagina provides a healthy acidic environment such as Lactobacillus crispatus. The metabolites of Lactobacillus can inhibit the colonization of pathogens. Here, we collected the vaginal samples of patients with bacterial vaginitis (BV), vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), and BV combined with VVC to discover the differences and relationships among the different kinds of vaginitis by metagenomic sequencing. Furthermore, because of the importance of L. crispatus in promoting vaginal health, we isolated multiple strains from vaginal samples of healthy females and chose the most promising strain with potential probiotic benefits to provide clinical implications for treatment strategies.

Fermentation of Rubus dolichocarpus juice using Lactobacillus gasseri and Lacticaseibacillus casei and protecting phenolic compounds by Stevia extract during cold storage

This study aimed to investigate the biological activities of Lactobacillus gasseri SM 05 (L. gasseri) and Lacticaseibacillus casei subsp. casei PTCC 1608 (L. casei) in the black raspberry (Rubus dolichocarpus) juice (BRJ) environment, and also the anti-adhesion activity against Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) in fermented black raspberry juice (FBRJ). Results showed significant anti-adhesion activity in Caco-2 epithelial cells. In the anti-adhesion process, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) improve intestinal health by preventing the adhesion of pathogens. Adding LAB to BRJ produces metabolites with bacteriocin properties. Major findings of this research include improved intestinal health, improved antidiabetic properties, inhibition of degradation of amino acids, and increase in the nutritional value of foods that have been subjected to heat processing by preventing Maillard inhibition, and inhibition of oxidation of foodstuff by increased antioxidant activity of BRJ. Both species of Lactobacillus effectively controlled the growth of S. typhimurium during BRJ fermentation. Moreover, in all tests, as well as Maillard's and α-amylase inhibition, L. gasseri was more effective than L. casei. The phenolic and flavonoid compounds increased significantly after fermentation by both LAB (p < 0.05). Adding Stevia extract to FBRJ and performing the HHP process showed convenient protection of phenolic compounds compared to heat processing.

Hormonal Medications for Genitourinary Syndrome of Menopause

Genitourinary syndrome of menopause is a common, under-reported, and undertreated chronic progressive condition requiring long-term treatment. Hypoestrogenism in the urogenital tissues is associated with bothersome dyspareunia, vulvovaginal symptoms, overactive bladder, and frequent urinary tract infections. Vaginal hormone therapies, including vaginal estrogen and intravaginal dehydroepiandrostenedione, are safe and effective and improve symptoms and clinical findings. Systemic hormone therapy treats vulvovaginal atrophy less effectively than vaginal hormone therapies with increased stress and urge urinary incontinence. Oral ospemifene effectively treats vaginal dryness and dyspareunia. Clinicians need to ask about symptoms of genitourinary syndrome of menopause, confirm the diagnosis, and suggest appropriate treatment options.

Vaccine Strategies to Elicit Mucosal Immunity

Vaccines are essential tools to prevent infection and control transmission of infectious diseases that threaten public health. Most infectious agents enter their hosts across mucosal surfaces, which make up key first lines of host defense against pathogens. Mucosal immune responses play critical roles in host immune defense to provide durable and better recall responses. Substantial attention has been focused on developing effective mucosal vaccines to elicit robust localized and systemic immune responses by administration via mucosal routes. Mucosal vaccines that elicit effective immune responses yield protection superior to parenterally delivered vaccines. Beyond their valuable immunogenicity, mucosal vaccines can be less expensive and easier to administer without a need for injection materials and more highly trained personnel. However, developing effective mucosal vaccines faces many challenges, and much effort has been directed at their development. In this article, we review the history of mucosal vaccine development and present an overview of mucosal compartment biology and the roles that mucosal immunity plays in defending against infection, knowledge that has helped inform mucosal vaccine development. We explore new progress in mucosal vaccine design and optimization and novel approaches created to improve the efficacy and safety of mucosal vaccines.

