Potential Impact of the Resistance to Quaternary Ammonium Disinfectants on the Persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in Food Processing Environments

Listeria monocytogenes in beef: a hidden risk

Listeria monocytogenes in beef receives less attention compared to other pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. To address this gap, we conducted a literature review focusing on the presence of L. monocytogenes in beef. This review encompasses the pathogenic mechanisms, routes of contamination, prevalence rates, and the laws and regulations employed in various countries. Our findings reveal a prevalence of L. monocytogenes in beef and beef products ranging from 2.5% to 59.4%. Notably, serotype 4b was most frequently isolated in cases of beef contamination during food processing, with the skinning and evisceration stages identified as critical points of contamination.

Resistance or tolerance? Highlighting the need for precise terminology in the field of disinfection

The terms 'resistance' and 'tolerance' are well defined in the context of antibiotic research. However, in the field of disinfection, these terms are often used synonymously, which creates ambiguity and can lead to misunderstandings and misconceptions. In addition, this inconsistency in terminology makes it difficult to assess the risk of a disinfectant resistance. This general review aims to discuss existing definitions of the terms 'adaptation', 'susceptibility', 'tolerance', 'persistence' and 'resistance' in the light of disinfectants. The most ambiguity is found between tolerance and resistance. Whereas the former describes the not necessarily heritable survival of transient exposure to usually lethal concentrations, resistance is the strictly heritable ability to survive otherwise lethal concentrations of an antimicrobial agent, regardless of exposure time. A simple transfer of experience from antibiotic research is not recommended when assessing the risk of resistance to disinfectants, as there are important differences between antibiotics and disinfectants, although both are antimicrobials: (i) disinfectants are usually applied at concentrations that exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration by orders of magnitude, (ii) the exposure times of disinfectants are in the range of seconds, minutes, or a few hours, (iii) the mode of action of disinfectants is less specific, and (iv) disinfectants often contain more than one active agent with additive or synergistic effects. It is important to recognize that disinfectants, like other antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, have a dualistic nature and should be used correctly and with caution.

Biofilm formation by Listeria monocytogenes from the meat processing industry environment and the use of different combinations of detergents, sanitizers, and UV-A radiation to control this microorganism in planktonic and sessile forms

This study aimed to evaluate the ability of biofilm formation by L. monocytogenes from the meat processing industry environment, as well as the use of different combinations of detergents, sanitizers, and UV-A radiation in the control of this microorganism in the planktonic and sessile forms. Four L. monocytogenes isolates were evaluated and showed moderate ability to form biofilm, as well as carried genes related to biofilm production (agrB, agrD, prfA, actA, cheA, cheY, flaA, sigB), and genes related to tolerance to sanitizers (lde and qacH). The biofilm-forming isolates of L. monocytogenes were susceptible to quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) and peracetic acid (PA) in planktonic form, with minimum inhibitory concentrations of 125 and 75 ppm, respectively, for contact times of 10 and 5 min. These concentrations are lower than those recommended by the manufacturers, which are at least 200 and 300 ppm for QAC and PA, respectively. Biofilms of L. monocytogenes formed from a pool of isolates on stainless steel and polyurethane coupons were subjected to 14 treatments involving acid and enzymatic detergents, QAC and PA sanitizers, and UV-A radiation at varying concentrations and contact times. All treatments reduced L. monocytogenes counts in the biofilm, indicating that the tested detergents, sanitizers, and UV-A radiation exhibited antimicrobial activity against biofilms on both surface types. Notably, the biofilm formed on polyurethane showed greater tolerance to the evaluated compounds than the biofilm on stainless steel, likely due to the material's surface facilitating faster microbial colonization and the development of a more complex structure, as observed by scanning electron microscopy. Listeria monocytogenes isolates from the meat processing industry carry genes associated with biofilm production and can form biofilms on both stainless steel and polyurethane surfaces, which may contribute to their persistence within meat processing lines. Despite carrying sanitizer tolerance genes, QAC and PA effectively controlled these microorganisms in their planktonic form. However, combinations of detergent (AC and ENZ) with sanitizers (QAC and PA) at minimum concentrations of 125 ppm and 300 ppm, respectively, were the most effective.

Genomic Approach of Listeria monocytogenes Strains Isolated from Deli-Meats in Mexico

Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen that causes listeriosis worldwide. In México, L. monocytogenes has been identified as a hazard of deli-meats. However, the genomic analysis that supports the transmission of L. monocytogenes strains via deli-meats and its role as a source for virulence and resistance genes is lacking. Here, we present four high-quality genome drafts of L. monocytogenes strains isolated from deli-meats in Mexico. In silico typing was used to determine the serotype, lineage, clonal complexes (CC), and multilocus sequence (ST). Also, comparative genomics were performed to explore the diversity, virulence, mobile elements, antimicrobial resistant and stress survival traits. The genome sequence size of these strains measured 3.05 ± 0.07 Mb with a mean value of 37.9%G+C. All strains belonged to linage I, which was divided into two groups: 4b, CC2, ST1 (n = 3) and 1/2b, CC5, ST5 (n = 1). The pangenome and core genome contained 3493 and 2625 genes, respectively. The strains harbor the L. monocytogenes pathogenicity island-1 (LIPI-1) and the same multidrug resistance pattern (fosX, norB, mprF, lin) via in silico analysis. Comparative analysis delineated the genomes as essentially syntenic, whose genomic differences were due to phage insertion. These results expand what is known about the biology of the L. monocytogenes strains isolated from deli-meats in Mexico and warns of the risk that these strains belong to epidemic linage and harbor virulence genes linked to human disease.

Effective elimination of bacteria on hard surfaces by the combined use of bacteriophages and chemical disinfectants

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) represent one of the significant causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and controlling pathogens in the hospital environment is of great importance. Currently, the standard disinfection method in the hospital environment is chemical disinfection. However, disinfectants are usually not used strictly according to the label, making them less effective in disinfection. Therefore, there is an emergent need to find a better approach that can be used in hospitals to control pathogenic bacteria in the clinical environment. Bacteriophages (phages) are effective in killing bacteria and have been applied in the treatment of bacterial infections but have not received enough attention regarding the control of contamination in the clinical environment. In this study, we found that various phages remain active in the presence of chemical disinfectants. Moreover, the combined use of specific phages and chemical disinfectants is more effective in removing bacterial biofilms and eliminating bacteria on hard surfaces. Thus, this proof-of-concept study indicates that adding phages directly to chemical disinfectants might be an effective and economical approach to enhance clinical environment disinfection.

IMPORTANCE

In this study, we investigated whether the combination of bacteriophages and chemical disinfectants can enhance the efficacy of reducing bacterial contamination on hard surfaces in the clinical setting. We found that specific phages are active in chemical disinfectants and that the combined use of phages and chemical disinfectants was highly effective in reducing bacterial presence on hard surfaces. As a proof-of-concept, we demonstrated that adding specific phages directly to chemical disinfectants is an effective and cost-efficient strategy for clinical environment disinfection.

Persistence of microbiological hazards in food and feed production and processing environments

Listeria monocytogenes (in the meat, fish and seafood, dairy and fruit and vegetable sectors), Salmonella enterica (in the feed, meat, egg and low moisture food sectors) and Cronobacter sakazakii (in the low moisture food sector) were identified as the bacterial food safety hazards most relevant to public health that are associated with persistence in the food and feed processing environment (FFPE). There is a wide range of subtypes of these hazards involved in persistence in the FFPE. While some specific subtypes are more commonly reported as persistent, it is currently not possible to identify universal markers (i.e. genetic determinants) for this trait. Common risk factors for persistence in the FFPE are inadequate zoning and hygiene barriers; lack of hygienic design of equipment and machines; and inadequate cleaning and disinfection. A well-designed environmental sampling and testing programme is the most effective strategy to identify contamination sources and detect potentially persistent hazards. The establishment of hygienic barriers and measures within the food safety management system, during implementation of hazard analysis and critical control points, is key to prevent and/or control bacterial persistence in the FFPE. Once persistence is suspected in a plant, a 'seek-and-destroy' approach is frequently recommended, including intensified monitoring, the introduction of control measures and the continuation of the intensified monitoring. Successful actions triggered by persistence of L. monocytogenes are described, as well as interventions with direct bactericidal activity. These interventions could be efficient if properly validated, correctly applied and verified under industrial conditions. Perspectives are provided for performing a risk assessment for relevant combinations of hazard and food sector to assess the relative public health risk that can be associated with persistence, based on bottom-up and top-down approaches. Knowledge gaps related to bacterial food safety hazards associated with persistence in the FFPE and priorities for future research are provided.

