Galectins and Their Ligand Glycoconjugates in the Central Nervous System Under Physiological and Pathological Conditions

Systematic Evaluation of Macromolecular Carbohydrate-Lectin Recognition Using Precision Glycopolymers

The precise modulation of protein-carbohydrate interactions is critical in glycobiology, where multivalent binding governs key cellular processes. As such, synthetic glycopolymers are useful for probing these interactions. Herein, we developed precision glycopolymers (PGPs) with unambiguous local chemical composition and well-defined global structure and systematically evaluated the effect of polymer length, hydrophobicity, and backbone hybridization as well as glycan density and identity on the binding to both mammalian and plant lectins. Our studies identified glycan density as a critical factor, with PGPs below 50% grafting density showing significantly weaker lectin interactions. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the observed phenomena may be due to a decrease in carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions in fully grafted PGPs, leading to improved solvent accessibility. In functional assays, these PGPs reduced the cell viability and migration in 4T1 breast cancer cells. Our findings establish a structure-activity relationship in glycopolymers, providing new strategies for designing synthetic glycomacromolecules for a myriad of applications.

Impact of galectin-3 on neurotrophic factor expression by PCR array: potential implications for the human cornea

The cornea is densely innervated to maintain the integrity of the ocular surface, facilitating functions such as sensation and tear production. Following damage, alterations in the corneal microenvironment can profoundly affect its innervation, potentially impairing healing and sensory perception. One protein frequently upregulated at the ocular surface following tissue damage is galectin-3, but its contribution to corneal nerve regeneration remains unclear. Here, we sought to delineate the role of galectin-3 in regulating the expression of neurotrophic factors by different human cell types. Using a pathway-focused PCR array, we first evaluated the expression of neurotrophic factors in primary cultures of human corneal epithelial cells and fibroblasts. We found that these cell types contributed differently to the expression of these factors, with fibroblasts exhibiting higher levels of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and GDNF compared to epithelial cells. Treatment with exogenous galectin-3 did not significantly affect epithelial cells; however, it did lead to increased synthesis and secretion of IL6, a cytokine known to influence neuronal survival and modulate inflammatory responses, by corneal fibroblasts. Using the human-derived SH-SY5Y cell line as a neuron-like cell model, we also found that galectin-3 stimulated the expression of FOS and LIF, two genes involved in neural differentiation and survival. In summary, these in vitro findings suggest that the presence of galectin-3 in the corneal environment may influence the neuronal response to injury.

Compound (E)-2-(3,4-dihydroxystyryl)-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one downregulation of Galectin-3 ameliorates Aβ pathogenesis-induced neuroinflammation in 5 × FAD mice

AIMS

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by β-amyloid (Aβ) aggregation and neuroinflammation, leading to progressive synaptic loss and cognitive decline. Recent evidence suggests that Galectin-3 (Gal-3) plays a critical role in Aβ pathogenesis. However, strategies to simultaneously target Gal-3 and Aβ are currently insufficient. This study evaluates the therapeutic efficacy of (E)-2-(3,4-dihydroxystyryl)-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one (D30), in reducing Gal-3 and Aβ pathogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We applied exogenous oligomeric Aβ and used 5 × FAD mice to assess the impact of Aβ on Gal-3 deposition, microglial activation, and cognitive function. Thy1-EGFP mice were employed to observe dendritic spines. Comprehensive evaluations of D30's effects included behavioral studies, transcriptomic analysis, Western blotting, and immunofluorescent staining. The interaction between D30 and Gal-3 was examined using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and microscale thermophoresis (MST).

KEY FINDINGS

D30 effectively reduced Aβ monomer production by inhibiting Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) expression, and decreased Aβ aggregation. Treatment with D30 improved cognitive functions, reversed dendritic spine loss, and increased PSD95 expression in 5 × FAD mice. Additionally, D30 significantly lowered Gal-3 levels in both plasma and hippocampal tissues. D30 binds to Gal-3 and disrupts the interaction between Gal-3 and TREM2, as confirmed by FRET and MST.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings underscore the interaction between Gal-3 and Aβ in AD and its role in systemic inflammation using the 5 × FAD mouse model. Being able to target and regulate Gal-3 together with Aβ is crucial for preventing neuroinflammation and protecting synapses, D30 emerged as a novel compound with promising potential for AD treatment.

