Alteration of the blood-brain barrier by COVID-19 and its implication in the permeation of drugs into the brain

Promising Strategies to Reduce the SARS-CoV-2 Amyloid Deposition in the Brain and Prevent COVID-19-Exacerbated Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is associated with cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Once it enters the brain, the SARS-CoV-2 virus stimulates accumulation of amyloids in the brain that are highly toxic to neural cells. These amyloids may trigger neurological symptoms in COVID-19. The meningeal lymphatic vessels (MLVs) play an important role in removal of toxins and mediate viral drainage from the brain. MLVs are considered a promising target to prevent COVID-19-exacerbated dementia. However, there are limited methods for augmentation of MLV function. This review highlights new discoveries in the field of COVID-19-mediated amyloid accumulation in the brain associated with the neurological symptoms and the development of promising strategies to stimulate clearance of amyloids from the brain through lymphatic and other pathways. These strategies are based on innovative methods of treating brain dysfunction induced by COVID-19 infection, including the use of photobiomodulation, plasmalogens, and medicinal herbs, which offer hope for addressing the challenges posed by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Emerging Perspectives on Prime Editor Delivery to the Brain

Prime editing shows potential as a precision genome editing technology, as well as the potential to advance the development of next-generation nanomedicine for addressing neurological disorders. However, turning in prime editors (PEs), which are macromolecular complexes composed of CRISPR/Cas9 nickase fused with a reverse transcriptase and a prime editing guide RNA (pegRNA), to the brain remains a considerable challenge due to physiological obstacles, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This review article offers an up-to-date overview and perspective on the latest technologies and strategies for the precision delivery of PEs to the brain and passage through blood barriers. Furthermore, it delves into the scientific significance and possible therapeutic applications of prime editing in conditions related to neurological diseases. It is targeted at clinicians and clinical researchers working on advancing precision nanomedicine for neuropathologies.

In-vitro and in-vivo assessment of nirmatrelvir penetration into CSF, central nervous system cells, tissues, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Three years after SARS-CoV-2 emerged as a global infectious threat, the virus has become endemic. The neurological complications such as depression, anxiety, and other CNS complications after COVID-19 disease are increasing. The brain, and CSF have been shown as viral reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2, yielding a potential hypothesis for CNS effects. Thus, we investigated the CNS pharmacology of orally dosed nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (NMR/RTV). Using both an in vitro and an in vivo rodent model, we investigated CNS penetration and potential pharmacodynamic activity of NMR. Through pharmacokinetic modeling, we estimated the median CSF penetration of NMR to be low at 18.11% of plasma with very low accumulation in rodent brain tissue. Based on the multiples of the 90% maximal effective concentration (EC90) for SARS-CoV-2, NMR concentrations in the CSF and brain do not achieve an exposure level similar to that of plasma. A median of only 16% of all the predicted CSF concentrations in rats were > 3xEC90 (unadjusted for protein binding). This may have implications for viral persistence and neurologic post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 if increased NMR penetration in the CNS leads to decreased CNS viral loads and decreased CNS inflammation.

Serum detection of blood brain barrier injury in subjects with a history of stroke and transient ischemic attack

Objective

Stroke and transient ischemic attack may have long-term negative effects on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and promote endothelial inflammation, both of which could increase neurodegeneration and dementia risk beyond the cell death associated with the index event.

Methods

Serum from 88 postmortem subjects in the Arizona Study of Aging and Neurodegenerative Disorders were analyzed by sandwich ELISA for specific biomarkers to investigate the effects of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) on BBB integrity and endothelial activation. Statistical analyses were performed using the Mann-Whitney U Test, Spearman rank correlation, and linear/logistic regressions adjusted for potential confounders; a P-value < .05 was considered significant for all analyses.

Results

Serum PDGFRẞ, a putative biomarker of BBB injury, was significantly increased in subjects with vs without a history of CVA who had similar cardiovascular risk factors (P < .01). This difference was stable after adjusting for age, hypertension, and other potential confounders in regression analysis (odds ratio, 27.02; 95% confidence interval, 2.61-411.7; P < .01). In addition, PDGFRẞ was positively associated with VCAM-1, a biomarker of endothelial inflammation (ρ = 0.42; P < .01).