Association between the Presence of Resistance Genes and Sanitiser Resistance of Listeria monocytogenes Isolates Recovered from Different Food-Processing Facilities

Sanitisers are widely used in cleaning food-processing facilities, but their continued use may cause an increased resistance of pathogenic bacteria. Several genes have been attributed to the increased sanitiser resistance ability of L. monocytogenes. This study determined the presence of sanitiser resistance genes in Irish-sourced L. monocytogenes isolates and explored the association with phenotypic sanitiser resistance. The presence of three genes associated with sanitiser resistance and a three-gene cassette (mdrL, qacH, emrE, bcrABC) were determined in 150 L. monocytogenes isolates collected from Irish food-processing facilities. A total of 23 isolates contained bcrABC, 42 isolates contained qacH, one isolate contained emrE, and all isolates contained mdrL. Additionally, 47 isolates were selected and grouped according to the number and type of resistance genes, and the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of these isolates for benzalkonium chloride (BAC) was determined experimentally using the broth microdilution method. The BAC resistance of the strain carrying the bcrABC gene cassette was significantly higher than that of strains lacking the gene cassette, and the BAC resistance of the strain carrying the qacH gene was significantly higher than that of strains lacking the qacH gene (p < 0.05). Isolates harbouring both the qacH and bcrABC genes did not show higher BAC resistance. With respect to environmental factors, there was no significant difference in MIC values for isolates recovered from different processing facilities. In summary, this investigation highlights the prevalence of specific sanitiser resistance genes in L. monocytogenes isolates from Irish food-processing settings. While certain genes correlated with increased resistance to benzalkonium chloride, the combination of multiple genes did not necessarily amplify this resistance.

Phage-Based Biosanitation Strategies for Minimizing Persistent Salmonella and Campylobacter Bacteria in Poultry

Control strategies to minimize pathogenic bacteria in food animal production are one of the key components in ensuring safer food for consumers. The most significant challenges confronting the food industry, particularly in the major poultry and swine sectors, are antibiotic resistance and resistance to cleaning and disinfection in zoonotic bacteria. In this context, bacteriophages have emerged as a promising tool for zoonotic bacteria control in the food industry, from animals and farm facilities to the final product. Phages are viruses that infect bacteria, with several advantages as a biocontrol agent such as high specificity, self-replication, self-limitation, continuous adaptation, low inherent toxicity and easy isolation. Their development as a biocontrol agent is of particular interest, as it would allow the application of a promising and even necessary "green" technology to combat pathogenic bacteria in the environment. However, bacteriophage applications have limitations, including selecting appropriate phages, legal restrictions, purification, dosage determination and bacterial resistance. Overcoming these limitations is crucial to enhance phage therapy's effectiveness against zoonotic bacteria in poultry. Thus, this review aims to provide a comprehensive view of the phage-biosanitation strategies for minimizing persistent Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria in poultry.

Unraveling Enterococcus susceptibility to quaternary ammonium compounds: genes, phenotypes, and the impact of environmental conditions

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) have been extensively used in the community, healthcare facilities, and food chain, in concentrations between 20 and 30,000 mg/L. Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are ubiquitous in these settings and are recognized as nosocomial pathogens worldwide, but QACs' activity against strains from diverse epidemiological and genomic backgrounds remained largely unexplored. We evaluated the role of Enterococcus isolates from different sources, years, and clonal lineages as hosts of QACs tolerance genes and their susceptibility to QACs in optimal, single-stress and cross-stress growth conditions. Only 1% of the Enterococcus isolates included in this study and 0.5% of publicly available Enterococcus genomes carried qacA/B, qacC, qacG, qacJ, qacZ, qrg, bcrABC or oqxAB genes, shared with >60 species of Bacillota, Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota, or Spirochaetota. These genes were generally found within close proximity of antibiotics and/or metals resistance genes. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of benzalkonium chloride (BC) and didecyldimethylammonium chloride ranged between 0.5 and 4 mg/L (microdilution: 37°C/20 h/pH = 7/aerobiosis) for 210 E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates (two isolates carrying qacZ). Modified growth conditions (e.g., 22°C/pH = 5) increased MICBC/MBCBC (maximum of eightfold and MBCBC = 16 mg/L) and changed bacterial growth kinetics under BC toward later stationary phases in both species, including in isolates without QACs tolerance genes. In conclusion, Enterococcus are susceptible to in-use QACs concentrations and rarely carry QACs tolerance genes. However, their potential gene exchange with different microbiota, the decreased susceptibility to QACs under specific environmental conditions, and the presence of subinhibitory QACs concentrations in various settings may contribute to the selection of particular strains and, thus, require a One Health strategy to maintain QACs effectiveness. IMPORTANCE Despite the increasing use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), the susceptibility of pathogens to these antimicrobials remains largely unknown. Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis are susceptible to in-use QACs concentrations and are not main hosts of QACs tolerance genes but participate in gene transfer pathways with diverse bacterial taxa exposed to these biocides. Moreover, QACs tolerance genes often share the same genetic contexts with antibiotics and/or metals resistance genes, raising concerns about potential co-selection events. E. faecium and E. faecalis showed increased tolerance to benzalkonium chloride under specific environmental conditions (22°C, pH = 5), suggesting that strains might be selected in settings where they occur along with subinhibitory QACs concentrations. Transcriptomic studies investigating the cellular mechanisms of Enterococcus adaptation to QACs tolerance, along with longitudinal metadata analysis of tolerant populations dynamics under the influence of diverse environmental factors, are essential and should be prioritized within a One Health strategy.

Adaptation mechanisms of Listeria monocytogenes to quaternary ammonium compounds

Listeria monocytogenes is ubiquitously found in nature and can easily enter food-processing facilities due to contaminations of raw materials. Several countermeasures are used to combat contamination of food products, for instance, the use of disinfectants that contain quaternary ammonium compounds, such as benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). In this study, we assessed the potential of the commonly used wild-type strain EGD-e to adapt to BAC and CTAB under laboratory growth conditions. All BAC-tolerant suppressors exclusively carried mutations in fepR, encoding a TetR-like transcriptional regulator, or its promoter region, likely resulting in the overproduction of the efflux pump FepA. In contrast, CTAB tolerance was associated with mutations in sugR, which regulates the expression of the efflux pumps SugE1 and SugE2. L. monocytogenes strains lacking either FepA or SugE1/2 could still acquire tolerance toward BAC and CTAB. Genomic analysis revealed that the overproduction of the remaining efflux system could compensate for the deleted one, and even in the absence of both efflux systems, tolerant strains could be isolated, which all carried mutations in the diacylglycerol kinase-encoding gene lmo1753 (dgkB). DgkB converts diacylglycerol to phosphatidic acid, which is subsequently reused for the synthesis of phospholipids, suggesting that alterations in membrane composition could be the third adaptation mechanism. IMPORTANCE Survival and proliferation of Listeria monocytogenes in the food industry are ongoing concerns, and while there are various countermeasures to combat contamination of food products, the pathogen still successfully manages to withstand the harsh conditions present in food-processing facilities, resulting in reoccurring outbreaks, subsequent infection, and disease. To counteract the spread of L. monocytogenes, it is crucial to understand and elucidate the underlying mechanism that permits their successful evasion. We present various adaptation mechanisms of L. monocytogenes to withstand two important quaternary ammonium compounds.

Listeria monocytogenes in food businesses: From persistence strategies to intervention/prevention strategies-A review

In 2023, Listeria monocytogenes persistence remains a problem in the food business. A profound understanding of how this pathogen persists may lead to better aimed intervention/prevention strategies. The lack of a uniform definition of persistence makes the comparison between studies complex. Harborage sites offer protection against adverse environmental conditions and form the ideal habitat for the formation of biofilms, one of the major persistence strategies. A retarded growth rate, disinfectant resistance/tolerance, desiccation resistance/tolerance, and protozoan protection complete the list of persistence strategies for Listeria monocytogenes and can occur on themselves or in combination with biofilms. Based on the discussed persistence strategies, intervention strategies are proposed. By enhancing the focus on four precaution principles (cleaning and disinfection, infrastructure/hygienic design, technical maintenance, and work methodology) as mentioned in Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004, the risk of persistence can be decreased. All of the intervention strategies result in obtaining and maintaining a good general hygiene status throughout the establishment at all levels ranging from separate equipment to the entire building.