Interconnection of the Gut-Skin Axis in NC/Nga Mouse with Atopic Dermatitis: Effects of the Three Types of Bifidobacterium bifidum CBT-BF3 (Probiotics, Postbiotics, and Cytosine-Phosphate-Guanine Oligodeoxynucleotide) on T Cell Differentiation and Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiota is an immune system regulator in the gut-skin axis. Dysfunctional interactions between the gut microbiota and the gut immune system can lead to the development of skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis (AD). Probiotics and postbiotics positively affect the balance of the gut microbiota, immune regulation, protection against pathogens, and barrier integrity. This study investigated the effects of probiotic Bifidobacterium bifidum, postbiotic B. bifidum (heat-killed), and cytosine-phosphate-guanine oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN) on the gut microbiota and T cell differentiation in NC/Nga mice induced with AD. 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene-induced AD mice had an increased SCORing atopic dermatitis-index and increased mRNA expression levels of Th2 and Th17 cell transcription factors and cytokines, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) cytokine in their mesenteric lymph nodes (mLNs; p<0.05). However, oral administration of the three types of B. bifidum (probiotics, postbiotics, CpG ODN) to AD mice decreased the mRNA expression levels of Th2 and Th17 cell transcription factors and cytokines as well as TSLP cytokine. They increased the mRNA expression levels of regulatory T (Treg) cell transcription factor and cytokine, galectin-9, and filaggrin genes (p<0.05). These effects were more noticeable in the mLNs than in the spleen. In addition, AD mice showed a decrease in Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Roseburia spp., Leuconostoc citreum, Weissella cibaria, and Weissella koreensis (p<0.05). However, oral administration of the three types of B. bifidum increased Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., F. prausnitzii, and Roseburia spp. (p<0.05).

A human lectin array for characterizing host-pathogen interactions

A human lectin array has been developed to probe the interactions of innate immune receptors with pathogenic and commensal microorganisms. Following the successful introduction of a lectin array containing all of the cow C-type carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs), a human array described here contains the C-type CRDs as well as CRDs from other classes of sugar-binding receptors, including galectins, siglecs, R-type CRDs, ficolins, intelectins, and chitinase-like lectins. The array is constructed with CRDs modified with single-site biotin tags, ensuring that the sugar-binding sites in CRDs are displayed on a streptavidin-coated surface in a defined orientation and are accessible to the surfaces of microbes. A common approach used for expression and display of CRDs from all of the different structural categories of glycan-binding receptors allows comparisons across lectin families. In addition to previously documented protocols for binding of fluorescently labeled bacteria, methods have been developed for detecting unlabeled bacteria bound to the array by counter-staining with DNA-binding dye. Screening has also been undertaken with viral glycoproteins and bacterial and fungal polysaccharides. The array provides an unbiased screen for sugar ligands that interact with receptors and many show binding not anticipated from earlier studies. For example, some of the galectins bind with high affinity to bacterial glycans that lack lactose or N-acetyllactosamine. The results demonstrate the utility of the human lectin array for providing a unique overview of the interactions of multiple classes of glycan-binding proteins in the innate immune system with different types of microorganisms.

Pre-B cell receptor acts as a selectivity switch for galectin-1 at the pre-B cell surface

Galectins are glycan-binding proteins translating the sugar-encoded information of cellular glycoconjugates into physiological activities, including immunity, cell migration, and signaling. Galectins also interact with non-glycosylated partners in the extracellular milieu, among which the pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR) during B cell development. How these interactions might interplay with the glycan-decoding function of galectins is unknown. Here, we perform NMR experiments on native membranes to monitor Gal-1 binding to physiological cell surface ligands. We show that pre-BCR interaction changes Gal-1 binding to glycosylated pre-B cell surface receptors. At the molecular and cellular levels, we identify α2,3-sialylated motifs as key targeted epitopes. This targeting occurs through a selectivity switch increasing Gal-1 contacts with α2,3-sialylated poly-N-acetyllactosamine upon pre-BCR interaction. Importantly, we observe that this switch is involved in the regulation of pre-BCR activation. Altogether, this study demonstrates that interactions to non-glycosylated proteins regulate the glycan-decoding functions of galectins at the cell surface.