Conclusions

Our data suggest that patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack have lasting changes in the BBB. Still more, this demonstrates the utility of PDGFRẞ as a serum-based biomarker of BBB physiology, a potentially powerful tool in studying the role of the BBB in various neurodegenerative diseases and COVID infection sequelae.

Clinical Relevance

Our data demonstrate the utility of serum PDGFRẞ, a putative biomarker of BBB integrity in the setting of stroke and TIA (CVA). A serum biomarker of BBB integrity could be a useful tool to detect early BBB damage and allow prospective work to study how such damage affects long-term neurodegenerative risk. Since BBB disruption occurs early in ADRD development, it could be monitored to help better understand disease progression and involvement of vascular pathways in ADRD.

Outcome of Tocilizumab Treatment in Febrile Neutropenic Children with Severe Sepsis/Septic Shock in a Single-Center Retrospective Case Series

PURPOSE

To assess the efficacy of an IL-6 blockade with tocilizumab on treatment outcome of severe sepsis/septic shock in children with febrile neutropenia.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective study of febrile neutropenic patients younger than 18 years old who developed severe sepsis/septic shock at a single medical center between November 2022 and October 2023.

RESULTS

Seven patients with febrile neutropenia complicated with severe sepsis/septic shock were identified. Four of seven patients received tocilizumab in addition to standard of care. The median IL-6 level before administration of tocilizumab was 14,147 pg/mL (range: 672-30,509 pg/mL). All four patients successfully recovered from severe sepsis/septic shock. Three of seven patients received standard of care without tocilizumab. IL-6 levels were checked intwo2 patients, with a median of 1514.5 (range: 838-2191). Only one of three (33%) patients without tocilizumab therapy made a full recovery from severe sepsis/septic shock. The mortality rate was higher in patients without tocilizumab therapy compared to patients with tocilizumab therapy (67% vs. 0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of tocilizumab reduced mortality of severe sepsis/septic shock in children with febrile neutropenia. However, it warrants confirmation with a larger number of patients and a longer follow-up.

Possible temporal relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: a meta-analysis

The global impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection has raised concerns about secondary diseases beyond acute illness. This review explores the significance and potential underlying mechanisms of how SARS-CoV-2 infection might elicit an immune response targeting N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, and its implications for autoimmune-driven neuropsychiatric manifestations. We identified 19 published case reports of NMDA receptor encephalitis associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination by a systematic literature search. The significance of these reports was limited since it is not clear if a coincidental or causal relationship exists between SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination and manifestation of NMDA receptor encephalitis. The included studies were hampered by difficulties in establishing if these patients had pre-existing NMDA receptor antibodies which entered the brain by infection- or vaccination-associated transient blood-brain barrier leakage. In addition, four cases had comorbid ovarian teratoma, which is a known trigger for development of NMDA receptor encephalitis. Considering that billions of people have contracted COVID-19 or have been vaccinated against this virus, the publication of only 19 case reports with a possible link to NMDA receptor encephalitis, indicates that it is rare. In conclusion, these findings do not support the case that SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination led to an increase of existing or de novo encephalitis mediated by an autoimmune response targeting NMDA receptor function. Nevertheless, this work underscores the importance of ongoing vigilance in monitoring viral outbreaks and their potential impact on the central nervous system through basic, epidemiological and translational research.

Role of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus in Brain Cells

COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, can have neurological effects, including cognitive symptoms like brain fog and memory problems. Research on the neurological effects of COVID-19 is ongoing, and factors such as inflammation, disrupted blood flow, and damage to blood vessels may contribute to cognitive symptoms. Notably, some authors and existing evidence suggest that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can enter the central nervous system through different routes, including the olfactory nerve and the bloodstream. COVID-19 infection has been associated with neurological symptoms such as altered consciousness, headaches, dizziness, and mental disorders. The exact mechanisms and impact on memory formation and brain shrinkage are still being studied. This review will focus on pathways such as the olfactory nerve and blood-brain barrier disruption, and it will then highlight the interactions of the virus with different cell types in the brain, namely neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.