Lactobacillus plantarum and Bifidobacterium longum Alleviate Liver Injury and Fibrosis in Mice by Regulating NF-κB and AMPK Signaling

In a preliminary study, live biotherapeutic products (LBPs) Lactobacillus plantarum LC27 and Bifidobacterium longum LC67 inhibited the secretion of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) in LPS-stimulated HepG2 cells, while Escherichia coli K1 (Ec) increased ALT and ALT secretion. Therefore, we examined the effects of LC27 and LC67 on LPS-induced liver injury and fibrosis in mice and the correlation between their biomarkers in cell and animal experiments. Orally administered LC27 or LC67 significantly decreased blood ALT, AST, γ-glutamyl transferase (γGTP), TNF-α, triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TCh), total bile acid, and LPS levels, liver TNF-α, toll-like receptor-4 gene (Tlr4), α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), and collagen-1 expression and αSMA+GFAP+ and NF-κB+F4/80+ cell populations, and colonic Tlr4, TNF-α, and IL-6 expression and NF-κB-positive cell population in LPS-treated mice. Furthermore, they increased AMPKa phosphorylation in the liver and colon. However, Ec increased the expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in blood, liver, and colon. The suppression of LPS-stimulated ALT and AST secretion in HepG2 cells by LBPs was positively correlated with their ameliorating effects on LPS-induced blood γGTP, ALT, and AST levels and liver αSMA and collagen-1 expression in mice. Based on these findings, LC27 and LC67 may improve liver injury and fibrosis by regulating NF-κB and AMPK signaling pathway and a protocol that can assay the inhibitory activity of LBPs on LPS-induced ALT and AST secretion in HepG2 may be useful for guessing their antihepatitic effects in the in vivo experiments.

Vaginal microecology and its role in human papillomavirus infection and human papillomavirus associated cervical lesions

The vaginal microecology comprises the vaginal microbiome, immune microenvironment, vaginal anatomy, and the cervicovaginal fluid, which is rich in metabolites, enzymes, and cytokines. Investigating its role in the female reproductive system holds paramount significance. The advent of next-generation sequencing enabled a more profound investigation into the structure of the vaginal microbial community in relation to the female reproductive system. Human papillomavirus infection is prevalent among women of reproductive age, and persistent oncogenic HPV infection is widely recognized as a factor associated with cervical cancer. Extensive previous research has demonstrated that dysbiosis of vaginal microbiota characterized by a reduction in Lactobacillus species, heightens susceptivity to HPV infection, consequently contributing to persistent HPV infection and the progression of cervical lesion. Likewise, HPV infection can exacerbate dysbiosis. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of current literatures and to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the interaction between vaginal microecology and HPV infection, with the intention of offering valuable insights for future clinical interventions.

HPV co-infections with other pathogens in cancer development: A comprehensive review

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) cause various malignancies in the anogenital and oropharyngeal regions. About 70% of cervical and oropharyngeal cancers are caused by HPV types 16 and 18. Notably, some viruses including herpes simplex virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human immunodeficiency virus along with various bacteria often interact with HPV, potentially impacting its replication, persistence, and cancer progression. Thus, HPV infection can be significantly influenced by co-infecting agents that influence infection dynamics and disease progression. Bacterial co-infections (e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis) along with bacterial vaginosis-related species also interact with HPV in genital tract leading to viral persistence and disease outcomes. Co-infections involving HPV and diverse infectious agents have significant implications for disease transmission and clinical progression. This review explores multiple facets of HPV infection encompassing the co-infection dynamics with other pathogens, interaction with the human microbiome, and its role in disease development.

Human papillomavirus associated cervical lesion: pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most prevalent sexually transmitted virus globally. Persistent high-risk HPV infection can result in cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer, with 70% of cervical cancer cases associated with high-risk types HPV16 and 18. HPV infection imposes a significant financial and psychological burden. Therefore, studying methods to eradicate HPV infection and halt the progression of precancerous lesions remains crucial. This review comprehensively explores the mechanisms underlying HPV-related cervical lesions, including the viral life cycle, immune factors, epithelial cell malignant transformation, and host and environmental contributing factors. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive overview of treatment methods for HPV-related cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer. Our focus is on immunotherapy, encompassing HPV therapeutic vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and advanced adoptive T cell therapy. Furthermore, we summarize the commonly employed drugs and other nonsurgical treatments currently utilized in clinical practice for managing HPV infection and associated cervical lesions. Gene editing technology is currently undergoing clinical research and, although not yet employed officially in clinical treatment of cervical lesions, numerous preclinical studies have substantiated its efficacy. Therefore, it holds promise as a precise treatment strategy for HPV-related cervical lesions.

