Neural markers of errors as endophenotypes in neuropsychiatric disorders

ERP correlates of self-referential processing moderate the association between pubertal status and disordered eating in preadolescence

Preadolescence is a critical period for the onset of puberty and eating-related psychopathology. More advanced pubertal status is associated with elevated eating pathology. However, it was unclear whether this association was moderated by self-referential processing, an important, modifiable cognitive risk for various forms of psychopathology, including eating problems. Further, no study has examined the neural correlates of self-referential processing in relation to eating pathology. To address these gaps, we examined how the association between pubertal status and disordered eating was moderated by self-referential processing in a community sample of 115 nine-to-12-year-old preadolescents (66 girls; mean age/SD = 10.98/1.18 years; 87.5% White). Youths reported their pubertal status and disordered eating behaviors and completed an ERP version of the Self-Referent Encoding Task (SRET) to assess self-referential processing. A Principal Component Analysis of the ERP data identified an anterior late positive potential (LPP) in both the positive and negative SRET conditions. The LPP in the positive condition moderated the positive association between pubertal status and disordered eating behaviors, such that this association was significant for youths with a smaller LPP toward positive self-referential cues, but non-significant for those showing a larger LPP toward positive self-referential cues. These results suggest that a deeper processing of positive self-referential information, indicated by a potentiated LPP, may weaken the negative impact of pubertal status on disordered eating. Our findings also suggest that enhancing positive self-referential processing may be a useful tool in preventing the development of eating pathology in preadolescents, especially for those with more advanced pubertal status.

The Relationship Between Emotion Dysregulation and Error Monitoring in Adolescents with ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is emblematic of the limitations of existing diagnostic categories. One potential solution, consistent with the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative, is to interrogate psychological mechanisms at the behavioral and physiological level together to try and identify meaningful subgroups within existing categories. Such approaches provide a way to revise diagnostic boundaries and clarify individual variation in mechanisms. Here, we illustrate this approach to help resolve heterogeneity in ADHD using a combination of behaviorally-rated temperament measures from the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire; cognitive performance on three difference conditions of an emotional go/no-go task; and electroencephalogram (EEG)-measured variation in multiple stages of error processing, including the error-related negativity (ERN) and positivity (Pe). In a large (N = 342), well-characterized sample of adolescents with ADHD, latent profile analysis identified two ADHD temperament subgroups: 1) emotionally regulated and 2) emotionally dysregulated (with high negative affect). Cognitive and EEG assessment in a subset of 272 adolescents (nADHD = 151) found that the emotionally dysregulated group showed distinct patterns of change in early neural response to errors (ERN) across emotional task conditions as compared to emotionally-regulated ADHD adolescents and typically-developing controls. Both ADHD groups showed blunted later response to errors (Pe) that was stable across emotional task conditions. Overall, neural response patterns identified important differences in how trait and state emotion interact to affect cognitive processing. Results highlight important temperament variation within ADHD that helps clarify its relationship to the ERN, one of the most prominent putative neural biomarkers for psychopathology.

Incremental validity of ERP correlates of self-referential processing in predicting emerging depressive symptoms in late childhood: Evidence from a community-dwelling sample

Depressogenic self-referential processing (e.g., self-schemas reflecting shallower processing of positive, and deeper processing of negative, self-descriptive words) is an established cognitive vulnerability to depression. Alterations of event-related potentials (ERPs) during self-referential processing have been observed in adolescents with depression risk or clinical depression. However, no study has examined ERPs associated with self-referential processing in typical-risk youth with emerging depressive symptoms during late childhood, a high-risk period for depression. It is also unclear to what extent ERPs provide incremental validity in predicting symptoms beyond performance on self-referential processing tasks. Sixty-five community-dwelling children (38 girls; mean age/SD = 11.02/1.59 years) completed a self-referent encoding task (SRET) with EEG recorded. Children showed a larger P2 and a larger late positive potential (LPP) in response to positive SRET stimuli versus negative stimuli. Hierarchical regression showed that in the positive condition only, including ERP correlates (P1, P2, LPP) and interactions between the ERPs and positive SRET score increased the explained variation in depressive symptoms beyond behavioral SRET performance. The LPP in response to positive words was associated with lower depressive symptoms. The P1 and P2 in response to positive words interacted with positive SRET score, such that the association between positive SRET score and symptoms was significant in children with greater P1 but smaller P2. We provide novel evidence supporting the incremental validity of ERPs beyond behavioral makers in predicting emerging depressive symptoms in children. Our findings also highlight the moderating role of ERP activity in strengthening the association between behavioral markers of self-schemas and depressive outcomes.

