Common Neural Network for Different Functions: An Investigation of Proactive and Reactive Inhibition

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to ipsilateral primary motor cortex intercortical interactions during inhibitory control enhance response inhibition in open-skill athletes

Numerous studies have reported that long-term sports training can affect inhibitory control and induce brain functional alterations. However, the influence of environmental dynamics in sports training on inter-cortical connectivity has not been well studied. In the current study, we used twin-coil transcranial magnetic stimulation to investigate the functional connectivity between dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and ipsilateral primary motor cortex (M1) during proactive and reactive inhibition in participants with sports skills in dynamic environment (open-skill experts), stable environment (closed-skill experts), and no sports skills (controls). Using a modified stop signal task, proactive inhibition was measured by the response delay effect (RDE), and reactive inhibition was measured by the stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). Intra-hemispheric DLPFC-M1 interactions and single pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were measured during the task. A stronger inhibitory effect of the DLPFC over M1 was observed during early reactive control stages compared to baseline levels. In addition, this inhibitory effect was pronounced when comparing open-skill experts to non-athlete controls, a relationship that was significantly correlated with superior reactive control performance. Furthermore, DLPFC to M1 influencing direction shifted from late proactive control to reactive control. Behavioral results also demonstrated enhanced proactive control abilities in open-skill experts relative to controls. Such enhancement may be due to the combination of environmental complexity and physical fitness in long-term skill training.

Freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease is related to imbalanced stopping-related cortical activity

Freezing of gait, characterized by involuntary interruptions of walking, is a debilitating motor symptom of Parkinson's disease that restricts people's autonomy. Previous brain imaging studies investigating the mechanisms underlying freezing were restricted to scan people in supine positions and yielded conflicting theories regarding the role of the supplementary motor area and other cortical regions. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to investigate cortical haemodynamics related to freezing in freely moving people. We measured functional near-infrared spectroscopy activity over multiple motor-related cortical areas in 23 persons with Parkinson's disease who experienced daily freezing ('freezers') and 22 age-matched controls during freezing-provoking tasks including turning and doorway passing, voluntary stops and actual freezing. Crucially, we corrected the measured signals for confounds of walking. We first compared cortical activity between freezers and controls during freezing-provoking tasks without freezing (i.e. turning and doorway passing) and during stops. Secondly, within the freezers, we compared cortical activity between freezing, stopping and freezing-provoking tasks without freezing. First, we show that turning and doorway passing (without freezing) resemble cortical activity during stopping in both groups involving activation of the supplementary motor area and prefrontal cortex, areas known for their role in inhibiting actions. During these freezing-provoking tasks, the freezers displayed higher activity in the premotor areas than controls. Secondly, we show that, during actual freezing events, activity in the prefrontal cortex was lower than during voluntary stopping. The cortical relation between the freezing-provoking tasks (turning and doorway passing) and stopping may explain their susceptibility to trigger freezing by activating a stopping mechanism. Besides, the stopping-related activity of the supplementary motor area and prefrontal cortex seems to be out of balance in freezers. In this paper, we postulate that freezing results from a paroxysmal imbalance between the supplementary motor area and prefrontal cortex, thereby extending upon the current role of the supplementary motor area in freezing pathophysiology.

Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex Coordinates Contextual Mental Imagery for Single-Beat Manipulation during Rhythmic Sensorimotor Synchronization

Flexible pulse-by-pulse regulation of sensorimotor synchronization is crucial for voluntarily showing rhythmic behaviors synchronously with external cueing; however, the underpinning neurophysiological mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) plays a key role by coordinating both proactive and reactive motor outcomes based on contextual mental imagery. To test our hypothesis, a missing-oddball task in finger-tapping paradigms was conducted in 33 healthy young volunteers. The dynamic properties of the dACC were evaluated by event-related deep-brain activity (ER-DBA), supported by event-related potential (ERP) analysis and behavioral evaluation based on signal detection theory. We found that ER-DBA activation/deactivation reflected a strategic choice of motor control modality in accordance with mental imagery. Reverse ERP traces, as omission responses, confirmed that the imagery was contextual. We found that mental imagery was updated only by environmental changes via perceptual evidence and response-based abductive reasoning. Moreover, stable on-pulse tapping was achievable by maintaining proactive control while creating an imagery of syncopated rhythms from simple beat trains, whereas accuracy was degraded with frequent erroneous tapping for missing pulses. We conclude that the dACC voluntarily regulates rhythmic sensorimotor synchronization by utilizing contextual mental imagery based on experience and by creating novel rhythms.