Effect of Vitamin D on the Proliferation and Barrier of Atrophic Vaginal Epithelial Cells

Atrophic vaginitis is very common in postmenopausal women due to declining estrogen levels. Vitamin D plays an important role in promoting epithelial cell proliferation, migration and adhesion. We established a rat model of ovariectomy (OVX) induced atrophic vaginitis with the aim of investigating the effects of Vitamin D supplementation on the vaginal epithelial barrier. The results showed that ovariectomised rats had significantly higher vaginal pH, reduced Lactobacillus, significantly lower uterine and vaginal weights, and lower vaginal epithelial PCNA, occludin, and E-cadherin mRNA expression compared with sham-operated rats. Vitamin D supplementation could reduce the vaginal pH, promote the proliferation and keratinization of vaginal epithelial cells, enhance the expression of PCNA mRNA in vaginal tissues, and improve the vaginal and uterine atrophy. Vitamin D can also increase the expression of E-cadherin and occludin proteins in vaginal tissues, maintain the integrity of the vaginal epithelium, increase the number of Lactobacillus, and reduce pathogenic bacterial infections. In vitro experiments demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2D3 could promote the proliferation and migration of VK2/E6E7 vaginal epithelial cells and increase the expression of E-cadherin protein. In conclusion, we demonstrated that Vitamin D can regulate the expression of vaginal epithelial tight junction proteins, promotes cell proliferation, and improves vaginal atrophy due to estrogen deficiency.

Cervical and Vaginal Microbiomes in Early Miscarriages and Ongoing Pregnancy with and without Dydrogesterone Usage

Emerging evidence suggests that the reproductive tract microbiota is a key modulator of local inflammatory and immune pathways throughout pregnancy and may subsequently impact pregnancy outcomes. In this study, our objective was to analyze the cervical and vaginal microbiomes during early pregnancy among three groups: women with healthy ongoing pregnancies, women undergoing dydrogesterone treatment, and those who experienced miscarriages. The experiment involved 51 women at 8-11 weeks of gestation. The microbiome was examined using 16S rRNA sequencing on the Ion Torrent PGM platform. Across all groups, Lactobacillus iners was predominant, suggesting that the vaginal community type CST III is common among the majority of participants. Notably, our data highlighted the significant roles of Gardnerella vaginalis and Mycoplasma girerdii in the pathogenesis of early miscarriage. Conversely, L. iners and Bifidobacterium longum have a protective effect in early pregnancy. Moreover, dydrogesterone intake appeared to influence notable differences between the cervical and vaginal microbiomes. Overall, our study enhanced our understanding of the cervical and vaginal microbiome composition in the eastern European population during early pregnancy.

Collagen-Based Ovule Therapy Reduces Inflammation and Improve Cervical Epithelialization in Patients with Fungal, Viral, and Bacterial Cervico-Vaginitis