Risk factor-based clustering of Listeria monocytogenes in food processing environments using principal component analysis

Listeria monocytogenes has a range of strategies that allow it to persist as biofilms in food processing environments (FPE), making it a pathogen of concern to the food industry. The properties of these biofilms are highly variable among strains, and this significantly affects the risk of food contamination. The present study therefore aims to conduct a proof-of-concept study to cluster strains of L. monocytogenes by risk potential using principal component analysis, a multivariate approach. A set of 22 strains, isolated from food processing environments, were typed by serogrouping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, showing a relatively high diversity. They were characterized in terms of several biofilm properties that might pose a potential risk of food contamination. The properties studied were tolerance to benzalkonium chloride (BAC), the structural parameters of biofilms (biomass, surface area, maximum and average thickness, surface to biovolume ratio and roughness coefficient) measured by confocal laser scanning microscopy and (3) transfer of biofilm cells to smoked salmon. The PCA correlation circle revealed that the tolerance of biofilms to BAC was positively correlated with roughness, but negatively with biomass parameters. On the contrary, cell transfers were not related to three-dimensional structural parameters, which suggests the role of other variables yet unexplored. Additionally, hierarchical clustering grouped strains into three different clusters. One of them included the strains with high tolerance to BAC and roughness. Another one consisted of strains with enhanced transfer ability, whereas the third cluster contained those that stood out for the thickness of biofilms. The present study represents a novel and effective way to classify L. monocytogenes strains according to biofilm properties that condition the potential risk of reaching the consumer through food contamination. It would thus allow the selection of strains representative of different worst-case scenarios for future studies in support of QMRA and decision-making analysis.

Efficacy of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds for Control of Individual and Mixed Cultures of Escherichia coli with High- and Low-Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Resistance

Escherichia coli is a well-characterized micro-organism in scientific literature. Similarly, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are historical sanitizers in food processing. However, the use of QACs has been questioned due to bacterial resistance in some studies. Therefore, this study aimed to compare effects of single and mixed cultures of E. coli strains of different serogroups with either high (six strains) or low (five strains) resistance to QACs. Twenty-five combinations of strains with either high (H)- or low (L)-QAC resistance were analyzed (H + H vs. L + L). After exposure to QAC, combinations with statistical differences (p < 0.05) compared with individuals were selected and an inactivation model determined using GInaFit®. Only one combination of two strains (C23 and C20) with low-QAC resistance (mixture T18) had greater resistance (p < 0.05) than the individual isolates. The combination T18 and individual strain C23 presented a Weibull model, whereas the other isolated strain (C20) presented a biphasic inactivation model with a shoulder. Whole genome sequencing determined that unlike C20, C23 carried yehW, which may have led to Weibull inactivation. Possibly, very rapid interaction of C20 with the QAC favored increased survival of C23 and overall persistence of the T18 mixture. Consequently, our results indicate that individual E. coli with low-QAC resistance can synergistically interfere with QAC inactivation.

Survival of Candida auris on environmental surface material and low-level resistance to disinfectant

BACKGROUND

Candida auris persist in the environment despite disinfection. The survival on various environmental surfaces and the effect of sub-lethal concentrations of disinfectants on C. auris has not been studied.

AIM

This study investigated the survival of C. auris on environmental surfaces and the effect of sub-inhibitory concentrations of disinfectants.

METHODS

Surface material blocks were fabricated, artificially contaminated with C. auris, and for 3 weeks viable counts were assessed. In addition, C. auris cells were pulsed daily with disinfectants for 15 days and MICs were determined. Ergosterol quantities and efflux pump assays were also performed on disinfectant exposed strains using standard methods.

RESULTS

C. auris survived on all the surfaces for more than 3 weeks with the lowest count of 2.3 log cfu regardless of wet and dry conditions. Wet wood supported growth of C. auris with a one log increase in contrast to the dry condition which inhibited this organism (both p <0.01). In the biofilm form, C. auris flourished on all the surfaces. Although the MICs increased in sodium dichloroisocyanurate and benzalkonium chloride pulsed C. auris cells, only the benzalkonium chloride exposed cells showed decreased ergosterol content and an activated efflux pump.

CONCLUSIONS

Although C. auris survived on all the tested surfaces, survival on wet wood was remarkable. Benzalkonium chloride pulsed C. auris developed some degree of tolerance to disinfectant and showed efflux pump activation, suggesting the development of low-level resistance.

Molecular typing and genome sequencing allow the identification of persistent Listeria monocytogenes strains and the tracking of the contamination source in food environments

The presence of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) in the food processing environment (facilities and products) is a challenging problem in food safety management. Lm is one of the main causes of mortality in foodborne infections, and the trend is continuously increasing. In this study, a collection of 323 Lm strain isolates recovered from food matrices and food industry environments (surfaces and equipment) over four years from 80 food processing facilities was screened using a restriction site-associated tag sequencing (2b-RAD) typing approach developed for Lm. Thirty-six different restriction site-associated DNA (RAD) types (RTs) were identified, most of which correspond to lineage II. RT1, the most represented genotype in our collection and already reported as one of the most prevalent genotypes in the food environment, was significantly associated with meat processing facilities. The sequencing of the genomes of strains belonging to the same RT and isolated in the same facility in different years revealed several clusters of persistence. The definition of the persistent strains (PSs) allowed the identification of the potential source of contamination in the incoming raw meat that is introduced in the facility to be processed. The slaughterhouses, which, according to the European Union (EU) regulation, are not inspected for the presence of Lm could be hotspots for the persistence of Lm PSs.

Hygiene of Medical Devices and Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations for Alcohol-Based and QAC Disinfectants among Isolates from Physical Therapy Departments

Disinfectants are used intensively to control and prevent healthcare-associated infections. With continuous use and exposure to disinfectants, bacteria may develop reduced susceptibility. The study aimed to check the hygiene of devices in the physiotherapy department. For isolated bacterial strains, we aimed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of five different disinfectant wipe products currently in use. Microbiological environmental sampling in four various institutions in four different cities from two counties was performed, followed by CFU calculation and identification using matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization with time-of-flight analyzer mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). The sampling was performed on three different occasions: before patient use, after patient use, and after disinfection. The susceptibility of isolates to three different alcohol-based and three different quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) disinfectant wipes was examined by determining the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC). We identified 27 different bacterial species from 11 different genera. Gram-positive bacteria predominated. The most abundant genera were Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, and Bacillus. The average MIC values of alcohol-based disinfectants range between 66.61 and 148.82 g/L, and those of QAC-based disinfectants range between 2.4 and 3.5 mg/L. Distinctive strains with four-fold increases in MIC values, compared to average values, were identified. The widespread use of disinfectants can induce a reduction in the susceptibility of bacteria against disinfectants and affect the increase in the proportion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, it is urgent to define clear criteria for defining a microorganism as resistant to disinfectants by setting epidemiological cut-off (ECOFF) values and standardizing protocols for testing the resistance of microorganisms against disinfectants.

Efflux-mediated tolerance to cationic biocides, a cause for concern?

AbstractWith an increase in the number of isolates resistant to multiple antibiotics, infection control has become increasingly important to help combat the spread of multi-drug-resistant pathogens. An important component of this is through the use of disinfectants and antiseptics (biocides). Antibiotic resistance has been well studied in bacteria, but little is known about potential biocide resistance genes and there have been few reported outbreaks in hospitals resulting from a breakdown in biocide effectiveness. Development of increased tolerance to biocides has been thought to be more difficult due to the mode of action of biocides which affect multiple cellular targets compared with antibiotics. Very few genes which contribute towards increased biocide tolerance have been identified. However, the majority of those that have are components or regulators of different efflux pumps or genes which modulate membrane function/modification. This review will examine the role of efflux in increased tolerance towards biocides, focusing on cationic biocides and heavy metals against Gram-negative bacteria. As many efflux pumps which are upregulated by biocide presence also contribute towards an antimicrobial resistance phenotype, the role of these efflux pumps in cross-resistance to both other biocides and antibiotics will be explored.

The stressosome is required to transduce low pH signals leading to increased transcription of the amino acid-based acid tolerance mechanisms in Listeria monocytogenes

Increasing proton concentration in the environment represents a potentially lethal stress for single-celled microorganisms. To survive in an acidifying environment, the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes quickly activates the alternative sigma factor B (σB), resulting in upregulation of the general stress response (GSR) regulon. Activation of σB is regulated by the stressosome, a multi-protein sensory complex involved in stress detection and signal transduction. In this study, we used L. monocytogenes strains harbouring two stressosome mutants to investigate the role of this complex in triggering expression of known amino acid-based resistance mechanisms in response to low pH. We found that expression of glutamate decarboxylase (gadD3) and arginine and agmatine deiminases (arcA and aguA1, respectively) were upregulated upon acid shock (pH 5 for 15 min) in a stressosome-dependent manner. In contrast, transcription of the arg operons (argGH and argCJBDF), which encode enzymes for the l-arginine biosynthesis pathway, were upregulated upon acid shock in a stressosome-independent manner. Finally, we found that transcription of argR, which encodes a transcriptional regulator of the arc and arg operons, was largely unaffected by acidic shock. Thus, our findings suggest that the stressosome plays a role in activating amino acid-based pH homeostatic mechanisms in L. monocytogenes . Additionally, we show that genes encoding the l-arginine biosynthesis pathway are highly upregulated under acidic conditions, suggesting that intracellular arginine can help withstand environmental acidification in this pathogen.