Alteration of white matter microstructure in patients with sleep disorders after COVID-19 infection

BACKGROUND

The pathophysiology of coronasomnia remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate changes in white matter (WM) microstructure and inflammatory factors in patients with sleep disorders (SD) characterized by poor sleep quantity, quality, or timing following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection in the acute phase (within one month) and whether these changes could be recovered at 3-month follow-up.

METHODS

29 acute COVID-19 patients with SD (COVID_SD) and 27 acute COVID-19 patients without SD (COVID_NonSD) underwent diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), tested peripheral blood inflammatory cytokines level, and measured Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and matched 30 uninfected healthy controls. Analyzed WM abnormalities between groups in acute phase and explored its changes in COVID_SD at 3-month follow-up by using tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). Correlations between DTI and clinical data were examined using Spearman partial correlation analysis.

RESULTS

Both COVID_SD and COVID_NonSD exhibited widespread WM microstructure abnormalities. The COVID_SD group showed specific WM microstructure changes in right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF) (lower fractional anisotropy [FA]/axial diffusivity [AD] and higher radial diffusivity [RD]) and left corticospinal tract (CST) (higher FA and lower RD) and higher interleukin-1β (IL-1β) compared with COVID_NonSD group. These WM abnormalities and IL-1β levels were correlated PSQI score. After 3 months, the IFOF integrity and IL-1β levels tended to return to normal accompanied by symptom improvement in the COVID_SD relative to baseline.

CONCLUSION

Abnormalities in right IFOF and left CST and elevated IL-1β levels were important neurophenotypes correlated with COVID_SD, which might provide new insights into the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation in SD patients induced by COVID-19.

Involvement of Astrocytes in the Formation, Maintenance, and Function of the Blood-Brain Barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a fundamental structure that protects the composition of the brain by determining which ions, metabolites, and nutrients are allowed to enter the brain from the blood or to leave it towards the circulation. The BBB is structurally composed of a layer of brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) bound to each other through tight junctions (TJs). However, its development as well as maintenance and properties are controlled by the other brain cells that contact the BCECs: pericytes, glial cells, and even neurons themselves. Astrocytes seem, in particular, to have a very important role in determining and controlling most properties of the BBB. Here, we will focus on these latter cells, since the comprehension of their roles in brain physiology has been continuously expanding, even including the ability to participate in neurotransmission and in complex functions such as learning and memory. Accordingly, pathological conditions that alter astrocytic functions can alter the BBB's integrity, thus compromising many brain activities. In this review, we will also refer to different kinds of in vitro BBB models used to study the BBB's properties, evidencing its modifications under pathological conditions.

Unmasking Pandemic Echoes: An In-Depth Review of Long COVID's Unabated Cardiovascular Consequences beyond 2020

At the beginning of 2020, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged as a new pandemic, leading to a worldwide health crisis and overwhelming healthcare systems due to high numbers of hospital admissions, insufficient resources, and a lack of standardized therapeutic protocols. Multiple genetic variants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been detected since its first public declaration in 2020, some of them being considered variants of concern (VOCs) corresponding to several pandemic waves. Nevertheless, a growing number of COVID-19 patients are continuously discharged from hospitals, remaining symptomatic even months after their first episode of COVID-19 infection. Long COVID-19 or 'post-acute COVID-19 syndrome' emerged as the new pandemic, being characterized by a high variability of clinical manifestations ranging from cardiorespiratory and neurological symptoms such as chest pain, exertional dyspnoea or cognitive disturbance to psychological disturbances, e.g., depression, anxiety or sleep disturbance with a crucial impact on patients' quality of life. Moreover, Long COVID is viewed as a new cardiovascular risk factor capable of modifying the trajectory of current and future cardiovascular diseases, altering the patients' prognosis. Therefore, in this review we address the current definitions of Long COVID and its pathophysiology, with a focus on cardiovascular manifestations. Furthermore, we aim to review the mechanisms of acute and chronic cardiac injury and the variety of cardiovascular sequelae observed in recovered COVID-19 patients, in addition to the potential role of Long COVID clinics in the medical management of this new condition. We will further address the role of future research for a better understanding of the actual impact of Long COVID and future therapeutic directions.