Sex Differences in Response Inhibition-Related Neural Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Civilians With Recent Trauma

BACKGROUND

Females are more likely to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than males. Impaired inhibition has been identified as a mechanism for PTSD development, but studies on potential sex differences in this neurobiological mechanism and how it relates to PTSD severity and progression are relatively rare. Here, we examined sex differences in neural activation during response inhibition and PTSD following recent trauma.

METHODS

Participants (n = 205, 138 female sex assigned at birth) were recruited from emergency departments within 72 hours of a traumatic event. PTSD symptoms were assessed 2 weeks and 6 months posttrauma. A Go/NoGo task was performed 2 weeks posttrauma in a 3T magnetic resonance imaging scanner to measure neural activity during response inhibition in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus, and bilateral hippocampus. General linear models were used to examine the interaction effect of sex on the relationship between our regions of interest and the whole brain, PTSD symptoms at 6 months, and symptom progression between 2 weeks and 6 months.

RESULTS

Lower response inhibition-related ventromedial prefrontal cortex activation 2 weeks posttrauma predicted more PTSD symptoms at 6 months in females but not in males, while greater response inhibition-related right inferior frontal gyrus activation predicted lower PTSD symptom progression in males but not females. Whole-brain interaction effects were observed in the medial temporal gyrus and left precentral gyrus.

CONCLUSIONS

There are sex differences in the relationship between inhibition-related brain activation and PTSD symptom severity and progression. These findings suggest that sex differences should be assessed in future PTSD studies and reveal potential targets for sex-specific interventions.

The effect of tDCS on inhibitory control and its transfer effect on sustained attention in children with autism spectrum disorder: An fNIRS study

BACKGROUND

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have inhibitory control deficits. The combination of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and inhibitory control training produces good transfer effects and improves neuroplasticity. However, no studies have explored whether applying tDCS over the dlPFC improves inhibitory control and produces transfer effects in children with ASD.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether multisession tDCS could enhance inhibitory control training (response inhibition), near-transfer (interference control) and far-transfer effects (sustained attention; stability of attention) in children with ASD and the generalizability of training effects in daily life and the class, as reflected by behavioral performance and neural activity measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

METHODS

Twenty-eight autistic children were randomly assigned to either the true or sham tDCS group. The experimental group received bifrontal tDCS stimulation at 1.5 mA, administered for 15 min daily across eight consecutive days. tDCS was delivered during a computerized Go/No-go training task. Behavioral performance in terms of inhibitory control (Dog/Monkey and Day/Night Stroop tasks), sustained attention (Continuous Performance and Cancellation tests), prefrontal cortex (PFC) neural activity and inhibitory control and sustained attention in the class and at home were evaluated.

RESULTS

Training (response inhibition) and transfer effects (interference control; sustained attention) were significantly greater after receiving tDCS during the Go/No-go training task than after receiving sham tDCS. Changes in oxyhemoglobin (HbO) concentrations in the dlPFC and FPA associated with consistent conditions in the Day/Night Stroop and Continuous Performance test were observed after applying tDCS during the inhibitory control training task. Notably, transfer effects can be generalized to classroom environments.

CONCLUSION

Inhibitory control training combined with tDCS may be a promising, safe, and effective method for improving inhibitory control and sustained attention in children with ASD.

