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Sipos F, Műzes G. Colonic Tuft Cells: The Less-Recognized Therapeutic Targets in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6209. [PMID: 38892399 PMCID: PMC11172904 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuft cells are more than guardian chemosensory elements of the digestive tract. They produce a variety of immunological effector molecules in response to stimulation; moreover, they are essential for defense against protozoa and nematodes. Beyond the description of their characteristics, this review aims to elucidate the potential pathogenic and therapeutic roles of colonic tuft cells in inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer, focusing on their primarily immunomodulatory action. Regarding inflammatory bowel disease, tuft cells are implicated in both maintaining the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier and in tissue repair and regeneration processes. In addition to maintaining intestinal homeostasis, they display complex immune-regulatory functions. During the development of colorectal cancer, tuft cells can promote the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, alter the gastrointestinal microenvironment, and modulate both the anti-tumor immune response and the tumor microenvironment. A wide variety of their biological functions can be targeted for anti-inflammatory or anti-tumor therapies; however, the adverse side effects of immunomodulatory actions must be strictly considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Sipos
- Immunology Division, Department of Internal Medicine and Hematology, Semmelweis University, 1088 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Györgyi Műzes
- Immunology Division, Department of Internal Medicine and Hematology, Semmelweis University, 1088 Budapest, Hungary
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2
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Silverman JB, Vega PN, Tyska MJ, Lau KS. Intestinal Tuft Cells: Morphology, Function, and Implications for Human Health. Annu Rev Physiol 2024; 86:479-504. [PMID: 37863104 PMCID: PMC11193883 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-042022-030310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Tuft cells are a rare and morphologically distinct chemosensory cell type found throughout many organs, including the gastrointestinal tract. These cells were identified by their unique morphologies distinguished by large apical protrusions. Ultrastructural data have begun to describe the molecular underpinnings of their cytoskeletal features, and tuft cell-enriched cytoskeletal proteins have been identified, although the connection of tuft cell morphology to tuft cell functionality has not yet been established. Furthermore, tuft cells display variations in function and identity between and within tissues, leading to the delineation of distinct tuft cell populations. As a chemosensory cell type, they display receptors that are responsive to ligands specific for their environment. While many studies have demonstrated the tuft cell response to protists and helminths in the intestine, recent research has highlighted other roles of tuft cells as well as implicated tuft cells in other disease processes including inflammation, cancer, and viral infections. Here, we review the literature on the cytoskeletal structure of tuft cells. Additionally, we focus on new research discussing tuft cell lineage, ligand-receptor interactions, tuft cell tropism, and the role of tuft cells in intestinal disease. Finally, we discuss the implication of tuft cell-targeted therapies in human health and how the morphology of tuft cells may contribute to their functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer B Silverman
- Epithelial Biology Center and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; ,
| | - Paige N Vega
- Epithelial Biology Center and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; ,
| | - Matthew J Tyska
- Epithelial Biology Center and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; ,
| | - Ken S Lau
- Epithelial Biology Center and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; ,
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3
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Li L, Huang L, Lei R, Zhang P, Yang Y, Liu H, Zhang Y. DEHP and DBP, common phthalates, induce glucose metabolism disorders in rats via oxidative damage of PI3K/Akt/GLUT4 signaling. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 341:122948. [PMID: 37977363 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are environmental endocrine disruptors thought to interfere with glucose metabolism in humans. Most of the related research has focused on population epidemiological studies, with the underlying mechanisms remaining unresolved. Using an in vivo animal model, we examined the effects of oral administration of two commonly used PAEs [di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP)] on glucose homeostasis and insulin secretion. DEHP (750 mg/kg, 1/40 LD50), DBP (500 mg/kg, 1/40 LD50), and DEHP (750 mg/kg) + DBP (500 mg/kg) exert an influence on glucose metabolism and elicit a reduction in insulin sensitivity in rats. Furthermore, these substances induce detrimental effects on the structure and functionality of pancreatic β-cells. DEHP and/or DBP triggered an increase in plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduction in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity; a reduction in the phosphorylation of phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase (PI3K) and phospho-protein kinase B (p-Akt473) proteins; an increase in the relative expression of Bax, Caspase-8, cleaved-Caspase-9, and cleaved-Caspase-3; and a reduction in the relative expression of Bcl-2-related Bax in pancreatic tissue and of gastrocnemius glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) in the gastrocnemius muscle. Based on these findings, these PAEs can disrupt glucose metabolism, possibly via oxidative damage of the PI3K/Akt/GLUT4 pathway; this damage induces pancreatic β-cell apoptosis, affects pancreatic β-cell function, and affects glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in rats. To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first to show that the combined effect of the two PAEs affects glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in rats that is significantly higher than the effects of each PAE. Thus, safety standards and studies do not consider this effect as a significant oversight when blending PAEs. We assert that this must be addressed and corrected for establishing more impactful and safer standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Li
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Lingyan Huang
- Department of Pathology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Ruichen Lei
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Pengju Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Yi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Herong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Yuhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Disease Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China; School of Public Health, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China.