Listeria monocytogenes Outbreaks Related to Commercially Produced Caramel Apples: Developments in Sanitation, Product Formulation, and Packaging: A Review

ABSTRACT

Prior to a deadly 2014 listeriosis outbreak, caramel apples were not thought to be vehicles for the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. The purpose of this review article is to summarize what has been learned from research prompted by this outbreak. This overview includes descriptions of the two L. monocytogenes infection outbreaks related to prepackaged caramel apples and a brief discussion of apple sanitation, the production processes used to make caramel apples, and research on ways to prevent future outbreaks associated with caramel apples. A qualitative analysis of the literature and interviews with current caramel apple manufacturers were conducted. Sanitation, packaging, and storage procedures used by manufacturers in the past may not effectively inactivate L. monocytogenes from contaminated product. Novel apple sanitation methods and product formulations to control L. monocytogenes on caramel apples have been developed and, in some cases, implemented in commercial production.

HIGHLIGHTS

Pervasive Listeria monocytogenes Is Common in the Norwegian Food System and Is Associated with Increased Prevalence of Stress Survival and Resistance Determinants

To investigate the diversity, distribution, persistence, and prevalence of stress survival and resistance genes of Listeria monocytogenes clones dominating in food processing environments in Norway, genome sequences from 769 L. monocytogenes isolates from food industry environments, foods, and raw materials (512 of which were sequenced in the present study) were subjected to whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (wgMLST), single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), and comparative genomic analyses. The data set comprised isolates from nine meat and six salmon processing facilities in Norway collected over a period of three decades. The most prevalent clonal complex (CC) was CC121, found in 10 factories, followed by CC7, CC8, and CC9, found in 7 factories each. Overall, 72% of the isolates were classified as persistent, showing 20 or fewer wgMLST allelic differences toward an isolate found in the same factory in a different calendar year. Moreover, over half of the isolates (56%) showed this level of genetic similarity toward an isolate collected from a different food processing facility. These were designated as pervasive strains, defined as clusters with the same level of genetic similarity as persistent strains but isolated from different factories. The prevalence of genetic determinants associated with increased survival in food processing environments, including heavy metal and biocide resistance determinants, stress response genes, and inlA truncation mutations, showed a highly significant increase among pervasive isolates but not among persistent isolates. Furthermore, these genes were significantly more prevalent among the isolates from food processing environments compared to in isolates from natural and rural environments (n = 218) and clinical isolates (n = 111) from Norway.

IMPORTANCEListeria monocytogenes can persist in food processing environments for months to decades and spread through the food system by, e.g., contaminated raw materials. Knowledge of the distribution and diversity of L. monocytogenes is important in outbreak investigations and is essential to effectively track and control this pathogen in the food system. The present study presents a comprehensive overview of the prevalence of persistent clones and of the diversity of L. monocytogenes in Norwegian food processing facilities. The results demonstrate extensive spread of highly similar strains throughout the Norwegian food system, in that 56% of the 769 collected isolates from food processing factories belonged to clusters of L. monocytogenes identified in more than one facility. These strains were associated with an overall increase in the prevalence of plasmids and determinants of heavy metal and biocide resistance, as well as other genetic elements associated with stress survival mechanisms and persistence.

Persistence of Listeria monocytogenes ST5 in Ready-to-Eat Food Processing Environment

Most human listeriosis is foodborne, and ready-to-eat (RET) foods contaminated by Listeria monocytogenes during processing are found to be common vehicles. In this study, a total of four L. monocytogens STs (ST5, ST121, ST120, and ST2) have been identified in two RTE food plants from 2019 to 2020 in Shanghai, China. The L. monocytogenes ST5 was predominant in one RTE food processing plant, and it persists in the RTE meat processing plant with continued clone transmission. The genetic features of the four STs isolates were different. ST5 and ST121 had the three genes clpL, mdrL, and lde; however, ST120 and ST2 had two genes except for clpL. SSI-1was present in ST5, ST121, and ST120. Additionally, SSI-2 was present only in the ST121 isolates. ST120 had all six biofilm-forming associated genes (actA, prfA, lmo0673, recO, lmo2504 and luxS). The ST2 isolate had only three biofilm-forming associated genes, which were prfA, lmo0673, and recO. The four ST isolates had different biofilm formation abilities at different stages. The biofilm formation ability of ST120 was significantly higher when grown for one day. However, the biofilm formation ability of ST120 reduced significantly after growing for four days. In contrast, the biofilm formation ability of ST5 and ST121 increased significantly. These results suggested that ST5 and ST121 had stronger ability to adapt to stressful environments. Biofilms formed by all four STs grown over four days can be sanitized entirely by a disinfectant concentration of 500 mg/L. Additionally, only ST5 and ST121 biofilm cells survived in sub-lethal concentrations of chlorine-containing disinfectant. These results suggested that ST5 and ST121 were more resistant to chlorine-containing disinfectants. These results indicated that the biofilm formation ability of L. monocytogenes isolates changed at different stages. Additionally, the persistence in food processing environments might be verified by the biofilm formation, stress resistance, etc. Alternatively, these results underlined that disinfectants should be used at lethal concentrations. More attention should be paid to ST5 and ST121, and stronger surveillance should be taken to prevent and control the clonal spread of L. monocytogenes isolates in food processing plants in Shanghai.

Biofilms as a microbial hazard in the food industry: A scoping review

Biofilms pose a serious public health hazard with a significant economic impact on the food industry. The present scoping review is designed to analyze the literature published during 2001-2020 on biofilm formation of microbes, their detection methods, and association with antimicrobial resistance (if any). The peer-reviewed articles retrieved from 04 electronic databases were assessed using PRISMA-ScR guidelines. From the 978 preliminary search results, a total of 88 publications were included in the study. On analysis, the commonly isolated pathogens were Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Bacillus spp., Vibrio spp., Campylobacter jejuni and Clostridium perfringens. The biofilm-forming ability of microbes was found to be influenced by various factors such as attachment surfaces, temperature, presence of other species, nutrient availability etc. A total of 18 studies characterized the biofilm-forming genes, particularly for S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and E. coli. In most studies, polystyrene plate and/or stainless-steel coupons were used for biofilm formation, and the detection was carried out by crystal violet assays and/or by plate counting method. The strain-specific significant differences in biofilm formation were observed in many studies, and few studies carried out analysis of multi-species biofilms. The association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance wasn't clearly defined. Further, viable but non-culturable (VBNC) form of the foodborne pathogens is posing an unseen (by conventional cultivation techniques) but potent threat food safety. The present review recommends the need for carrying out systematic surveys and risk analysis of biofilms in food chain to highlight the evidence-based public health concerns, especially in regions where microbiological food hazards are quite prevalent.

Efficacy of pectin-based caproic acid, caprylic acid, linalool, and cuminaldehyde coatings in reducing Salmonella Heidelberg on chicken eggs

Among the animal derived food products, contamination of poultry eggs, and egg shell surface is one of the major causes for foodborne salmonellosis in the United States. As a means of reducing the pathogen transfer to the internal egg contents, polysaccharide-based coatings containing antimicrobial phytochemicals could potentially serve as a biocontrol strategy for shelled egg products. The current study investigated the efficacy of four GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)-status plant-derived compounds, namely, caproic acid (CAO), caprylic acid (CAY), linalool (LIN) and cuminaldehyde (CUM), as pectin-based coating treatments, individually or in combination, for reducing Salmonella Heidelberg (SH) on shell eggs. A three-strain mixture of SH (~8.0 log CFU in 50 μL inoculum) was spot-inoculated on surface sterilized white-shelled eggs. Eggs were evenly coated with either pectin-based treatments of CAO (1%), CAY (1%), LIN (1%) and CUM (1%), individually, or a combination of 4 phytochemicals (COMB- each phytochemical at 0.5% v/v level of inclusion). The treated eggs were stored at 4°C and SH counts were enumerated on days 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, and 21 of storage. The study was replicated thrice, 3 eggs/treatment/day time point, and the data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with significance tested at p &lt; 0.05. On day 0, pectin-coated control eggs had ~7.6 log CFU of SH/egg. At the end of refrigerated storage (day 21), pectin-based coating of CAO and CAY at 1% level reduced SH by 2.0–2.5 log CFU/egg (P &lt; 0.05) when compared to controls. In addition, the CUM and LIN based coatings produced 3.0 log and 3.9 log reduction, respectively, in SH counts on eggs by day 21 of storage. Among the treatments with phytochemical combinations, COMB1 [pectin (2%) + Caprylic acid, caproic acid and cuminaldehyde (each at 0.5% level)] was found to be most effective, reducing SH counts to 2.5–3.3 log CFU/egg from day 0 through day 14, and by the end of storage period (day 21), a 3.5 log CFU reduction/egg (p &lt; 0.05) compared to untreated controls. Morphological studies of treated eggs using atomic force microscopy (AFM) have shown that the roughness of eggs can be influenced by a combination of various compounds. Results indicate the potential efficacy of the aforesaid phytochemicals in reducing SH on shell eggs; however, further studies investigating their industrial feasibility and effects on sensory attributes of eggs are warranted.