Prognostic Influence of Galectin-1 in Gastric Adenocarcinoma

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a member of the human lectin family, has garnered attention for its association with aggressive behavior in human tumors, prompting research into the development of targeted drugs. This study aims to assess the staining pattern and prognostic significance of Gal-1 immunohistochemical expression in a homogeneous cohort of Western patients with gastric cancer (GC). A total of 149 cases were included and tissue microarrays were constructed. Stromal Gal-1 expression was observed to some extent in most tumors, displaying a cytoplasmic pattern. Cases with stromal Gal-1 overexpression showed significantly more necrosis, lymphovascular invasion, advanced pTNM stages, recurrences, and cancer-related deaths. Epithelial Gal-1 expression was present in 63.8% of the cases, primarily exhibiting a cytoplasmic pattern, and its overexpression was significantly associated with lymphovascular invasion, peritumoral lymphocytic infiltration, and tumor-related death. Kaplan/Meier curves for cancer-specific survival (CSS) revealed a significantly worse prognosis for patients with tumors exhibiting stromal or epithelial Gal-1 overexpression. Furthermore, stromal Gal-1 expression stratified stage III patients into distinct prognostic subgroups. In a multivariable analysis, increased stromal Gal-1 expression emerged as an independent prognostic factor for CSS. These findings underscore the prognostic relevance of Gal-1 and suggest its potential as a target for drug development in Western patients with GC.

Galectin-9 and Tim-3 are upregulated in response to microglial activation induced by the peptide Amyloid-β (25-35)

Galectins are a group of β-galactoside-binding lectins associated with regulating immunological response. In the brains of AD patients and 5xFAD (familial AD) mice, galectin-3 (Gal-3) was highly upregulated and found to be expressed in microglia associated with Aβ plaques. However, the participation of other galectins, specifically galectin-9 (Gal-9) and T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (Tim-3) receptors, are unknown in the inflammatory response. The experimental model of the Aβ25-35 peptide will allow us to study the mechanisms of neuroinflammation and describe the changes in the expression of the Gal-9 and Tim-3 receptor. This study aimed to evaluate whether Aβ25-35 peptide administration into the lateral ventricles of rats upregulated Gal-9 and Tim-3 implicated in the modulation of neuroinflammation. The vehicle or Aβ25-35 peptide (1 μg/μL) was bilaterally administered into the lateral ventricles of the rat, and control group. After the administration of the Aβ25-35 peptide, animals were tested for learning (day 29) and spatial memory (day 30) in the novel object recognition test (NOR). On day 31, hippocampus was examined for morphological changes by Nilss stain, biochemical changes by NO2 and MDA, immunohistochemical analysis by astrocytes (GFAP), microglia (Iba1), Gal-9 and Tim-3, and western blot. Our results show the administration of the Aβ25-35 peptide into the lateral ventricles of rats induce memory impairment in the NOR by increases the oxidative stress and inflammatory response. This result is associated with an upregulation of Gal-9 and Tim-3 predominantly detected in the microglia cells of Aβ25-35-treated rats with respect to the control group. Gal-9 and Tim-3 are upregulated in activated microglia that could modulate the inflammatory response and damage in neurodegenerative processes induced by the Aβ25-35 peptide. Therefore, we suggest that Gal-9 and Tim-3 participate in the inflammatory process induced by the administration of the Aβ25-35 peptide.

Exploring the properties and potential of the neural extracellular matrix for next-generation regenerative therapies

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a dynamic and complex network of proteins and molecules that surrounds cells and tissues in the nervous system and orchestrates a myriad of biological functions. This review carefully examines the diverse interactions between cells and the ECM, as well as the transformative chemical and physical changes that the ECM undergoes during neural development, aging, and disease. These transformations play a pivotal role in shaping tissue morphogenesis and neural activity, thereby influencing the functionality of the central nervous system (CNS). In our comprehensive review, we describe the diverse behaviors of the CNS ECM in different physiological and pathological scenarios and explore the unique properties that make ECM-based strategies attractive for CNS repair and regeneration. Addressing the challenges of scalability, variability, and integration with host tissues, we review how advanced natural, synthetic, and combinatorial matrix approaches enhance biocompatibility, mechanical properties, and functional recovery. Overall, this review highlights the potential of decellularized ECM as a powerful tool for CNS modeling and regenerative purposes and sets the stage for future research in this exciting field. This article is categorized under: Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanotechnology in Tissue Repair and Replacement Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanomaterials and Implants.