Inter-individual, hemispheric and sex variability of brain activations during numerosity processing

Numerosity perception is a fundamental and innate cognitive function shared by both humans and many animal species. Previous research has primarily focused on exploring the spatial and functional consistency of neural activations that were associated with the processing of numerosity information. However, the inter-individual variability of brain activations of numerosity perception remains unclear. In the present study, with a large-sample functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) dataset (n = 460), we aimed to localize the functional regions related to numerosity perceptions and explore the inter-individual, hemispheric, and sex differences within these brain regions. Fifteen subject-specific activated regions, including the anterior intraparietal sulcus (aIPS), posterior intraparietal sulcus (pIPS), insula, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), inferior temporal gyrus (ITG), premotor area (PM), middle occipital gyrus (MOG) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), were delineated in each individual and then used to create a functional probabilistic atlas to quantify individual variability in brain activations of numerosity processing. Though the activation percentages of most regions were higher than 60%, the intersections of most regions across individuals were considerably lower, falling below 50%, indicating substantial variations in brain activations related to numerosity processing among individuals. Furthermore, significant hemispheric and sex differences in activation location, extent, and magnitude were also found in these regions. Most activated regions in the right hemisphere had larger activation volumes and activation magnitudes, and were located more lateral and anterior than their counterparts in the left hemisphere. In addition, in most of these regions, males displayed stronger activations than females. Our findings demonstrate large inter-individual, hemispheric, and sex differences in brain activations related to numerosity processing, and our probabilistic atlas can serve as a robust functional and spatial reference for mapping the numerosity-related neural networks.

Effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on reactive response inhibition

Reactive response inhibition cancels impending actions to enable adaptive behavior in ever-changing environments and has wide neuropsychiatric implications. A canonical paradigm to measure the covert inhibition latency is the stop-signal task (SST). To probe the cortico-subcortical network underlying motor inhibition, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been applied over central nodes to modulate SST performance, especially to the right inferior frontal cortex and the presupplementary motor area. Since the vast parameter spaces of SST and TMS enabled diverse implementations, the insights delivered by emerging TMS-SST studies remain inconclusive. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted to account for variability and synthesize converging evidence. Results indicate certain protocol specificity through the consistent perturbations induced by online TMS, whereas offline protocols show paradoxical effects on different target regions besides numerous null effects. Ancillary neuroimaging findings have verified and dissociated the underpinning network dynamics. Sources of heterogeneity in designs and risk of bias are highlighted. Finally, we outline best-practice recommendations to bridge methodological gaps and subserve the validity as well as replicability of future work.

State-specific alterations in the neural computations underlying inhibitory control in women remitted from bulimia nervosa

The neurocomputational processes underlying bulimia nervosa and its primary symptoms, out-of-control overeating and purging, are poorly understood. Research suggests that the brains of healthy individuals form a dynamic internal model to predict whether control is needed in each moment. This study tested the hypothesis that this computational process of inhibitory control is abnormally affected by metabolic state (being fasted or fed) in bulimia nervosa. A Bayesian ideal observer model was fit to behavioral data acquired from 22 women remitted from bulimia nervosa and 20 group-matched controls who completed a stop-signal task during two counterbalanced functional MRI sessions, one after a 16 h fast and one after a meal. This model estimates participants' trial-by-trial updating of the probability of a stop signal based on their experienced trial history. Neural analyses focused on control-related Bayesian prediction errors, which quantify the direction and degree of "surprise" an individual experiences on any given trial. Regardless of group, metabolic state did not affect behavioral performance on the task. However, metabolic state modulated group differences in neural activation. In the fed state, women remitted from bulimia nervosa had attenuated prediction-error-dependent activation in the left dorsal caudate. This fed-state activation was lower among women with more frequent past binge eating and self-induced vomiting. When they are in a fed state, individuals with bulimia nervosa may not effectively process unexpected information needed to engage inhibitory control. This may explain the difficulties these individuals have stopping eating after it begins.

Multi-scale and cross-dimensional TMS mapping: A proof of principle in patients with Parkinson's disease and deep brain stimulation

Introduction

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) mapping has become a critical tool for exploratory studies of the human corticomotor (M1) organization. Here, we propose to gather existing cutting-edge TMS-EMG and TMS-EEG approaches into a combined multi-dimensional TMS mapping that considers local and whole-brain excitability changes as well as state and time-specific changes in cortical activity. We applied this multi-dimensional TMS mapping approach to patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) with Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the sub-thalamic nucleus (STN) ON and OFF. Our goal was to identifying one or several TMS mapping-derived markers that could provide unprecedent new insights onto the mechanisms of DBS in movement disorders.