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4
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Yang H, Huang YX, Xiong PY, Li JQ, Chen JL, Liu X, Gong YJ, Ding WJ. Possible connection between intestinal tuft cells, ILC2s and obesity. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1266667. [PMID: 38283340 PMCID: PMC10811205 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1266667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Intestinal tuft cells (TCs) are defined as chemosensory cells that can "taste" danger and induce immune responses. They play a critical role in gastrointestinal parasite invasion, inflammatory bowel diseases and high-fat diet-induced obesity. Intestinal IL-25, the unique product of TCs, is a key activator of type 2 immunity, especially to promote group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) to secret IL-13. Then the IL-13 mainly promotes intestinal stem cell (ISCs) proliferation into TCs and goblet cells. This pathway formulates the circuit in the intestine. This paper focuses on the potential role of the intestinal TC, ILC2 and their circuit in obesity-induced intestinal damage, and discussion on further study and the potential therapeutic target in obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yang
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yu-Xing Huang
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Pei-Yu Xiong
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jin-Qian Li
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Ji-Lan Chen
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xia Liu
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yan-Ju Gong
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Wei-Jun Ding
- Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
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Campillo Poveda M, Britton C, Devaney E, McNeilly TN, Gerbe F, Jay P, Maizels RM. Tuft Cells: Detectors, Amplifiers, Effectors and Targets in Parasite Infection. Cells 2023; 12:2477. [PMID: 37887321 PMCID: PMC10605326 DOI: 10.3390/cells12202477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuft cells have recently emerged as the focus of intense interest following the discovery of their chemosensory role in the intestinal tract, and their ability to activate Type 2 immune responses to helminth parasites. Moreover, they populate a wide range of mucosal tissues and are intimately connected to immune and neuronal cells, either directly or through the release of pharmacologically active mediators. They are now recognised to fulfil both homeostatic roles, in metabolism and tissue integrity, as well as acting as the first sensors of parasite infection, immunity to which is lost in their absence. In this review we focus primarily on the importance of tuft cells in the intestinal niche, but also link to their more generalised physiological role and discuss their potential as targets for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Campillo Poveda
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK;
| | - Collette Britton
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (C.B.); (E.D.)
| | - Eileen Devaney
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (C.B.); (E.D.)
| | - Tom N. McNeilly
- Disease Control Department, Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK;
| | - François Gerbe
- Institute of Functional Genomics (IGF), University of Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, F-34094 Montpellier, France; (F.G.); (P.J.)
| | - Philippe Jay
- Institute of Functional Genomics (IGF), University of Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, F-34094 Montpellier, France; (F.G.); (P.J.)
| | - Rick M. Maizels
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK;
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Du Y, Gao H, He C, Xin S, Wang B, Zhang S, Gong F, Yu X, Pan L, Sun F, Wang W, Xu J. An update on the biological characteristics and functions of tuft cells in the gut. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 10:1102978. [PMID: 36704202 PMCID: PMC9872863 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1102978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestine is a powerful digestive system and one of the most sophisticated immunological organs. Evidence shows that tuft cells (TCs), a kind of epithelial cell with distinct morphological characteristics, play a significant role in various physiological processes. TCs can be broadly categorized into different subtypes depending on different molecular criteria. In this review, we discuss its biological properties and role in maintaining homeostasis in the gastrointestinal tract. We also emphasize its relevance to the immune system and highlight its powerful influence on intestinal diseases, including inflammations and tumors. In addition, we provide fresh insights into future clinical diagnostic and therapeutic strategies related to TCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Du
- Department of Oral Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Han Gao
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Chengwei He
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuzi Xin
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Boya Wang
- Undergraduate Student of 2018 Eight Program of Clinical Medicine, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Sitian Zhang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fengrong Gong
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyi Yu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Luming Pan
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fanglin Sun
- Department of Laboratory Animal Research, Xuan Wu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen Wang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Research, Xuan Wu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jingdong Xu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China,*Correspondence: Jingdong Xu,
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7
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Sun S, Yang Y, Xiong R, Ni Y, Ma X, Hou M, Chen L, Xu Z, Chen L, Ji M. Oral berberine ameliorates high-fat diet-induced obesity by activating TAS2Rs in tuft and endocrine cells in the gut. Life Sci 2022; 311:121141. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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8