Galectin-3 Plays a Role in Neuroinflammation in the Visual Pathway in Experimental Optic Neuritis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) featuring numerous neuropathologies, including optic neuritis (ON) in some patients. However, the molecular mechanisms of ON remain unknown. Galectins, β-galactoside-binding lectins, are involved in various pathophysiological processes. We previously showed that galectin-3 (gal-3) is associated with the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. In the current study, we investigated the expression of gal-3 in the visual pathway in EAE mice to clarify its role in the pathogenesis of ON. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed upregulation of gal-3 in the visual pathway of the EAE mice during the peak stage of the disease, compared with naïve and EAE mice during the chronic stage. Gal-3 was detected mainly in microglia/macrophages and astrocytes in the visual pathway in EAE mice. In addition, gal-3+/Iba-1+ cells, identified as phagocytic by immunostaining for cathepsin D, accumulated in demyelinating lesions in the visual pathway during the peak disease stage of EAE. Moreover, NLRP3 expression was detected in most gal-3+/Iba-1+ cells. These results strongly suggest that gal-3 regulates NLRP3 signaling in microglia/macrophages and neuroinflammatory demyelination in ON. In astrocytes, gal-3 was expressed from the peak to the chronic disease stages. Taken together, our findings suggest a critical role of gal-3 in the pathogenesis of ON. Thus, gal-3 in glial cells may serve as a potential therapeutic target for ON.

Amyloid β1-42 Oligomers Induce Galectin-1S8 O-GlcNAcylation Leading to Microglia Migration

Protein O-GlcNAcylation has been associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The O-GlcNAcylation of the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) regulates both the trafficking and the processing of the APP through the amyloidogenic pathway, resulting in the release and aggregation of the Aβ_1-42 peptide. Microglia clears Aβ aggregates and dead cells to maintain brain homeostasis. Here, using LC-MS/MS, we revealed that the Aβ_1-42 oligomers modify the microglia O-GlcNAcome. We identified 55 proteins, focusing our research on Galectin-1 protein since it is a very versatile protein from a functional point of view. Combining biochemical with genetic approaches, we demonstrated that Aβ_1-42 oligomers specifically target Galectin-1^S8 O-GlcNAcylation via OGT. In addition to this, the Gal-1-O-GlcNAcylated form, in turn, controls human microglia migration. Given the importance of microglia migration in the progression of AD, this study reports the relationship between the Aβ_1-42 oligomers and Serine 8-O-GlcNAcylation of Galectin-1 to drive microglial migration.

Inhibition of Galectins and the P2X7 Purinergic Receptor as a Therapeutic Approach in the Neurovascular Inflammation of Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most frequent microvascular retinal complication of diabetic patients, contributing to loss of vision. Recently, retinal neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration have emerged as key players in DR progression, and therefore, this review examines the neuroinflammatory molecular basis of DR. We focus on four important aspects of retinal neuroinflammation: (i) the exacerbation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress; (ii) the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome; (iii) the role of galectins; and (iv) the activation of purinergic 2X7 receptor (P2X7R). Moreover, this review proposes the selective inhibition of galectins and the P2X7R as a potential pharmacological approach to prevent the progression of DR.

Normal Cortical Myelination in Galectin-4-Deficient Mice

Myelin, critical for the correct function of the nervous system, is organized in different patterns that can include long non-myelinated axonal segments. How myelin patterning is regulated remains unexplained. The carbohydrate-binding protein galectin-4 (Gal-4) influences oligodendrocyte differentiation in vitro and is associated with non-myelinable axon segments (NMS) in cultured neurons. In consequence, Gal-4 has been proposed as a myelin patterning regulator, although no in vivo studies have corroborated this hypothesis. We used Gal-4-deficient mice (Lgals4-KO) to study the role of Gal-4 in cortical myelination in vivo. We show that cultured neurons of Lgals4-KO mice form NMS that are regulated as in control neurons. In addition, oligodendrocyte/myelin markers expression measured by biochemical and immunochemical means, and cortical myelin microstructure studied by in-depth image analysis appear unaltered in these animals. Consistently, myelin displays an essentially normal function assessed by in vivo electrophysiology and locomotion analyses. In conclusion, cortical myelin of Lgals4-KO mice does not show any significant defect in composition, organization or function, pointing to a negligible role of Gal-4 in myelination in vivo or, as discussed, to unknown mechanisms that compensate its absence.

