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Cabrera-Alvargonzalez JJ, Davina-Nunez C, Rey-Cao S, Rodriguez Calviño L, Silva-Bea S, Gonzalez-Alonso E, Carballo-Fernandez R, Lameiro Vilariño C, Cortizo-Vidal S, Valiño-Prieto P, Rodriguez-Perez M, Pérez Castro S, López Miragaya I, Fernández-Nogueira A, Del Campo-Perez V, Regueiro-Garcia B. Comparative analysis of eleven SARS-CoV-2 immunoassays and neutralisation data: time to enhance standardisation and correlation of protection. Infect Dis (Lond) 2024:1-13. [PMID: 39046827 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2024.2382263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To infer a reliable SARS-CoV-2 antibody protection level from a serological test, an appropriate quantitative threshold and solid equivalence across serological tests are needed. Additionally, tests should show a solid correlation with neutralising assays and with the protection observed in large population cohorts even against emerging variants. OBJECTIVES We studied convalescent and vaccinated populations using 11 commercial antibody assays. Results were compared to evaluate discrepancies across tests. Neutralisation capacity was measured in a subset of the samples with a lentiviral-based assay. METHODS Serum from convalescent (n = 121) and vaccinated individuals (n = 471, 260 with Comirnaty, 110 with Spikevax, and 96 with Vaxzevria) was assessed using 11 different assays, including two from Abbott, Euroimmun, Liaison, Roche, and Vircell, and one from Siemens. A spike protein-lentiviral vector with a fluorescent reporter was used for neutralisation assay of serum from convalescent (n = 26) and vaccinated (n = 39) individuals. RESULTS Positivity ranged between 81.3 and 94.3% after infection and 99.4 and 99.7% after vaccination, depending on the assay. Both cohorts showed a high level of qualitative agreement across tests (Fleiss' kappa = 0.598 and 0.719 for convalescent and vaccinated respectively). Spikevax vaccine recipients showed the highest level of antibodies in all tests. Effectiveness of each test predicting SARS-CoV-2 neutralising capacity depended on assay type and target, with CLIA and anti-S being more effective than ELISA and anti-N assays, respectively. CONCLUSIONS High-throughput immunoassays are good predictors of neutralising capacity. Updated targets and better standardisation would be required to find an effective correlate of protection, especially to account for antibodies against new variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge-Julio Cabrera-Alvargonzalez
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Carlos Davina-Nunez
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
- Faculty of Biology, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sonia Rey-Cao
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Leticia Rodriguez Calviño
- Clinical Analysis Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sergio Silva-Bea
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
| | - Elena Gonzalez-Alonso
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Carmen Lameiro Vilariño
- Preventive Medicine Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sandra Cortizo-Vidal
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Pilar Valiño-Prieto
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Miriam Rodriguez-Perez
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sonia Pérez Castro
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Isabel López Miragaya
- Microbiology Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Arturo Fernández-Nogueira
- Clinical Analysis Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Victor Del Campo-Perez
- Preventive Medicine Department, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Vigo (CHUVI), SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Benito Regueiro-Garcia
- Microbiology and Infectology Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), Vigo, Spain
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Costanzo GAML, Sanna G, Pes F, Deiana CM, Ledda AG, Perra A, Palmas V, Manca V, Miglianti M, Coghe F, Manzin A, Del Giacco S, Chessa L, Firinu D. The Effect of Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Infection on Humoral and Cellular Immunity in a Cohort of Patients with Immune-Mediated Diseases: A Pilot Study. Pathogens 2024; 13:506. [PMID: 38921803 PMCID: PMC11206661 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13060506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunization against COVID-19 is needed in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs). However, data on long-term immunity kinetics remain scarce. This study aimed to compare the humoral and cellular response to COVID-19 in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) compared to healthy controls. We compared the humoral and cellular response to SARS-Cov-2 elicited by vaccination and/or infection in a prospective cohort of 20 IMID patients compared with a group of 21 healthcare workers (HCWs). We assessed immunity before and after the third and fourth dose of BNT162b2 or after COVID-19 infection using quantitative IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike antibody (anti-S-IgG), neutralization assay, and specific interferon-gamma (IFN-g) release assay (IGRA). The responses were compared with those of healthy controls. The two groups were similar in age and total exposure, becoming infected for the first time, mainly after the third dose. Neutralizing antibodies and IGRA were negative in 9.5% of IMID patients but not in any HCWs. No significant difference was found between neutralization titers to BA.1 in the IMID and the HCW groups. The study highlights the SARS-CoV-2 immunological responses in healthy controls and IMID patients, suggesting that the combined stimuli of vaccination and infection in IMID patients could promote a more profound immunological response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Anna Maria Luigia Costanzo
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Giuseppina Sanna
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.P.); (V.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Francesco Pes
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Carla Maria Deiana
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Andrea Giovanni Ledda
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Andrea Perra
- Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy;
| | - Vanessa Palmas
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.P.); (V.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Valeria Manca
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.P.); (V.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Michela Miglianti
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Ferdinando Coghe
- Laboratory Clinical Chemical Analysis and Microbiology, University Hospital of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy;
| | - Aldo Manzin
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (V.P.); (V.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Stefano Del Giacco
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Luchino Chessa
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
| | - Davide Firinu
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100 Cagliari, Italy; (G.A.M.L.C.); (F.P.); (C.M.D.); (A.G.L.); (M.M.); (S.D.G.); (L.C.); (D.F.)