Background and Objectives: Vulvovaginal infections pose significant health challenges for women, necessitating effective treatment approaches. This retrospective observational study aimed at investigating the efficacy of collagen-based vaginal ovules therapy, specifically Plurigin Ovules, in restoring cervical epithelialization and reducing inflammation in mycotic, viral, and bacterial cervico-vaginitis. Materials and Methods: A total of 398 women with cervico-vaginitis were included in the study, categorized into three groups: bacterial cervico-vaginitis (Group A), viral cervico-vaginitis (Group B), and fungal cervico-vaginitis (Group C). Participants received vaginal therapy with Plurigin Ovules for three months. Vaginal health parameters were assessed at baseline (T0) and after six months (T1) using various diagnostic tests and analyzed with appropriate statistical tests. Results: Significant improvement in cervico-vaginitis was observed in all three groups. At T1, 87.7% patients of Group A, 66.7% of Group B, and 71.5% of Group C achieved infection resolution (all p < 0.05). Positive colposcopy results decreased across all groups (p < 0.001). Positive vaginal swabs and altered vaginal pH decreased in group A and C (p < 0.001). Positive HPV tests decreased in Group B (p < 0.001). Positive Pap tests and clinical examinations decreased significantly across all groups (p < 0.001). The odds ratios were calculated to reveal the significant associations between these diagnostic outcomes. The therapy was well-tolerated, and no major adverse events were reported. Conclusion: Plurigin Ovules exhibited promising therapeutic outcomes in the three cervico-vaginitis conditions studied. Bacterial cervico-vaginitis showed the most significant improvement, followed by fungal and viral cervico-vaginitis. These findings emphasize the potential of Plurigin Ovules as an effective therapeutic option for cervico-vaginal inflammation and infection, highlighting its role in promoting re-epithelialization and reducing inflammatory processes in the cervix and vagina.

Crosstalk between the Resident Microbiota and the Immune Cells Regulates Female Genital Tract Health

The female genital tract (FGT) performs several functions related to reproduction, but due to its direct exposure to the external environment, it may suffer microbial infections. Both the upper (uterus and cervix) and lower (vagina) FGT are covered by an epithelium, and contain immune cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, T and B lymphocytes) that afford a robust protection to the host. Its upper and the lower part differ in terms of Lactobacillus spp., which are dominant in the vagina. An alteration of the physiological equilibrium between the local microbiota and immune cells leads to a condition of dysbiosis which, in turn, may account for the outcome of FGT infection. Aerobic vaginitis, bacterial vaginosis, and Chlamydia trachomatis are the most frequent infections, and can lead to severe complications in reproduction and pregnancy. The use of natural products, such as probiotics, polyphenols, and lactoferrin in the course of FGT infections is an issue of current investigation. In spite of positive results, more research is needed to define the most appropriate administration, according to the type of patient.

Retrospective study of pathogens involved in vaginitis among Chinese women

BACKGROUND

To explore the pathogen distribution in Chinese females with vaginitis.

METHODS

This retrospective study included Chinese females with vaginitis admitted at the outpatient department of the Gynecology Clinic of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University between January 2013 and June 2013. Data on the vaginal pathogens and inflammation were analyzed.

RESULTS

The vaginal secretions from 15,601 gynecologic outpatients were abnormal, including 8547 (54.78%) with vaginal infection and 7054 (45.22%) without. In patients with vaginal infections, a single infection was observed in 69.72% (5959/8547) of them, and mixed infection was observed in 30.28% (2588/8547). The differences in age and inflammation grade between the infection and no-infection groups were statistically significant (all P < 0.001). In addition, multiple types of vaginitis could be diagnosed in patients with mixed infections.

CONCLUSIONS

About half of the Chinese women with abnormal vaginal secretions are positive for pathogens in the study period. Patients' age and inflammation grade are associated with co-infection. From the public health perspective, this study suggests that the importance of vaginal hygiene should be enforced in Chinese women.

The role of vitamin D in menopausal women's health

Vitamin D (VD) is known to play an important role in the maintenance of calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism. In recent years, there has also been a growing interest in Vitamin D for health issues beyond the bones. Menopausal women are at risk of reduced bone density and increased risk of fracture due to a decline in estrogen levels. There is also an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and hyperlipidaemia due to impaired lipid metabolism. The menopausal and emotional symptoms due to menopause are also increasingly prominent. This article summarizes the role of Vitamin D in menopausal women's health, including the effects of Vitamin D on skeletal muscle, cardiovascular disease, Genitourinary Syndrome of Menopause (GSM), cancer and emotional symptoms. Vitamin D regulates the growth of vaginal epithelial cells and alleviates genitourinary tract problems in menopausal women. Vitamin D also modulates immune function and influences the production of adipokines. Vitamin D and its metabolites also have an anti-proliferative effect on tumour cells. This narrative review, by summarizing recent work on the role of Vitamin D in menopausal women and in animal models of menopause, aims to provide a basis for further development of the role of Vitamin D in the health of menopausal women.