Genomic analysis of Listeria monocytogenes from US food processing environments reveals a high prevalence of QAC efflux genes but limited evidence of their contribution to environmental persistence

Background

Quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) efflux genes increase the minimum inhibitory concentration of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) to benzalkonium chloride sanitizer, but the contribution of these genes to persistence in food processing environments is unclear. The goal of this study was to leverage genomic data and associated metadata for 4969 Lm isolates collected between 1999 and 2019 to: (1) evaluate the prevalence of QAC efflux genes among Lm isolates from diverse US food processors, (2) use comparative genomic analyses to assess confounding factors, such as clonal complex identity and stress tolerance genotypes, and (3) identify patterns in QAC efflux gene gain and loss among persistent clones within specific facilities over time.

Results

The QAC efflux gene cassette bcrABC was present in nearly half (46%) of all isolates. QAC efflux gene prevalence among isolates was associated with clonal complex (𝛘² < 0.001) and clonal complex was associated with the facility type (𝛘² < 0.001). Consequently, changes in the prevalence of QAC efflux genes within individual facilities were generally attributable to changes in the prevalence of specific clonal complexes. Additionally, a GWAS and targeted BLAST search revealed that clonal complexes with a high prevalence of QAC efflux genes commonly possessed other stress tolerance genes. For example, a high prevalence of bcrABC in a clonal complex was significantly associated with the presence of the SSI-1 gene cluster (p < 0.05). QAC efflux gene gain and loss were both observed among persistent populations of Lm in individual facilities, suggesting a limited direct role for QAC efflux genes as predictors of persistence.

Conclusion

This study suggests that although there is evidence that QAC efflux genes are part of a suite of adaptations common among Lm isolated from some food production environments, these genes may be neither sufficient nor necessary to enhance persistence. This is a crucial distinction for decision making in the food industry. For example, changes to sanitizer regimen targeting QAC tolerance would not address other contributing genetic or non-genetic factors, such as equipment hygienic design which physically mediates sanitizer exposure.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08695-2.

Comparison of Selected Phenotypic Features of Persistent and Sporadic Strains of Listeria monocytogenes Sampled from Fish Processing Plants

(1) Background: The main source of transmission of Listeria monocytogenes is contaminated food, e.g., fish and meat products and raw fruit and vegetables. The bacteria can remain for 13 years on machines in food processing plants, including fish plants. (2) Methods: A total of 720 swabs were collected from a salmon filleting line. The research material consisted of 62 (8.6%) L. monocytogenes isolates. Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) allowed detecting a pool of persistent strains. All persistent strains (n = 6) and a parallel group of strains collected sporadically (n = 6) were characterized by their ability to invade HT-29 cells, biofilm formation ability, and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of selected disinfectants. (3) Results: Among the obtained isolates, 38 genetically different strains were found, including 6 (15.8%) persistent strains. The serogroup 1/2a-3a represented 28 strains (73.7%), including the persistent ones. There were no significant differences in invasiveness between the persistent and sporadic strains. The persistent strains tolerated higher concentrations of the tested disinfectants, except for iodine-based compounds. The persistent strains initiated the biofilm formation process faster and formed it more intensively. (4) Conclusions: The presence of persistent strains in the food processing environment is a great challenge for producers to ensure consumer safety. This study attempts to elucidate the phenotypic characteristics of persistent L. monocytogenes strains.

Nonsynonymous Mutations in fepR Are Associated with Adaptation of Listeria monocytogenes and Other Listeria spp. to Low Concentrations of Benzalkonium Chloride but Do Not Increase Survival of L. monocytogenes and Other Listeria spp. after Exposure to Benzalkonium Chloride Concentrations Recommended for Use in Food Processing Environments

Selection for Listeria monocytogenes strains that are tolerant to quaternary ammonium compounds (such as benzalkonium chloride [BC]) is a concern across the food industry, including in fresh produce processing environments. This study evaluated the ability of 67 strains of produce-associated L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp. (“parent strains”) to show enhanced BC tolerance after serial passaging in increasing BC concentrations and to maintain this tolerance after substreaking in the absence of BC. After serial passaging in BC, 62/67 “BC passaged cultures” showed higher MICs (4 to 20 mg/L) than parent strains (2 to 6 mg/L). After the substreaking of two isolates from BC passaged cultures for each parent strain, 105/134 “adapted isolates” maintained MICs (4 to 6 mg/L) higher than parent strain MICs. These results suggested that adapted isolates acquired heritable adaptations that confer BC tolerance. Whole-genome sequencing and Sanger sequencing of fepR, a local repressor of the MATE family efflux pump FepA, identified nonsynonymous fepR mutations in 48/67 adapted isolates. The mean inactivation of adapted isolates after exposure to use-level concentrations of BC (300 mg/L) was 4.48 log, which was not significantly different from inactivation observed in parent strains. Serial passaging of cocultures of L. monocytogenes strains containing bcrABC or qacH did not yield adapted isolates that showed enhanced BC tolerance in comparison to that of monocultures. These results suggest that horizontal gene transfer either did not occur or did not yield isolates with enhanced BC tolerance. Overall, this study provides new insights into selection of BC tolerance among L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp.

IMPORTANCEListeria monocytogenes tolerance to quaternary ammonium compounds has been raised as a concern with regard to L. monocytogenes persistence in food processing environments, including in fresh produce packing and processing environments. Persistence of L. monocytogenes can increase the risk of product contamination, food recalls, and foodborne illness outbreaks. Our study shows that strains of L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp. can acquire heritable adaptations that confer enhanced tolerance to low concentrations of benzalkonium chloride, but these adaptations do not increase survival of L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp. when exposed to concentrations of benzalkonium chloride used for food contact surface sanitation (300 mg/L). Overall, these findings suggest that the emergence of benzalkonium chloride-tolerant Listeria strains in food processing environments is of limited concern, as even strains adapted to gain higher MICs in vitro maintain full sensitivity to the concentrations of benzalkonium chloride used for food contact surface sanitation.

Bacterial Resistance Toward Antimicrobial Ionic Liquids Mediated by Multidrug Efflux Pumps

The effective elimination of foodborne pathogens through cleaning and disinfection measures is of great importance to the food processing industry. As food producers rely heavily on disinfectants to control pathogenic bacteria in their facilities, the increasing spread of tolerant, often even multidrug resistant, strains is of particular concern. In addition to efforts to prevent or at least reduce development and spread of strains resistant to disinfectants and sanitizers, there is an urgent need for new and effective antimicrobials. One new class of promising antimicrobials is ionic liquids (ILs), which have been reported to be effective against resistant strains as they interact with bacterial cells in multiple ways, but investigations of their effectivity against MDR bacteria or specific defense mechanisms are still limited. This study investigates the role of multidrug efflux pumps of the Resistance Nodulation-Division family (RND) on the resistance of bacterial pathogens Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium toward 10 antimicrobial active ILs. Results reveal that, while known structure–activity relationships (SARs), such as the side-chain effect, were found for all strains, antimicrobial ILs with one elongated alkyl side chain were significantly affected by the RND efflux pump, highlighting the importance of efflux pumps for future IL toxicity studies. In case of antimicrobial ILs with multiple side chains and different cationic head groups, two ILs were identified that were highly active against all investigated strains with little to no effect of the efflux pump. The results obtained in this study for RND efflux pumps can serve as a starting point for identifying and designing antimicrobial ILs as effective biocides against MDR bacteria.

An Exploration of Listeria monocytogenes, Its Influence on the UK Food Industry and Future Public Health Strategies

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive intracellular pathogen that can cause listeriosis, an invasive disease affecting pregnant women, neonates, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Principally foodborne, the pathogen is transmitted typically through contaminated foods. As a result, food manufacturers exert considerable efforts to eliminate L. monocytogenes from foodstuffs and the environment through food processing and disinfection. However, L. monocytogenes demonstrates a range of environmental stress tolerances, resulting in persistent colonies that act as reservoirs for the reintroduction of L. monocytogenes to food contact surfaces and food. Novel technologies for the rapid detection of L. monocytogenes and disinfection of food manufacturing industries have been developed to overcome these obstacles to minimise the risk of outbreaks and sporadic cases of listeriosis. This review is aimed at exploring L. monocytogenes in the UK, providing a summary of outbreaks, current routine microbiological testing and the increasing awareness of biocide tolerances. Recommendations for future research in the UK are made, pertaining to expanding the understanding of L. monocytogenes dissemination in the UK food industry and the continuation of novel technological developments for disinfection of food and the food manufacturing environment.