Methods

Six PD patients (1 female, mean age: 62.5 yo [59-65]) implanted with DBS-STN for 1 year, underwent a robotized sulcus-shaped TMS motor mapping to measure changes in muscle-specific corticomotor representations and a movement initiation task to probe state-dependent modulations of corticospinal excitability in the ON (using clinically relevant DBS parameters) and OFF DBS states. Cortical excitability and evoked dynamics of three cortical areas involved in the neural control of voluntary movements (M1, pre-supplementary motor area - preSMA and inferior frontal gyrus - IFG) were then mapped using TMS-EEG coupling in the ON and OFF state. Lastly, we investigated the timing and nature of the STN-to-M1 inputs using a paired pulse DBS-TMS-EEG protocol.

Results

In our sample of patients, DBS appeared to induce fast within-area somatotopic re-arrangements of motor finger representations in M1, as revealed by mediolateral shifts of corticomuscle representations. STN-DBS improved reaction times while up-regulating corticospinal excitability, especially during endogenous motor preparation. Evoked dynamics revealed marked increases in inhibitory circuits in the IFG and M1 with DBS ON. Finally, inhibitory conditioning effects of STN single pulses on corticomotor activity were found at timings relevant for the activation of inhibitory GABAergic receptors (4 and 20 ms).

Conclusion

Taken together, these results suggest a predominant role of some markers in explaining beneficial DBS effects, such as a context-dependent modulation of corticospinal excitability and the recruitment of distinct inhibitory circuits, involving long-range projections from higher level motor centers and local GABAergic neuronal populations. These combined measures might help to identify discriminative features of DBS mechanisms towards deep clinical phenotyping of DBS effects in Parkinson's Disease and in other pathological conditions.

Cortical theta-gamma coupling governs the adaptive control of motor commands

Motor control requires the adaptive updating of internal models to successfully target desired outcomes. This adaptive control can be proactive, such that imminent actions and corresponding sensorimotor programmes are anticipated prior to movement, or reactive, such that online error correction is necessary to adjust to sudden changes. While substantial evidence implicates a distributed cortical network serving adaptive control when behavioural changes are required (e.g. response inhibition), the neural dynamics serving such control when the target motor commands are to remain intact are poorly understood. To address this, we developed a novel proactive-reactive cued finger tapping paradigm that was performed during magnetoencephalography by 25 healthy adults. Importantly, to ensure condition-wise differences in adaptive cueing were not attributable to changes in movement kinematics, motor selection and planning processes were held constant despite changes in task demands. All data were imaged in the time-frequency domain using a beamformer to evaluate the effect of proactive and reactive cues on movement-related oscillations and subsequent performance. Our results indicated spectrally specific increases in low (i.e. theta) and high (i.e. gamma) frequency oscillations during motor execution as a function of adaptive cueing. Additionally, we observed robust cross-frequency coupling of theta and gamma oscillatory power in the contralateral motor cortex and further, the strength of this theta-gamma coupling during motor execution was differentially predictive of behavioural improvements and decrements during reactive and proactive trials, respectively. These data indicate that functional oscillatory coupling may govern the adaptive control of movement in the healthy brain and importantly, may serve as effective proxies for characterizing declines in motor function in clinical populations in the future.