Single-cell transcriptome analysis of regenerating RGCs reveals potent glaucoma neural repair genes

Axon regeneration holds great promise for neural repair of CNS axonopathies, including glaucoma. Pten deletion in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) promotes potent optic nerve regeneration, but only a small population of Pten-null RGCs are actually regenerating RGCs (regRGCs); most surviving RGCs (surRGCs) remain non-regenerative. Here, we developed a strategy to specifically label and purify regRGCs and surRGCs, respectively, from the same Pten-deletion mice after optic nerve crush, in which they differ only in their regeneration capability. Smart-Seq2 single-cell transcriptome analysis revealed novel regeneration-associated genes that significantly promote axon regeneration. The most potent of these, Anxa2, acts synergistically with its ligand tPA in Pten-deletion-induced axon regeneration. Anxa2, its downstream effector ILK, and Mpp1 dramatically protect RGC somata and axons and preserve visual function in a clinically relevant model of glaucoma, demonstrating the exciting potential of this innovative strategy to identify novel effective neural repair candidates.

Association between Galectin Levels and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Galectins are a family of proteins with an affinity for β-galactosides that have roles in neuroprotection and neuroinflammation. Several studies indicate that patients with neurodegenerative diseases have alterations in the concentration of galectins in their blood and brain. However, the results of the studies are contradictory; hence, a meta-analysis is performed to clarify whether patients with neurodegenerative diseases have elevated galectin levels compared to healthy individuals. Related publications are obtained from the databases: PubMed, Central-Conchrane, Web of Science database, OVID-EMBASE, Scope, and EBSCO host until February 2022. A pooled standard mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) is calculated by fixed-effect or random-effect model analysis. In total, 17 articles are included in the meta-analysis with a total of 905 patients. Patients with neurodegenerative diseases present a higher level of galectin expression compared to healthy individuals (MDS = 0.70, 95% CI 0.28-1.13, p = 0.001). In the subgroup analysis by galectin type, a higher galectin-3 expression is observed in patients with neurodegenerative diseases. Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALD), and Parkinson's disease (PD) expressed higher levels of galectin-3. Patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) have higher levels of galectin-9. In conclusion, our meta-analysis shows that patients with neurovegetative diseases have higher galectin levels compared to healthy individuals. Galectin levels are associated with the type of disease, sample, detection technique, and region of origin of the patients.

Association between abnormal expression and methylation of LGALS1 in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

DNA methylation has been identified to play an important role in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Galectin-1, encoded by LGALS1 gene, has been proved to be associated with ALS. We aimed to investigate the association between the expression and methylation of LGALS1 in blood samples from ALS patients.

METHODS

Forty-five patients diagnosed with ALS were enrolled. Thirty-two healthy relatives consisted the control group. Among them, samples from 12 patients and 12 controls consisted the exploration samples. In the exploration samples, mRNA expression levels were detected by quantitative real-time PCR. In all the samples, DNA methylation levels of one CpG island containing 12 CpG sites in the gene promoter were detected by bisulfite sequencing PCR, and galectin-1 levels were examined by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Associations between the gene expression and methylation level, as well as between the region-specific methylation level and clinical variables were calculated.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression level of LGALS1 was significantly increased and the promoter of LGALS1 was hypomethylated in ALS patients. Serum galectin-1 levels were significantly elevated in the ALS patients. The ALS group had significantly lower methylation level at certain CpG sites than the control group. There were significant negative associations between abnormal expression and methylation of LGALS1, as well as between region-specific methylation levels and the age of onset.

CONCLUSIONS

The aberrant expression and DNA methylation of LGALS1 and their association reveals epigenetic changes in ALS patients, which are helpful for early intervention and treatment for the disease.

Galectin-3 Involvement in Cognitive Processes for New Therapeutic Considerations

Cognitive impairment may be a consequence of the normal aging process, but it may also be the hallmark of various neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. Early identification of individuals at particular risk for cognitive decline is critical, as it is imperative to maintain a cognitive reserve in these neuropsychiatric entities. In recent years, galectin-3 (Gal-3), a member of the galectin family, has received considerable attention with respect to aspects of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The mechanisms behind the putative relationship between Gal-3 and cognitive impairment are not yet clear. Intrigued by this versatile molecule and its unique modular architecture, the latest data on this relationship are presented here. This mini-review summarizes recent findings on the mechanisms by which Gal-3 affects cognitive functioning in both animal and human models. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of Gal-3 in modulating the inflammatory response as a fine-tuner of microglia morphology and phenotype. A review of recent literature on the utility of Gal-3 as a biomarker is provided, and approaches to strategically exploit Gal-3 activities with therapeutic intentions in neuropsychiatric diseases are outlined.