Listeria monocytogenes - How This Pathogen Survives in Food-Production Environments?

The foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of human listeriosis, a severe disease, especially dangerous for the elderly, pregnant women, and newborns. Although this infection is comparatively rare, it is often associated with a significant mortality rate of 20-30% worldwide. Therefore, this microorganism has an important impact on food safety. L. monocytogenes can adapt, survive and even grow over a wide range of food production environmental stress conditions such as temperatures, low and high pH, high salt concentration, ultraviolet lights, presence of biocides and heavy metals. Furthermore, this bacterium is also able to form biofilm structures on a variety of surfaces in food production environments which makes it difficult to remove and allows it to persist for a long time. This increases the risk of contamination of food production facilities and finally foods. The present review focuses on the key issues related to the molecular mechanisms of the pathogen survival and adaptation to adverse environmental conditions. Knowledge and understanding of the L. monocytogenes adaptation approaches to environmental stress factors will have a significant influence on the development of new, efficient, and cost-effective methods of the pathogen control in the food industry, which is critical to ensure food production safety.

Evaluation of the Persistence and Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes in Foodservice Operations

Listeria monocytogenes is a major foodborne pathogen that can contaminate food products and colonize food-producing facilities. Foodservice operations (FSOp) are frequently responsible for foodborne outbreaks due to food safety practices failures. We investigated the presence of and characterized L. monocytogenes from two FSOp (cafeterias) distributing ready-to-eat meals and verified FSOp’s compliance with good manufacturing practices (GMP). Two facilities (FSOp-A and FSOp-B) were visited three times each over 5 months. We sampled foods, ingredients, and surfaces for microbiological analysis, and L. monocytogenes isolates were characterized by phylogenetic analyses and phenotypic characteristics. GMP audits were performed in the first and third visits. A ready-to-eat salad (FSOp-A) and a frozen ingredient (FSOp-B) were contaminated with L. monocytogenes, which was also detected on Zone 3 surfaces (floor, drains, and a boot cover). The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that FSOp-B had persistent L. monocytogenes strains, but environmental isolates were not closely related to food or ingredient isolates. GMP audits showed that both operations worked under “fair” conditions, and “facilities and equipment” was the section with the least compliances. The presence of L. monocytogenes in the environment and GMP failures could promote food contamination with this pathogen, presenting a risk to consumers.

Co-Occurrence of L. monocytogenes with Other Bacterial Genera and Bacterial Diversity on Cleaned Conveyor Surfaces in a Swine Slaughterhouse

Bacterial pathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes, can show resistance to disinfection and persistence on working surfaces, permitting them to survive and contaminate food products. Persistence—a complex phenomenon involving interactions between many bacteria within a biofilm—is modulated by in situ characteristics. This study aimed to describe, in silico, the microbiota identified in a swine slaughterhouse after sanitation procedures to better understand the presence of L. monocytogenes on these surfaces. Molecular tools for characterization of microbial communities were used to assess the relative contribution of different bacteria resulting from this phenomenon, and the 16S rRNA sequencing method was used on samples from meat conveyor belt surfaces collected on four sampling visits to study the co-occurrence between L. monocytogenes and other bacteria. From the background microbiota, a total of six genera were found to be negatively correlated with Listeria spp., suggesting Listeria growth inhibition, competition, or at least an absence of shared habitats. Based on these results, a complete scenario of interactions of Listeria with components of background microbiota was established. This work contributes to identifying avenues that could prevent the growth and persistence of L. monocytogenes on food-processing surfaces.

Acid stress signals are integrated into the σB-dependent general stress response pathway via the stressosome in the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

The general stress response (GSR) in Listeria monocytogenes plays a critical role in the survival of this pathogen in the host gastrointestinal tract. The GSR is regulated by the alternative sigma factor B (σ^B), whose role in protection against acid stress is well established. Here, we investigated the involvement of the stressosome, a sensory hub, in transducing low pH signals to induce the GSR. Mild acid shock (15 min at pH 5.0) activated σ^B and conferred protection against a subsequent lethal pH challenge. A mutant strain where the stressosome subunit RsbR1 was solely present retained the ability to induce σ^B activity at pH 5.0. The role of stressosome phosphorylation in signal transduction was investigated by mutating the putative phosphorylation sites in the core stressosome proteins RsbR1 (rsbR1-T175A, -T209A, -T241A) and RsbS (rsbS-S56A), or the stressosome kinase RsbT (rsbT-N49A). The rsbS S56A and rsbT N49A mutations abolished the response to low pH. The rsbR1-T209A and rsbR1-T241A mutants displayed constitutive σ^B activity. Mild acid shock upregulates invasion genes inlAB and stimulates epithelial cell invasion, effects that were abolished in mutants with an inactive or overactive stressosome. Overall, the results show that the stressosome is required for acid-induced activation of σ^B in L. monocytogenes. Furthermore, they show that RsbR1 can function independently of its paralogues and signal transduction requires RsbT-mediated phosphorylation of RsbS on S56 and RsbR1 on T209 but not T175. These insights shed light on the mechanisms of signal transduction that activate the GSR in L. monocytogenes in response to acidic environments, and highlight the role this sensory process in the early stages of the infectious cycle.

The stress sensing hub known as the stressosome, found in many bacterial and archaeal lineages, plays a crucial role in both stress tolerance and virulence in the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. However, the mechanisms that lead to its activation and the subsequent activation of the general stress response have remained elusive. In this study, we examined the signal transduction mechanisms that operate in the stressosome in response to acid stress. We found that only one of the five putative sensory proteins present in L. monocytogenes, RsbR1, was required for effective transduction of acid tress signals. We further found that phosphorylation of RsbS and RsbR1, mediated by the RsbT kinase, is essential for signal transduction. Failure to phosphorylate RsbS on Serine 56 completely abolished acid sensing by the stressosome, which prevented the development of adaptive acid tolerance. The acid-induced activation of internalin gene expression was also abolished in mutants with defective stressosome signalling, suggesting a role for the stressosome in the invasion of host cells. Together the data provide new insights into the mechanisms that activate the stressosome in response to acid stress and highlight the role this sensory hub plays in virulence.

Probing antimicrobial resistance and sanitizer tolerance themes and their implications for the food industry through the Listeria monocytogenes lens

The development of antibiotic resistance is a serious public health crisis, reducing our ability to effectively combat infectious bacterial diseases. The parallel study of reduced susceptibility to sanitizers is growing, particularly for environmental foodborne pathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes. As regulations demand a seek-and-destroy approach for L. monocytogenes, understanding sanitizer efficacy and its uses are critical for the food industry. Studies have reported the ability of L. monocytogenes to survive in sanitizer concentrations 10-1000 times lower than the manufacturer-recommended concentration (MRC). Notably, data show that at MRC and when applied according to the label instructions, sanitizers remain largely effective. Studies also report that variables such as the presence of organic material, application time/temperature, and bacterial attachment to surfaces can impact sanitizer effectiveness. Due to the lack of standardization in the methodology and definitions of sanitizer resistance, tolerance, and susceptibility, different messages are conveyed in different studies. In this review, we examine the diversity of definitions, terminology, and methodologies used in studies examining L. monocytogenes resistance and susceptibility to antimicrobials. Research available to date fails to demonstrate "resistance" of L. monocytogenes to recommended sanitizer treatments as prescribed by the label. As such, sanitizer tolerance would be a more accurate description of L. monocytogenes response to low sanitizer concentrations (i.e., sub-MRC). Conservative use of word "resistance" will reduce confusion and allow for concise messaging as sanitizer research findings are communicated to industry and regulators.