The effects of hormone replacement therapy on the microbiomes of postmenopausal women

The sex steroid hormone estrogen plays a number of regulatory roles in female development. During menopause, estrogen synthesis in the ovaries decreases, which results in adverse physiological remodeling and increased risk of disease. Reduced bone density, changes in the community composition profiles of the gut and vaginal microbiome, mood swings and changes in the vaginal environment are to be expected during this time. To alleviate these changes, postmenopausal women can be prescribed hormone replacement therapy (HRT) through the use of exogenous estradiol, often in conjunction with progestin treatment, which re-induces estrogenic action throughout the body. The microbiome and estrogen have a bidirectional, regulatory relationship in the gut, while in the vaginal environment estrogen works indirectly on the microbiome through restoring the vaginal tissue environment that leads to microbial homeostasis. This review discusses what is known about how the gut and vaginal microbiomes of postmenopausal women are responding to HRT, and the potential future of microbe-based therapeutics for symptoms of menopause.

In Vitro Preventive Effect and Mechanism of Action of Weissella cibaria CMU against Streptococcus mutans Biofilm Formation and Periodontal Pathogens

In this study, we evaluated the in vitro anti-biofilm, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activity of Weissella cibaria CMU (CMU), an oral probiotic, against periodontopathogens. Compared to other oral probiotics, CMU showed a superior inhibitory effect on the biofilm formation and growth of Streptococcus mutans on orthodontic wires and artificial teeth (p < 0.05). CMU exerted potent antibacterial effects against S. mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis according to a line test. In human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) stimulated by P. gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, or Prevotella intermedia, CMU suppressed the gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α] in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05). CMU restored the production of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 following its inhibition by P. gingivalis, and it suppressed the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and -3 induced by periodontopathogens (p < 0.05). Moreover, CMU needed direct contact with HGFs to exert their anti-inflammatory function, indicating that they act directly on gingival cells to modulate local inflammation. Our preclinical study provides evidence for the potential benefits of topical CMU treatments in preventing the development of caries and periodontitis caused by the dysbiosis of the dental plaque microbiome.

Use of probiotic lactobacilli in the treatment of vaginal infections: In vitro and in vivo investigations

The vaginal microbiome is a distinct component of the human microbiome that is colonized by a wide variety of microorganisms. Lactobacilli are the most frequently identified microorganisms in the healthy human vagina. These Gram-positive bacilli can acidify the vaginal microenvironment, inhibit the proliferation of other pathogenic microorganisms, and promote the maintenance of a eubiotic vaginal microbiome. However, a vaginal flora with a reduced proportion or abundance of lactobacilli is associated with various vaginal infections that have been linked to serious health consequences such as infertility, preterm birth, pelvic inflammatory disease, premature rupture of membranes, and miscarriage. Due to their “Generally Recognized as Safe” classification and critical role in vaginal health, probiotic lactobacilli have been widely used as an alternative or adjunct to traditional antibiotic therapy for the treatment of vaginal infections and restoration of the vaginal microbiome. This review focuses on the significant role of probiotic lactobacilli in the vaginal microenvironment and discusses the use of probiotic lactobacilli in the treatment of female vaginal infections in vitro and in vivo.

Preclinical Potential of Probiotic-Loaded Novel Gelatin-Oil Vaginal Suppositories: Efficacy, Stability, and Safety Studies