Glycan-Lectin Interactions as Novel Immunosuppression Drivers in Glioblastoma

Despite diagnostic and therapeutic improvements, glioblastoma (GB) remains one of the most threatening brain tumor in adults, underlining the urgent need of new therapeutic targets. Lectins are glycan-binding proteins that regulate several biological processes through the recognition of specific sugar motifs. Lectins and their ligands are found on immune cells, endothelial cells and, also, tumor cells, pointing out a strong correlation among immunity, tumor microenvironment and vascularization. In GB, altered glycans and lectins contribute to tumor progression and immune evasion, shaping the tumor-immune landscape promoting immunosuppressive cell subsets, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and M2-macrophages, and affecting immunoeffector populations, such as CD8⁺ T cells and dendritic cells (DCs). Here, we discuss the latest knowledge on the immune cells, immune related lectin receptors (C-type lectins, Siglecs, galectins) and changes in glycosylation that are involved in immunosuppressive mechanisms in GB, highlighting their interest as possible novel therapeutical targets.

Neuroinflammation and galectins: a key relationship in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegeneration is a pathological condition that is associated with the loss of neuronal function and structure. In neurodegenerative diseases, mounting evidence indicates that neuroinflammation is a common factor that contributes to neuronal damage and neurodegeneration. Neuroinflammation is characterized by the activation of microglia, the neuroimmune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), which have been implicated as active contributors to neuronal damage. Glycan structure modification is defining the outcome of neuroinflammation and neuronal regeneration; moreover, the expression of galectins, a group of lectins that specifically recognize β-galactosides, has been proposed as a key factor in neuronal regeneration and modulation of the inflammatory response. Of the different galectins identified, galectin-1 stimulates the secretion of neurotrophic factors in astrocytes and promotes neuronal regeneration, whereas galectin-3 induces the proliferation of microglial cells and modulates cell apoptosis. Galectin-8 emerged as a neuroprotective factor, which, in addition to its immunosuppressive function, could generate a neuroprotective environment in the brain. This review describes the role of galectins in the activation and modulation of astrocytes and microglia and their anti- and proinflammatory functions within the context of neuroinflammation. Furthermore, it discusses the potential use of galectins as a therapeutic target for the inflammatory response and remodeling in damaged tissues in the central nervous system.

Circulating Biomarkers in Long-Term Stroke Prognosis: A Scoping Review Focusing on the South African Setting

Cerebrovascular disease, including both ischaemic and haemorrhagic strokes, remains one of the highest causes of global morbidity and mortality. Developing nations, such as South Africa (SA), are affected disproportionately. Early identification of stroke patients at risk of poor clinical prognosis may result in improved outcomes. In addition to conventional neuroimaging, the role of predictive biomarkers has been shown to be important. Little data exist on their applicability within SA. This scoping review aimed to evaluate the currently available data pertaining to blood biomarkers that aid in the long-term prognostication of patients following stroke and its potential application in the South African setting. This scoping review followed a 6-stage process to identify and critically review currently available literature pertaining to prognostic biomarkers in stroke. An initial 1191 articles were identified and, following rigorous review, 41 articles were included for the purposes of the scoping review. A number of potential biomarkers were identified and grouped according to the function or origin of the marker. Although most biomarkers showed great prognostic potential, the cost and availability will likely limit their application within SA. The burden of stroke is increasing worldwide and appears to be affecting developing countries disproportionately. Access to neuroradiological services is not readily available in all settings and the addition of biomarkers to assist in the long-term prognostication of patients following a stroke can be of great clinical value. The cost and availability of many of the reviewed biomarkers will likely hinder their use in the South African setting.

Integrin Signaling in the Central Nervous System in Animals and Human Brain Diseases

The integrin family is involved in various biological functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration, and also in the pathogenesis of disease. Integrins are multifunctional receptors that exist as heterodimers composed of α and β subunits and bind to various ligands, including extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins; they are found in many animals, not only vertebrates (e.g., mouse, rat, and teleost fish), but also invertebrates (e.g., planarian flatworm, fruit fly, nematodes, and cephalopods), which are used for research on genetics and social behaviors or as models for human diseases. In the present paper, we describe the results of a phylogenetic tree analysis of the integrin family among these species. We summarize integrin signaling in teleost fish, which serves as an excellent model for the study of regenerative systems and possesses the ability for replacing missing tissues, especially in the central nervous system, which has not been demonstrated in mammals. In addition, functions of astrocytes and reactive astrocytes, which contain neuroprotective subpopulations that act in concert with the ECM proteins tenascin C and osteopontin via integrin are also reviewed. Drug development research using integrin as a therapeutic target could result in breakthroughs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain injury in mammals.