Adaptation to a Commercial Quaternary Ammonium Compound Sanitizer Leads to Cross-Resistance to Select Antibiotics in Listeria monocytogenes Isolated From Fresh Produce Environments

The effective elimination of Listeria monocytogenes through cleaning and sanitation is of great importance to the food processing industry. Specifically in fresh produce operations, the lack of a kill step requires effective cleaning and sanitation to mitigate the risk of cross-contamination from the environment. As facilities rely on sanitizers to control L. monocytogenes, reports of the development of tolerance to sanitizers and other antimicrobials through cross-resistance is of particular concern. We investigated the potential for six L. monocytogenes isolates from fresh produce handling and processing facilities and packinghouses to develop cross-resistance between a commercial sanitizer and antibiotics. Experimental adaptation of isolates belonging to hypervirulent clonal complexes (CC2, CC4, and CC6) to a commercial quaternary ammonium compound sanitizer (cQAC) resulted in elevated minimum inhibitory concentrations (2–3 ppm) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (3–4 ppm). Susceptibility to cQAC was restored for all adapted (qAD) isolates in the presence of reserpine, a known efflux pump inhibitor. Reduced sensitivity to 7/17 tested antibiotics (chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, kanamycin, novobiocin, penicillin, and streptomycin) was observed in all tested isolates. qAD isolates remained susceptible to antibiotics commonly used in the treatment of listeriosis (i.e., ampicillin and gentamicin). The whole genome sequencing of qAD strains, followed by comparative genomic analysis, revealed several mutations in fepR, the regulator for FepA fluoroquinolone efflux pump. The results suggest that mutations in fepR play a role in the reduction in antibiotic susceptibility following low level adaptation to cQAC. Further investigation into the cross-resistance mechanisms and pressures leading to the development of this phenomenon among L. monocytogenes isolates recovered from different sources is needed to better understand the likelihood of cross-resistance development in food chain isolates and the implications for the food industry.

Landscape of Stress Response and Virulence Genes Among Listeria monocytogenes Strains

The pathogenic microorganism Listeria monocytogenes is ubiquitous and responsible for listeriosis, a disease with a high mortality rate in susceptible people. It can persist in different habitats, including the farm environment, the food production environments, and in foods. This pathogen can grow under challenging conditions, such as low pH, low temperatures, and high salt concentrations. However, L. monocytogenes has a high degree of strain divergence regarding virulence potential, environmental adaption, and stress response. This review seeks to provide the reader with an up-to-date overview of clonal and serotype-specific differences among L. monocytogenes strains. Emphasis on the genes and genomic islands responsible for virulence and resistance to environmental stresses is given to explain the complex adaptation among L. monocytogenes strains. Moreover, we highlight the use of advanced diagnostic technologies, such as whole-genome sequencing, to fine-tune quantitative microbiological risk assessment for better control of listeriosis.

The Use of Ozone as an Eco-Friendly Strategy against Microbial Biofilm in Dairy Manufacturing Plants: A Review

Managing spoilage and pathogenic bacteria contaminations represents a major challenge for the food industry, especially for the dairy sector. Biofilms formed by these microorganisms in food processing environment continue to pose concerns to food manufacturers as they may impact both the safety and quality of processed foods. Bacteria inside biofilm can survive in harsh environmental conditions and represent a source of repeated food contamination in dairy manufacturing plants. Among the novel approaches proposed to control biofilm in food processing plants, the ozone treatment, in aqueous or gaseous form, may represent one of the most promising techniques due to its antimicrobial action and low environmental impact. The antimicrobial effectiveness of ozone has been well documented on a wide variety of microorganisms in planktonic forms, whereas little data on the efficacy of ozone treatment against microbial biofilms are available. In addition, ozone is recognized as an eco-friendly technology since it does not leave harmful residuals in food products or on contact surfaces. Thus, this review intends to present an overview of the current state of knowledge on the possible use of ozone as an antimicrobial agent against the most common spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, usually organized in biofilm, in dairy manufacturing plants.

Resisting disinfectants

van Dijk et al. discuss the potential for antimicrobial resistance as a consequence of disinfectant use. The authors advocate for the prudent use of disinfectants in all sectors of society.

Nanotechnology in combating biofilm: A smart and promising therapeutic strategy

Since the birth of civilization, people have recognized that infectious microbes cause serious and often fatal diseases in humans. One of the most dangerous characteristics of microorganisms is their propensity to form biofilms. It is linked to the development of long-lasting infections and more severe illness. An obstacle to eliminating such intricate structures is their resistance to the drugs now utilized in clinical practice (biofilms). Finding new compounds with anti-biofilm effect is, thus, essential. Infections caused by bacterial biofilms are something that nanotechnology has lately shown promise in treating. More and more studies are being conducted to determine whether nanoparticles (NPs) are useful in the fight against bacterial infections. While there have been a small number of clinical trials, there have been several in vitro outcomes examining the effects of antimicrobial NPs. Nanotechnology provides secure delivery platforms for targeted treatments to combat the wide range of microbial infections caused by biofilms. The increase in pharmaceuticals' bioactive potential is one of the many ways in which nanotechnology has been applied to drug delivery. The current research details the utilization of several nanoparticles in the targeted medication delivery strategy for managing microbial biofilms, including metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, liposomes, micro-, and nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles. Our understanding of how these nanosystems aid in the fight against biofilms has been expanded through their use.

Pathogenicity and virulence of Listeria monocytogenes: A trip from environmental to medical microbiology

Listeria monocytogenes is a saprophytic gram-positive bacterium, and an opportunistic foodborne pathogen that can produce listeriosis in humans and animals. It has evolved an exceptional ability to adapt to stress conditions encountered in different environments, resulting in a ubiquitous distribution. Because some food preservation methods and disinfection protocols in food-processing environments cannot efficiently prevent contaminations, L. monocytogenes constitutes a threat to human health and a challenge to food safety. In the host, Listeria colonizes the gastrointestinal tract, crosses the intestinal barrier, and disseminates through the blood to target organs. In immunocompromised individuals, the elderly, and pregnant women, the pathogen can cross the blood-brain and placental barriers, leading to neurolisteriosis and materno-fetal listeriosis. Molecular and cell biology studies of infection have proven L. monocytogenes to be a versatile pathogen that deploys unique strategies to invade different cell types, survive and move inside the eukaryotic host cell, and spread from cell to cell. Here, we present the multifaceted Listeria life cycle from a comprehensive perspective. We discuss genetic features of pathogenic Listeria species, analyze factors involved in food contamination, and review bacterial strategies to tolerate stresses encountered both during food processing and along the host's gastrointestinal tract. Then we dissect host-pathogen interactions underlying listerial pathogenesis in mammals from a cell biology and systemic point of view. Finally, we summarize the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical features of listeriosis in humans and animals. This work aims to gather information from different fields crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes.

Investigating Transcriptomic Induction of Resistance and/or Virulence in Listeria monocytogenes Cells Surviving Sublethal Antimicrobial Exposure

The potential transcriptomic induction of resistance and/or virulence in two L. monocytogenes strains belonging to the most frequent listeriosis-associated serovars (i.e., 1/2a and 4b), following their sublethal antimicrobial exposure, was studied through qPCR determination of the relative expression of 10 selected related genes (i.e., groEL, hly, iap, inlA, inlB, lisK, mdrD, mdrL, prfA, and sigB). To induce sublethal stress, three common antimicrobials (i.e., benzalkonium chloride, thymol, and ampicillin) were individually applied for 2 h at 37 °C against stationary phase cells of each strain, each at a sublethal concentration. In general, the expression of most of the studied genes remained either stable or was significantly downregulated following the antimicrobial exposure, with some strain-specific differences to be yet recorded. Thymol provoked downregulation of most of the studied genes, significantly limiting the expression of 6/10 and 4/10 genes in the strains of ser. 1/2a and ser. 4b, respectively, including those coding for the master regulators of stress response and virulence (SigB and PrfA, respectively), in both strains. At the same time, the two genes coding for the invasion internalin proteins (InlA and InlB), with crucial role in the onset of L. monocytogenes pathogenesis, were both importantly upregulated in ser. 4b strain. The results obtained increase our knowledge of the stress physiology of L. monocytogenes under certain sublethal antimicrobial conditions that could be encountered within the food chain and in clinical settings, and may assist in better and more effective mitigation strategies.

Biocide resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii: appraising the mechanisms

A global upsurge in antibiotic-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii requires supervised selection of biocides and disinfectants to avert nosocomial infections by reducing its spread. Moreover, inadequate and improper biocides have been reported as a contributing factor in antimicrobial resistance. Regardless of the manner of administration, a biocidal concentration that does not kill the target bacteria creates a stress response, propagating the resistance mechanisms. This is an essential aspect of the disinfection programme and the overall bio-contamination management plan. Knowing the mechanisms of action of biocides and resistance modalities may open new avenues to discover novel agents. This review describes the mechanisms of action of some biocides, resistance mechanisms, and approaches to study susceptibility/resistance to these agents.