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Chen L, Yang Y, Sun S, Xie Y, Pan C, Li M, Li C, Liu Y, Xu Z, Liu W, Ji M. Indolepropionic acid reduces obesity‐induced metabolic dysfunction through colonic barrier restoration mediated via tuft cell‐derived IL‐25. FEBS J 2022; 289:5985-6004. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.16470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Antibody Drug Nanjing China
| | - Yuxuan Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Siyu Sun
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Yuan Xie
- Department of Endocrinology Sir Run Run Hospital Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Cailong Pan
- Department of Pathology School of Basic Medicine Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Maining Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Endocrinology Sir Run Run Hospital Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Wentao Liu
- Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medicine Nanjing Medical University China
| | - Minjun Ji
- Department of Pathogen Biology Nanjing Medical University China
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Antibody Drug Nanjing China
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9
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Hendel SK, Kellermann L, Hausmann A, Bindslev N, Jensen KB, Nielsen OH. Tuft Cells and Their Role in Intestinal Diseases. Front Immunol 2022; 13:822867. [PMID: 35237268 PMCID: PMC8884241 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.822867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The interests in intestinal epithelial tuft cells, their basic physiology, involvement in immune responses and relevance for gut diseases, have increased dramatically over the last fifteen years. A key discovery in 2016 of their close connection to helminthic and protozoan infection has further spurred the exploration of these rare chemosensory epithelial cells. Although very sparse in number, tuft cells are now known as important sentinels in the gastrointestinal tract as they monitor intestinal content using succinate as well as sweet and bitter taste receptors. Upon stimulation, tuft cells secrete a broad palette of effector molecules, including interleukin-25, prostaglandin E2 and D2, cysteinyl leukotriene C4, acetylcholine, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, and β-endorphins, some of which with immunomodulatory functions. Tuft cells have proven indispensable in anti-helminthic and anti-protozoan immunity. Most studies on tuft cells are based on murine experiments using double cortin-like kinase 1 (DCLK1) as a marker, while human intestinal tuft cells can be identified by their expression of the cyclooxygenase-1 enzyme. So far, only few studies have examined tuft cells in humans and their relation to gut disease. Here, we present an updated view on intestinal epithelial tuft cells, their physiology, immunological hub function, and their involvement in human disease. We close with a discussion on how tuft cells may have potential therapeutic value in a clinical context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kjærgaard Hendel
- Department of Gastroenterology, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Sebastian Kjærgaard Hendel,
| | - Lauge Kellermann
- Department of Gastroenterology, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Annika Hausmann
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Stem Cell Medicine, reNEW, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Bindslev
- Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kim Bak Jensen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Stem Cell Medicine, reNEW, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ole Haagen Nielsen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev, Denmark
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Rajeev S, Sosnowski O, Li S, Allain T, Buret AG, McKay DM. Enteric Tuft Cells in Host-Parasite Interactions. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10091163. [PMID: 34578195 PMCID: PMC8467374 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10091163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric tuft cells are chemosensory epithelial cells gaining attention in the field of host-parasite interactions. Expressing a repertoire of chemosensing receptors and mediators, these cells have the potential to detect lumen-dwelling helminth and protozoan parasites and coordinate epithelial, immune, and neuronal cell defenses against them. This review highlights the versatility of enteric tuft cells and sub-types thereof, showcasing nuances of tuft cell responses to different parasites, with a focus on helminths reflecting the current state of the field. The role of enteric tuft cells in irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal viral infection is assessed in the context of concomitant infection with parasites. Finally, the review presents pertinent questions germane to understanding the enteric tuft cell and its role in enteric parasitic infections. There is much to be done to fully elucidate the response of this intriguing cell type to parasitic-infection and there is negligible data on the biology of the human enteric tuft cell—a glaring gap in knowledge that must be filled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sruthi Rajeev
- Gastrointestinal Research Group, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (S.R.); (S.L.)
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
| | - Olivia Sosnowski
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Shuhua Li
- Gastrointestinal Research Group, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (S.R.); (S.L.)
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
| | - Thibault Allain
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - André G. Buret
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Derek M. McKay
- Gastrointestinal Research Group, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Calvin, Phoebe and Joan Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (S.R.); (S.L.)
- Inflammation Research Network and Host-Parasite Interaction Group, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada; (O.S.); (T.A.); (A.G.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-403-220-7362
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