Neurofilament light chain on intensive care admission is an independent predictor of mortality in COVID-19: a prospective multicenter study

BACKGROUND

Neurofilament light chain (NfL), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and total-tau protein (tau) are novel blood biomarkers of neurological injury, and may be used to predict outcomes in critical COVID-19.

METHODS

A prospective multicentre cohort study of 117 consecutive and critically ill COVID-19 patients in six intensive care units (ICUs) in southern Sweden between May and November 2020. Serial NfL, GFAP and tau were analysed in relation to mortality, the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE) and the physical (PCS) and mental (MCS) components of health-related quality of life at one year.

RESULTS

NfL, GFAP and tau on ICU admission predicted one-year mortality with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.82 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.74[Formula: see text]0.90), 0.72 (95% CI 0.62[Formula: see text]0.82) and 0.66 (95% CI 0.54[Formula: see text]0.77). NfL on admission was an independent predictor of one-year mortality (p = 0.039). Low NfL and GFAP values were associated with good PCS ([Formula: see text]45) at one year but not with good MCS ([Formula: see text]45) or GOSE ([Formula: see text]5).

CONCLUSIONS

NfL on ICU admission was an independent predictor of mortality. High levels of NfL, GFAP and tau were associated with mortality but not with poor GOSE in survivors at one year. Low levels of NfL and GFAP were associated with improved physical health-related quality of life.

Neutrophil extracellular traps and long COVID

Post-acute COVID-19 sequelae, commonly known as long COVID, encompasses a range of systemic symptoms experienced by a significant number of COVID-19 survivors. The underlying pathophysiology of long COVID has become a topic of intense research discussion. While chronic inflammation in long COVID has received considerable attention, the role of neutrophils, which are the most abundant of all immune cells and primary responders to inflammation, has been unfortunately overlooked, perhaps due to their short lifespan. In this review, we discuss the emerging role of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in the persistent inflammatory response observed in long COVID patients. We present early evidence linking the persistence of NETs to pulmonary fibrosis, cardiovascular abnormalities, and neurological dysfunction in long COVID. Several uncertainties require investigation in future studies. These include the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 brings about sustained neutrophil activation phenotypes after infection resolution; whether the heterogeneity of neutrophils seen in acute SARS-CoV-2 infection persists into the chronic phase; whether the presence of autoantibodies in long COVID can induce NETs and protect them from degradation; whether NETs exert differential, organ-specific effects; specifically which NET components contribute to organ-specific pathologies, such as pulmonary fibrosis; and whether senescent cells can drive NET formation through their pro-inflammatory secretome in long COVID. Answering these questions may pave the way for the development of clinically applicable strategies targeting NETs, providing relief for this emerging health crisis.

Understanding the Immune-Endocrine Effects of Vitamin D in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Role in Protecting against Neurodamage

Calcitriol and hydroxyderivatives of lumisterol and tachisterol are secosteroid hormones with immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies have correlated deficient serum concentrations of vitamin D3 (calcifediol) with increased severity of the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Among systemic complications, subjective (anosmia, ageusia, depression, dizziness) and objective (ischemic stroke, meningoencephalitis, myelitis, seizures, Guillain-Barré syndrome) neurological symptoms have been reported in up to 80% of severe COVID-19 patients. In this narrative review, we will resume the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the mechanisms of acute and chronic neurological damage. SARS-CoV-2 can disrupt the integrity of the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to enter the nervous central system. Invasion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and polarization of astrocytes and microglia cells always in a pro-inflammatory sense together with the pro-coagulative phenotype of cerebral endothelial cells in response to both SARS-CoV-2 and immune cells invasion (immunothrombosis) are the major drivers of neurodamage. Calcitriol and hydroxyderivatives of lumisterol and tachisterol could play an adjuvant role in neuroprotection through mitigation of neuroinflammation and protection of endothelial integrity of the BBB. Dedicated studies on this topic are currently lacking and are desirable to confirm the link between vitamin D3 and neuroprotection in COVID-19 patients.