Application of Whole Genome Sequencing to Aid in Deciphering the Persistence Potential of Listeria monocytogenes in Food Production Environments

Listeria monocytogenes is the etiological agent of listeriosis, a foodborne illness associated with high hospitalizations and mortality rates. This bacterium can persist in food associated environments for years with isolates being increasingly linked to outbreaks. This review presents a discussion of genomes of Listeria monocytogenes which are commonly regarded as persisters within food production environments, as well as genes which are involved in mechanisms aiding this phenotype. Although criteria for the detection of persistence remain undefined, the advent of whole genome sequencing (WGS) and the development of bioinformatic tools have revolutionized the ability to find closely related strains. These advancements will facilitate the identification of mechanisms responsible for persistence among indistinguishable genomes. In turn, this will lead to improved assessments of the importance of biofilm formation, adaptation to stressful conditions and tolerance to sterilizers in relation to the persistence of this bacterium, all of which have been previously associated with this phenotype. Despite much research being published around the topic of persistence, more insights are required to further elucidate the nature of true persistence and its implications for public health.

Bacteriophage treatment before chemical disinfection can enhance removal of plastic surface-associated Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Opportunistic pathogens can linger on surfaces in hospital and building plumbing environments, leading to infections in at-risk populations. Further, biofilm-associated bacteria are protected from removal and inactivation protocols, such as disinfection. Bacteriophages show promise as tools to treat antibiotic resistant infections. As such, phages may also be useful in environmental applications to prevent newly acquired infections. In the current study, the potential of synergies between bacteriophage and chemical disinfection of the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa was assessed under various conditions. Specifically, surface-associated P. aeruginosa was treated with various concentrations of phages (P1 or JG004), chemical disinfectant (sodium hypochlorite or benzalkonium chloride), or combined sequential treatments under three distinct attachment models (spot inoculations, dry biofilms, and wet biofilms). Phages were very effective at removing bacteria in spot inoculation (>3.2 log₁₀ removal) and wet biofilms (up to 2.6 log₁₀ removal), while phages prevented regrowth of dry biofilms in the application time. In addition, phage treatment followed by chemical disinfection inactivated more P. aeruginosa under wet biofilm conditions better than either treatment alone. This effect was hindered when chemical disinfection was applied first, followed by phage treatment, suggesting additive benefits of combination treatments are lost when phage is applied last. Further, we confirm prior evidence of greater phage tolerance to benzalkonium chloride relative to sodium hypochlorite, informing choices for combination phage-disinfectant approaches. Overall, this paper further supports the potential of using combination phage and chemical disinfectant treatments to improve inactivation of surface-associated P. aeruginosa. Importance Phages are already utilized in the healthcare industry to treat antibiotic resistant infections, such as on implant-associated biofilms and in compassionate care cases. Phage treatment could also be a promising new tool to control pathogens in the built environment, preventing infections from occurring. This study shows that phage can be combined effectively with chemical disinfectants to improve removal of wet biofilms and bacteria spotted onto surfaces while preventing regrowth in dry biofilms. This has the potential to improve pathogen containment within the built environment and drinking water infrastructure to prevent infections of opportunistic pathogens.

Control of Virulent Listeria monocytogenes Originating from Dairy Products and Cattle Environment Using Marine Algal Extracts, Silver Nanoparticles Thereof, and Quaternary Disinfectants

Introduction

Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen of public- and animal-health concern globally. The persistence of L. monocytogenes in the dairy-processing environment has multifactorial causes, including lack of hygiene, inefficient cleaning, and improper disinfection practices.

Materials and Methods

A total of 300 dairy-product and environmental samples were collected from dairy-cattle facilities and local dairy shops and vendors in Qena, Egypt. Samples were screened for the incidence of Listeria spp. and to detect virulence determinants and disinfectant-resistance genes. Three marine algal species - Caulerpa racemosa, Jania rubens, and Padina pavonica - were collected from Hurghada on the Red Sea coast. Algal extracts were screened using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antimicrobial activity of some marine algal extracts, nanoparticles derived therefrom, and some disinfectants against L. monocytogenes strains were assessed in vitro using agar-well diffusion and liquid-broth methods. The impact of P. pavonica extract on the growth and survival of virulent L. monocytogenes in cheese and whey were clarified.

Results and Discussion

The incidence of L. monocytogenes in dairy products and environmental samples was 15.5% and 19%, respectively. The most common toxigenic gene profile found among the isolates was hlyA ⁺-inlA ⁺-prfA ⁺. The sensitivity pattern of L. monocytogenes strains to disinfectant containing alkyl (C_12-16) dimethyl BAC was high compared to other tested quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) disinfectants tested, which showed lower log reductions against resistant strains. The QAC disinfectant-resistance gene qacH was detected in 40% of the isolates. Potent bactericidal activity of a petroleum ether extract of P. pavonica and silver nanoparticles of P. pavonica were obtained against the virulent L. monocytogenes strain. The population of L. monocytogenes in cheese curd and whey after 14 days was reduced at a rate of 9 log CFU/g and 8 log CFU/mL, respectively due to the effect of P. pavonica extract. After 28 days of storage, L. monocytogenes was completely inactivated in those dairy products.

Conclusion

P. pavonica extract showed promising antimicrobial properties, calling for further comprehensive studies prior to it being applied in the food industry to enhance the safety, quality, and shelf life of products and protect public health.

Whole Genome-Based Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes Isolates Recovered From the Food Chain in South Africa

Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen which has the ability to adapt and survive in food and food processing facilities where it can persist for years. In this study, a total of 143 L. monocytogenes isolates in South Africa (SA) were characterized for their strain’s genetic relatedness, virulence profiles, stress tolerance and resistance genes associated with L. monocytogenes. The Core Genome Multilocus Sequence Typing (cgMLST) analysis revealed that the most frequent serogroups were IVb and IIa; Sequence Types (ST) were ST204, ST2, and ST1; and Clonal Complexes (CC) were CC204, CC1, and CC2. Examination of genes involved in adaptation and survival of L. monocytogenes in SA showed that ST1, ST2, ST121, ST204, and ST321 are well adapted in food processing environments due to the significant over-representation of Benzalkonium chloride (BC) resistance genes (bcrABC cassette, ermC, mdrL and Ide), stress tolerance genes (SSI-1 and SSI-2), Prophage (φ) profiles (LP_101, vB LmoS 188, vB_LmoS_293, and B054 phage), plasmids profiles (N1-011A, J1776, and pLM5578) and biofilm formation associated genes. Furthermore, the L. monocytogenes strains that showed hyper-virulent potential were ST1, ST2 and ST204, and hypo-virulent were ST121 and ST321 because of the presence and absence of major virulence factors such as LIPI-1, LIPI-3, LIPI-4 and the internalin gene family members including inlABCEFJ. The information provided in this study revealed that hyper-virulent strains ST1, ST2, and ST204 could present a major public health risk due to their association with meat products and food processing environments in SA.

Effect of Gaseous Ozone on Listeria monocytogenes Planktonic Cells and Biofilm: An In Vitro Study

Among food-borne pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes continues to pose concerns to food business operators due to its capacity to form biofilm in processing environments. Ozone may be an eco-friendly technology to control microbial contaminations, but data concerning its effect on Listeria monocytogenes biofilm are still limited. In this study, the effect of gaseous ozone at 50 ppm on planktonic cells and biofilm of reference and food-related Listeria monocytogenes strains was evaluated. Ozone caused a reduction in microbial loads of 3.7 ± 0.4 and 3.9 ± 0.4 Log10 CFU/mL after 10 and 30 min, respectively. A complete inactivation of planktonic cells after 6 h of treatment was observed. Biofilm inhibition and eradication treatments (50 ppm, 6 h) resulted in a significant decrease of the biofilm biomass for 59% of the strains tested, whilst a slight dampening of live cell loads in the biofilm state was observed. In conclusion, gaseous ozone is not sufficient to completely counteract Listeria monocytogenes biofilm, but it may be useful as an additional tool to contrast Listeria monocytogenes free-living cells and to improve the existing sanitization procedures in food processing environments.

Biofilm growth by Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel and expression of biofilm-related genes under stressing conditions

This research was carried out to investigate the differences in adhesion and growth during biofilm formation of L. monocytogenes from different sources and clonal complexes. Biofilm by L. monocytogenes (isolates CLIST 441 and 7: both lineage I, serotype 1/2b, CC3; isolates 19 and 508: both lineage II, serotype 1/2c, CC9) was grown on stainless steel coupons under different stressing conditions (NaCl, curing salts and quaternary ammonium compounds-QAC), to determine the expression of different genes involved in biofilm formation and stress response. CLIST 441, which carries a premature stop codon (PMSC) in agrC, formed high-density biofilms in the presence of QAC (7.5% w/v) or curing salts (10% w/v). Reverse Transcriptase-qPCR results revealed that L. monocytogenes isolates presented differences in transcriptional profile of genes related to biofilm formation and adaptation to environmental conditions. Our results demonstrated how L. monocytogenes can survive, multiply and form biofilm under adverse conditions related to food processing environments. Differences in transcriptional expression were observed, highlighting the role of regulatory gene networks for particular serotypes under different stress responses.