Distinct neural activation patterns of age in subcomponents of inhibitory control: A fMRI meta-analysis

Inhibitory control (IC) is a fundamental cognitive function showing age-related change across the healthy lifespan. Since different cognitive resources are needed in the two subcomponents of IC (cognitive inhibition and response inhibition), regions of the brain are differentially activated. In this study, we aimed to determine whether there is a distinct age-related activation pattern in these two subcomponents. A total of 278 fMRI articles were included in the current analysis. Multilevel kernel density analysis was used to provide data on brain activation under each subcomponent of IC. Contrast analyses were conducted to capture the distinct activated brain regions for the two subcomponents, whereas meta-regression analyses were performed to identify brain regions with distinct age-related activation patterns in the two subcomponents of IC. The results showed that the right inferior frontal gyrus and the bilateral insula were activated during the two IC subcomponents. Contrast analyses revealed stronger activation in the superior parietal lobule during cognitive inhibition, whereas stronger activation during response inhibition was observed primarily in the right inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral insula, and angular gyrus. Furthermore, regression analyses showed that activation of the left anterior cingulate cortex, left inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral insula, and left superior parietal lobule increased and decreased with age during cognitive inhibition and response inhibition, respectively. The results showed distinct activation patterns of aging for the two subcomponents of IC, which may be related to the differential cognitive resources recruited. These findings may help to enhance knowledge of age-related changes in the activation patterns of IC.

Fronto—Parietal Regions Predict Transient Emotional States in Emotion Modulated Response Inhibition via Low Frequency and Beta Oscillations

The current study evaluated the impact of task-relevant emotion on inhibitory control while focusing on midline cortical regions rather than brain asymmetry. Single-trial time-frequency analysis of electroencephalography recordings linked with response execution and response inhibition was done while thirty-four participants performed the emotion modulated stop-signal task. To evaluate individual differences across decision-making processes involved in inhibitory control, a hierarchical drift-diffusion model was used to fit data from Go-trials for each of the 34 participants. Response threshold in the early processing stage for happy and disgust emotions could be distinguished from the later processing stage at the mid-parietal and mid-frontal regions, respectively, by the single-trial power increments in low frequency (delta and theta) bands. Beta desynchronization in the mid-frontal region was specific for differentiating disgust from neutral emotion in the early as well as later processing stages. The findings are interpreted based on the influence of emotional stimuli on early perceptual processing originating as a bottom-up process in the mid-parietal region and later proceeding to the mid-frontal region responsible for cognitive control processing, which resulted in enhanced inhibitory performance. The results show the importance of mid-frontal and mid-parietal regions in single-trial dynamics of inhibitory control processing.

Right inferior frontal gyrus and ventromedial prefrontal activation during response inhibition is implicated in the development of PTSD symptoms

Background

Inhibition is a critical executive control process and an established neurobiological phenotype of PTSD, yet to our knowledge, no prospective studies have examined this using a contextual cue task that enables measurement of behavioural response and neural activation patterns across proactive and reactive inhibition.

Objective

The current longitudinal study utilised functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine whether deficits in proactive and reactive inhibition predicted PTSD symptoms six months after trauma.

Method

Twenty-three (65% males) medical patients receiving emergency medical care from a level 1 trauma centre were enrolled in the study and invited for an MRI scan 1-2-months post-trauma. PTSD symptoms were measured using self-report at scan and 6-months post-trauma. A stop-signal anticipation task (SSAT) during an fMRI scan was used to test whether impaired behavioural proactive and reactive inhibition, and reduced activation in right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and bilateral hippocampus, were related to PTSD symptoms. We predicted that lower activation levels of vmPFC and rIFG during reactive inhibition and lower activation of hippocampus and rIFG during proactive inhibition would relate to higher 6-month PTSD symptoms.

Results

No significant associations were found between behavioural measures and 6-month PTSD. Separate linear regression analyses showed that reduced rIFG activation (F1,21 = 9.97, R2 = .32, p = .005) and reduced vmPFC activation (F1,21 = 5.19, R2 = .20, p = .03) significantly predicted greater 6-month PTSD symptoms; this result held for rIFG activation controlling for demographic variables and baseline PTSD symptoms (β = -.45, p = .04) and Bonferroni correction.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that impaired rIFG and, to a lesser extent, vmPFC activation during response inhibition may predict the development of PTSD symptoms following acute trauma exposure. Given the small sample size, future replication studies are needed.

HIGHLIGHTS

Impaired inhibition may be an important risk factor for the development of PTSD following trauma, with less right inferior frontal gyrus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex activation during response inhibition predicting PTSD development.