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3
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Sejdic A, Hartling HJ, Holler JG, Klingen Gjærde L, Lindegaard B, Dungu AM, Gnesin F, Møller MEE, Teglgaard RS, Niemann CU, Brooks PT, Jørgensen CS, Franck KT, Fischer TK, Marquart HV, Harboe ZB, Ostrowski SR. Immune cell populations and induced immune responses at admission in patients hospitalized with vaccine breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1360843. [PMID: 38903511 PMCID: PMC11188326 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1360843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Vaccine breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections are common and of clinical and public health concern. However, little is known about the immunological characteristics of patients hospitalized due to these infections. We aimed to investigate and compare immune cell subpopulations and induced immune responses in vaccinated and non-vaccinated patients hospitalized with severe COVID-19. Methods A nested case-control study on adults (≥ 18 years) who received at least two doses of a mRNA-COVID-19 vaccine and were hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections and severe COVID-19 between January 7, 2021, and February 1, 2022, were eligible for inclusion. Age- and sex-matched non-vaccinated controls were identified. Immunophenotyping was performed using a custom-designed 10-color flow cytometry prefabricated freeze-dried antibody panel (DuraClone, Beckman Coulter (BC), Brea, Calif). TruCulture (Myriad RBM, Austin, USA) was used to assess induced immune response in whole blood, revealing different critical signaling pathways as a proxy for immune function. All samples were obtained within 48 hours of admission. Results In total, 20 hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 and a breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infection were included, ten vaccinated and ten non-vaccinated patients. Vaccinated patients had lower concentrations of CD19 B cells (p = 0.035), naïve CD4 T cells (p = 0.015), a higher proportion of γδ1 T cells (p = 0.019), and higher unstimulated immune cell release of IL-10 (p = 0.015). Conclusion We observed immunological differences between vaccinated and non-vaccinated patients hospitalized due to severe COVID-19 that indicate that vaccinated patients had lower B cell concentrations, lower concentrations of CD4 naïve T cells, a skewed gamma-delta V1/V2 ratio, and an exaggerated IL-10 response at admission. These results could indicate a suboptimal immune response involved in SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections that cause severe COVID-19 in vaccinated adults. However, the sample size was small, and further research is needed to confirm these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adin Sejdic
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hans Jakob Hartling
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jon Gitz Holler
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Lars Klingen Gjærde
- Department of Hematology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Birgitte Lindegaard
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Arnold Matovu Dungu
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Filip Gnesin
- Department of Cardiology, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
| | | | | | - Carsten Utoft Niemann
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Hematology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Patrick Terrence Brooks
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | - Thea K. Fischer
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Hanne Vibeke Marquart
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Zitta Barrella Harboe
- Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital – North Zealand, Hillerød, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sisse Rye Ostrowski
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Stankov MV, Hoffmann M, Gutierrez Jauregui R, Cossmann A, Morillas Ramos G, Graalmann T, Winter EJ, Friedrichsen M, Ravens I, Ilievska T, Ristenpart J, Schimrock A, Willenzon S, Ahrenstorf G, Witte T, Förster R, Kempf A, Pöhlmann S, Hammerschmidt SI, Dopfer-Jablonka A, Behrens GMN. Humoral and cellular immune responses following BNT162b2 XBB.1.5 vaccination. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2024; 24:e1-e3. [PMID: 37995739 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(23)00690-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Metodi V Stankov
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Markus Hoffmann
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Centre, Göttingen, Germany; Faculty of Biology and Psychology, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Anne Cossmann
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Gema Morillas Ramos
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Theresa Graalmann
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Junior Research Group for Translational Immunology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a joint venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Emily Jo Winter