The current study describes a suppository base composed of aqueous gelatin solution emulsifying oil globules with probiotic cells dispersed within. The favorable mechanical properties of gelatin to provide a solid gelled structure, and the tendency of its proteins to unravel into long strings that interlace when cooled, lead to a three-dimensional structure that can trap a lot of liquid, which was exploited herein to result in a promising suppository form. The latter maintained incorporated probiotic spores of Bacillus coagulans Unique IS-2 in a viable but non-germinating form, preventing spoilage during storage and imparting protection against the growth of any other contaminating organism (self-preserved formulation). The gelatin-oil-probiotic suppository showed uniformity in weight and probiotic content (23 ± 2.481 × 10⁸ cfu) with favorable swelling (double) followed by erosion and complete dissolution within 6 h of administration, leading to the release of probiotic (within 45 min) from the matrix into simulated vaginal fluid. Microscopic images indicated presence of probiotics and oil globules enmeshed in the gelatin network. High viability (24.3 ± 0.46 × 10⁸), germination upon application and a self-preserving nature were attributed to the optimum water activity (0.593 a_w) of the developed composition. The retention of suppositories, germination of probiotics and their in vivo efficacy and safety in vulvovaginal candidiasis murine model are also reported.

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain as a new driver in restoring the normal vaginal microbiota: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Probiotics play a key role in maintaining the health of the female reproductive tract, representing a promising alternative to safeguard or restore the homeostasis of the vaginal microbiota. The present randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study was performed to evaluate the ability of the potential probiotic Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain, orally administrated, to balance the vaginal microbiota of women with vaginal dysbiosis. Sixty women, with signs and symptoms of vaginal dysbiosis, were recruited and randomly allocated to receive oral capsules containing the L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain at 1.0 × 10¹⁰ colony-forming units or placebo once daily for 10 days. Clinical and microbiological parameters were evaluated in three scheduled appointments: at baseline (T0), 10 days after the start of the treatment (T1), and 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). In addition, the quality of life, through the WHO quality of life assessment questionnaire, was assessed at baseline (T0) and 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). The probiotic was well tolerated and no side effects were reported. The oral consumption of the potential probiotic L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain determined a significant improvement of both clinical signs and symptoms not only 10 days after the start of the treatment (T1) but also 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). A significant reduction of potential pathogens and a concomitant increase of lactobacilli was revealed, by microbial count, at both T1 and T2 sampling times. In addition, the enhancement of the perceived physical health, social relations, and environment was reported. Differently, in placebo group clinical and microbiological parameters as well as quality of life remained almost unchanged. The potential probiotic L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain could be a safe and effective approach to restore and maintain a balanced vaginal microbiota.

The Gut Microbiome and Female Health

The possession of two X chromosomes may come with the risk of various illnesses, females are more likely to be affected by osteoarthritis, heart disease, and anxiety. Given the reported correlations between gut microbiome dysbiosis and various illnesses, the female gut microbiome is worthy of exploration. Herein, we discuss the composition of the female gut microbiota and its dysbiosis in pathologies affecting the female population. Using PubMed, we performed a literature search, using key terms, namely: "gut microbiome", "estrogen", "menopause", "polycystic ovarian syndrome", "pregnancy", and "menstruation". In polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), the abundance of Bacteroides vulgatus, Firmicutes, Streptococcus, and the ratio of Escherichia/Shigella was found to be increased while that of Tenericutes ML615J-28, Tenericutes 124-7, Akkermansia, Ruminococcaceae, and Bacteroidetes S24-7 was reduced. In breast cancer, the abundance of Clostridiales was enhanced, while in cervical cancer, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, and Dialister were enhanced but Bacteroides, Alistipes, and members of Lachnospiracea, were decreased. In ovarian cancer, Prevotella abundance was increased. Interestingly, the administration of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Lactobacillus reuteri, and Lactobacillus fermentum ameliorated PCOS symptoms while that of a mix of Bifidobacterium lactis W51, Bifidobacterium bifidum W23, Lactobacillus brevis W63, Bifidobacterium lactis W52, Lactobacillus salivarius W24, Lactobacillus acidophilus W37, Lactococcus lactis W19, Lactobacillus casei W56, and Lactococcus lactis W58 alleviated vascular malfunction and arterial stiffness in obese postmenopausal women, and finally, while further research is needed, Prevotella maybe protective against postmenopausal bone mass loss. As several studies report the therapeutic potential of probiotics and since the gut microbiota of certain female pathological states has been relatively characterized, we speculate that the administration of certain bacterial species as probiotics is warranted, as novel independent or adjunct therapies for various female pathologies.