Touched by loneliness-how loneliness impacts the response to observed human touch: a tDCS study

Lonely people often crave connectedness. However, they may also experience their environment as threatening, entering a self-preserving state that perpetuates loneliness. Research shows conflicting evidence about their response to positive social cues, and little is known about their experience of observed human touch. The right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG) is part of an observation-execution network implicated in observed touch perception. Correlative studies also point to rIFG's involvement in loneliness. We examined the causal effect of rIFG anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on high- and low-loneliness individuals observing human touch. In a cross-over design study, 40 participants watched pictures of humans or objects touching or not touching during anodal and sham stimulations. Participants indicated whether pictures contained humans or objects, and their reaction time was measured. Results show that the reaction time of low-loneliness individuals to observed human touch was significantly slower during anodal stimulation compared to high-loneliness individuals, possibly due to them being more emotionally distracted by it. Lonely individuals also reported less liking of touch. Our findings support the notion that lonely individuals are not drawn to positive social cues. This may help explain the perpetuation of loneliness, despite social opportunities that could be available to lonely people.

Altered Effective Connectivity within an Oculomotor Control Network in Unaffected Relatives of Individuals with Schizophrenia

The ability to rapidly stop or change a planned action is a critical cognitive process that is impaired in schizophrenia. The current study aimed to examine whether this impairment reflects familial vulnerability to schizophrenia across two experiments comparing unaffected first-degree relatives to healthy controls. First, we examined performance on a saccadic stop-signal task that required rapid inhibition of an eye movement. Then, in a different sample, we investigated behavioral and neural responses (using fMRI) during a stop-signal task variant that required rapid modification of a prepared eye movement. Here, we examined differences between relatives and healthy controls in terms of activation and effective connectivity within an oculomotor control network during task performance. Like individuals with schizophrenia, the unaffected relatives showed behavioral evidence for more inefficient inhibitory processes. Unlike previous findings in individuals with schizophrenia, however, the relatives showed evidence for a compensatory waiting strategy. Behavioral differences were accompanied by more activation among the relatives in task-relevant regions across conditions and group differences in effective connectivity across the task that were modulated differently by the instruction to exert control over a planned saccade. Effective connectivity parameters were related to behavioral measures of inhibition efficiency. The results suggest that individuals at familial risk for schizophrenia were engaging an oculomotor control network differently than controls and in a way that compromises inhibition efficiency.

Altered effective connectivity within an oculomotor control network in individuals with schizophrenia

Rapid inhibition or modification of actions is a crucial cognitive ability, which is impaired in persons with schizophrenia (SZP). Primate neurophysiology studies have identified a network of brain regions that subserves control over gaze. Here, we examine effective connectivity within this oculomotor control network in SZP and healthy controls (HC). During fMRI, participants performed a stop-signal task variant in which they were instructed to saccade to a visual target (no-step trials) unless a second target appeared (redirect trials); on redirect trials, participants were instructed to inhibit the planned saccade and redirect to the new target. We compared functional responses on redirect trials to no-step trials and used dynamic causal modelling (DCM) to examine group differences in network effective connectivity. Behaviorally, SZP were less efficient at inhibiting, which was related to their employment status. Compared to HC, they showed a smaller difference in activity between redirect trials and no-step trials in frontal eye fields (FEF), supplementary eye fields (SEF), inferior frontal cortex (IFC), thalamus, and caudate. DCM analyses revealed widespread group differences in effective connectivity across the task, including different patterns of self-inhibition in many nodes in SZP. Group differences in how effective connectivity was modulated on redirect trials revealed differences between the FEF and SEF, between the SEF and IFC, between the superior colliculus and the thalamus, and self-inhibition within the FEF and caudate. These results provide insight into the neural mechanisms of inefficient inhibitory control in individuals with schizophrenia.