- Junior Research Group for Translational Immunology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a joint venture between the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Inga Ravens
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Tamara Ilievska
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Jasmin Ristenpart
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Anja Schimrock
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefanie Willenzon
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Gerrit Ahrenstorf
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Torsten Witte
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Cluster of Excellence RESIST, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Reinhold Förster
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Cluster of Excellence RESIST, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig, Hannover, Germany
| | - Amy Kempf
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Centre, Göttingen, Germany; Faculty of Biology and Psychology, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Pöhlmann
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Centre, Göttingen, Germany; Faculty of Biology and Psychology, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Alexandra Dopfer-Jablonka
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig, Hannover, Germany
| | - Georg M N Behrens
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig, Hannover, Germany; CiiM, Centre for Individualized Infection Medicine, Hannover, Germany.
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5
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Costanzo GAML, Deiana CM, Sanna G, Perra A, Campagna M, Ledda AG, Coghe F, Palmas V, Cappai R, Manzin A, Chessa L, Del Giacco S, Firinu D. Impact of Exposure to Vaccination and Infection on Cellular and Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 in CVID Patients Through COVID-19 Pandemic. J Clin Immunol 2023; 44:12. [PMID: 38129351 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-023-01616-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to investigate the kinetics of response against SARS-CoV-2 elicited by vaccination and/or breakthrough infection (occurred after 3 doses of BNT162b2) in a cohort CVID patients. METHODS We measured humoral and cellular immunity using quantitative anti-spike antibody (anti-S-IgG) and neutralization assay and specific interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) before and after the third or fourth dose of BNT162b2 and/or after COVID-19. RESULTS In CVID, 58.3% seroconverted after 2 doses that increased to 77.8% after 3 doses. Between the second and third dose, there was a decline in humoral compartment that led to titers below the cutoff of 1:10 (MNA90%) in CVID. This was paralleled by a significantly lower proportion (30%) and reduced magnitude of the residual cellular response among CVID. The third dose achieved a lower titer of anti-S and nAb against the Wuhan strain than HC and significantly decreased the rate of those showing solely a positive neutralizing activity and those with simultaneous negativity of IGRA and nAbs; the differences in IGRA were overall reduced with respect to HC. At further sampling after breakthrough SARS-COV-2 infection, mostly in the omicron era, or fourth dose, 6 months after the last event, the residual nAb titer to Wuhan strain was still significantly higher in HC, while there was no significant difference of nAbs to BA.1. The rate of IGRA responders was 65.5% in CVID and 90.5% in HC (p=0.04), while the magnitude of response was similar. None of CVID had double negativity to nAbs and IGRA at the last sampling. CONCLUSION This data shows an increase of adaptive immunity in CVID after mRNA vaccination in parallel to boosters, accrual number of exposures and formation of hybrid immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carla Maria Deiana
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Sanna
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Andrea Perra
- Oncology and Molecular Pathology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marcello Campagna
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Andrea Giovanni Ledda
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Coghe
- Laboratory Clinical Chemical Analysis and Microbiology, University Hospital of Cagliari, 09042, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Vanessa Palmas
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Riccardo Cappai
- Laboratory Clinical Chemical Analysis and Microbiology, University Hospital of Cagliari, 09042, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Aldo Manzin
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, 09042, Monserrato, Italy
| | - Luchino Chessa
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Stefano Del Giacco
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Davide Firinu
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09100, Cagliari, Italy.
- Unit of Internal Medicine, Policlinico Universitario - AOU di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
- Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria, SS 554-Bivio Sestu, 09042, Monserrato, CA, Italy.
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