Functional role of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the modulation of cognitive bias

Human cognition is often biased. It is a fundamental question in psychology how cognitive bias is modulated in the human brain. Automatic action tendency is a typical cognitive bias. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is a crucial area for processing various behavioral tasks. We investigated the functional role of DLPFC in the modulation of cognitive bias by testing the automatic action tendency during automatic and regulated behavioral tasks. Unilateral intermittent or continuous theta burst stimulation (excitatory iTBS or inhibitory cTBS) was used to manipulate the left or right DLPFC excitability and assess the changes in automatic action tendency during a manikin task. An approaching behavior with positive stimulus and avoiding behavior with negative stimulus were performed in an automatic task. An approaching behavior with negative stimulus and avoiding behavior with positive stimulus were performed in a regulated task. Reaction time was measured. We confirmed the automatic action tendency that reaction time for performing an automatic task was shorter than that for performing a regulated task. The automatic action tendency was enhanced after left DLPFC excitatory iTBS and was abolished after left DLPFC inhibitory cTBS stimulation. On the other hand, right DLPFC excitatory iTBS accelerated the avoiding behaviors and right DLPFC inhibitory cTBS accelerated approaching behaviors. The results suggest that left DLPFC modulates the automatic action tendency while the right DLPFC modulates the direction of behavioral tasks. We conclude that left DLPFC and right DLPFC are key nodes in modulating the cognitive bias while their functional roles are different.

Proactive inhibition is not modified by deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: An electrical neuroimaging study

In predictable contexts, motor inhibitory control can be deployed before the actual need for response suppression. The brain functional underpinnings of proactive inhibition, and notably the role of basal ganglia, are not entirely identified. We investigated the effects of deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus or internal globus pallidus on proactive inhibition in patients with Parkinson's disease. They completed a cued go/no-go proactive inhibition task ON and (unilateral) OFF stimulation while EEG was recorded. We found no behavioural effect of either subthalamic nucleus or internal globus pallidus deep brain stimulation on proactive inhibition, despite a general improvement of motor performance with subthalamic nucleus stimulation. In the non-operated and subthalamic nucleus group, we identified periods of topographic EEG modulation by the level of proactive inhibition. In the subthalamic nucleus group, source estimation analysis suggested the initial involvement of bilateral frontal and occipital areas, followed by a right lateralized fronto-basal network, and finally of right premotor and left parietal regions. Our results confirm the overall preservation of proactive inhibition capacities in both subthalamic nucleus and internal globus pallidus deep brain stimulation, and suggest a partly segregated network for proactive inhibition, with a preferential recruitment of the indirect pathway.

The Human Basal Ganglia Mediate the Interplay between Reactive and Proactive Control of Response through Both Motor Inhibition and Sensory Modulation

The basal ganglia (BG) have long been known for contributing to the regulation of motor behaviour by means of a complex interplay between tonic and phasic inhibitory mechanisms. However, after having focused for a long time on phasic reactive mechanisms, it is only recently that psychological research in healthy humans has modelled tonic proactive mechanisms of control. Mutual calibration between anatomo-functional and psychological models is still needed to better understand the unclear role of the BG in the interplay between proactive and reactive mechanisms of control. Here, we implemented an event-related fMRI design allowing proper analysis of both the brain activity preceding the target-stimulus and the brain activity induced by the target-stimulus during a simple go/nogo task, with a particular interest in the ambiguous role of the basal ganglia. Post-stimulus activity was evoked in the left dorsal striatum, the subthalamus nucleus and internal globus pallidus by any stimulus when the situation was unpredictable, pinpointing its involvement in reactive, non-selective inhibitory mechanisms when action restraint is required. Pre-stimulus activity was detected in the ventral, not the dorsal, striatum, when the situation was unpredictable, and was associated with changes in functional connectivity with the early visual, not the motor, cortex. This suggests that the ventral striatum supports modulatory influence over sensory processing during proactive control.

Behavioral and Neurophysiological Aspects of Inhibition-The Effects of Acute Cardiovascular Exercise

This review summarizes behavioral and neurophysiological aspects of inhibitory control affected by a single bout of cardiovascular exercise. The review also examines the effect of a single bout of cardiovascular exercise on these processes in young adults with a focus on the functioning of prefrontal pathways (including the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and elements of the prefrontal-basal ganglia pathways). Finally, the review offers an overview on the potential effects of cardiovascular exercise on GABA-ergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission in the adult brain and propose mechanisms or processes that may mediate these effects. The main findings show that a single bout of cardiovascular exercise can enhance inhibitory control. In addition, acute exercise appears to facilitate activation of prefrontal brain regions that regulate excitatory and inhibitory pathways (specifically but not exclusively the prefrontal-basal-ganglia pathways) which appear to be impaired in older age. Based on the reviewed studies, we suggest that future work examine the beneficial effects of exercise on the inhibitory networks in the aging brain.

Cortical and subcortical functional specificity associated with response inhibition

Is motor response inhibition supported by a specialised neuronal inhibitory control mechanism, or by a more general system of action updating? This pre-registered study employed a context-cueing paradigm requiring both inhibitory and non-inhibitory action updating in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging to test the specificity of responses under different updating conditions, including the cancellation of actions. Cortical regions of activity were found to be common to multiple forms of action updating. However, functional specificity during response inhibition was observed in the anterior right inferior frontal gyrus. In addition, fronto-subcortical activity was explored using a novel contrast method. These exploratory results indicate that the specificity for response inhibition observed in right prefrontal cortex continued downstream and was observed in right hemisphere subcortical activity, while left hemisphere activity was associated with right-hand response execution. Overall, our findings reveal both common and distinct correlates of response inhibition in prefrontal cortex, with exploratory analyses supporting putative models of subcortical pathways and extending them through the demonstration of lateralisation.

Neurometabolic Correlates of Reactive and Proactive Motor Inhibition in Young and Older Adults: Evidence from Multiple Regional 1H-MR Spectroscopy

Suboptimal inhibitory control is a major factor contributing to motor/cognitive deficits in older age and pathology. Here, we provide novel insights into the neurochemical biomarkers of inhibitory control in healthy young and older adults and highlight putative neurometabolic correlates of deficient inhibitory functions in normal aging. Age-related alterations in levels of glutamate–glutamine complex (Glx), N-acetylaspartate (NAA), choline (Cho), and myo-inositol (mIns) were assessed in the right inferior frontal gyrus (RIFG), pre-supplementary motor area (preSMA), bilateral sensorimotor cortex (SM1), bilateral striatum (STR), and occipital cortex (OCC) with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS). Data were collected from 30 young (age range 18–34 years) and 29 older (age range 60–74 years) adults. Associations between age-related changes in the levels of these metabolites and performance measures or reactive/proactive inhibition were examined for each age group. Glx levels in the right striatum and preSMA were associated with more efficient proactive inhibition in young adults but were not predictive for reactive inhibition performance. Higher NAA/mIns ratios in the preSMA and RIFG and lower mIns levels in the OCC were associated with better deployment of proactive and reactive inhibition in older adults. Overall, these findings suggest that altered regional concentrations of NAA and mIns constitute potential biomarkers of suboptimal inhibitory control in aging.

Tuning the Corticospinal System: How Distributed Brain Circuits Shape Human Actions

Interactive behaviors rely on the operation of several processes allowing the control of actions, including their selection, withholding, and cancellation. The corticospinal system provides a unique route through which multiple brain circuits can exert control over bodily motor acts. In humans, the influence of these modulatory circuits on the corticospinal system can be probed using various transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) protocols. Here, we review neural data from TMS studies at the basis of our current understanding of how diverse pathways—including intra-cortical, trans-cortical, and subcortico-cortical circuits—contribute to action control by tuning the activity of the corticospinal system. Critically, when doing so, we point out important caveats in the field that arise from the fact that these circuits, and their impact on the corticospinal system, have not been considered equivalently for action selection, withholding, and cancellation. This has led to the misleading view that some circuits or regions are specialized in specific control processes and that they produce particular modulatory changes in corticospinal excitability (e.g., generic vs. specific modulation of corticospinal excitability). Hence, we point to the need for more transversal research approaches in the field of action control.