The development of depressogenic self-schemas: Associations with children's regional grey matter volume in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex

Cognitive theories of depression contend that biased cognitive information processing plays a causal role in the development of depression. Extensive research shows that deeper processing of negative and/or shallower processing of positive self-descriptors (i.e., negative and positive self-schemas) predicts current and future depression in adults and children. However, the neural correlates of the development of self-referent encoding are poorly understood. We examined children's self-referential processing using the self-referent encoding task (SRET) collected from 74 children at ages 6, 9, and 12; around age 10, these children also contributed structural magnetic resonance imaging data. From age 6 to age 12, both positive and negative self-referential processing showed mean-level growth, with positive self-schemas increasing relatively faster than negative ones. Further, voxel-based morphometry showed that slower growth in positive self-schemas was associated with lower regional gray matter volume (GMV) in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC). Our results suggest that smaller regional GMV within vlPFC, a critical region for regulatory control in affective processing and emotion development, may have implications for the development of depressogenic self-referential processing in mid-to-late childhood.

Transdiagnostic Approach and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

The categorical approach of traditional psychiatric nosology has been a forceful approach for a very long time for explaining psychological disorders which are defined by symptom based diagnostic categories. However, in recent years, the importance of the "transdiagnostic" approach which is a new classification system is increasing. The transdiagnostic approach aims to examine dimensionally the common cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal and biological processes underlying many psychopathologies away from the categorical approach that classifies psychopathologies according to observable symptoms. This approach intends to treat the disorders through the common underlying processes and risk factors, thus heterogeneous and comorbid symptoms are better addressed and diagnostic categories that may change during treatment are avoided. In this review study, the current problems in diagnosing based on classification and gaps in the field were examined, and the approach itself was proposed as a solution. RDoC (Research Domain Criteria) which is a new classification system for psychiatric disorders within the scope of the approach, has created a new structure using modern research approaches in genetics, neuroscience and behavioral sciences. In the present study, the definition and emergence of the transdiagnostic approach, obsessive compulsive disorder and RDoC in the context of transdiagnostic approach and transdiagnostic treatment are explained. This review is intended to be a resource for both basic psychopathology research and the development of treatment methods within the framework of a transdiagnostic approach.

Neurophysiological mechanisms of error monitoring in human and non-human primates

Performance monitoring is an important executive function that allows us to gain insight into our own behaviour. This remarkable ability relies on the frontal cortex, and its impairment is an aspect of many psychiatric diseases. In recent years, recordings from the macaque and human medial frontal cortex have offered a detailed understanding of the neurophysiological substrate that underlies performance monitoring. Here we review the discovery of single-neuron correlates of error monitoring, a key aspect of performance monitoring, in both species. These neurons are the generators of the error-related negativity, which is a non-invasive biomarker that indexes error detection. We evaluate a set of tasks that allows the synergistic elucidation of the mechanisms of cognitive control across the two species, consider differences in brain anatomy and testing conditions across species, and describe the clinical relevance of these findings for understanding psychopathology. Last, we integrate the body of experimental facts into a theoretical framework that offers a new perspective on how error signals are computed in both species and makes novel, testable predictions.

Associations between lifetime stress exposure and the error-related negativity (ERN) differ based on stressor characteristics and exposure timing in young adults

Life stress increases risk for multiple forms of psychopathology, in part by altering neural processes involved in performance monitoring. However, the ways in which these stress-cognition effects are influenced by the specific timing and types of life stressors experienced remains poorly understood. To address this gap, we examined how different social-psychological characteristics and developmental timing of stressors are related to the error-related negativity (ERN), a negative-going deflection in the event-related potential (ERP) waveform that is observed from 0 to 100 ms following error commission. A sample of 203 emerging adults performed an ERN-eliciting arrow flanker task and completed an interview-based measure of lifetime stress exposure. Adjusting for stress severity during other developmental periods, there was a small-to-medium effect of stress on performance monitoring, such that more severe total stress exposure, as well as more severe social-evaluative stress in particular, experienced during early adolescence significantly predicted an enhanced ERN. These results suggest that early adolescence may be a sensitive developmental period during which stress exposure may result in lasting adaptations to neural networks implicated in performance monitoring.

Error Processing and Pain: A New Perspective

Errors put organisms in danger. Upon error commission, error processing allows for the updating of behavior that proved ineffective in light of the current context and goals, and for the activation of behavioral defensive systems. Pain, on the other hand, signals actual or potential danger to one's physical integrity and, likewise, motivates protective behavior. These parallels suggest the existence of cross-links between pain and error processing but so far their relationship remains elusive. In this review, we tie together findings from the field of pain research with those from electroencephalography studies on error processing [specifically the Error Related Negativity (ERN) and Positivity (Pe)]. More precisely, we discuss three plausible associations: Firstly, pain may enhance error processing as it increases error salience. Secondly, persons fearful of pain may be particularly vigilant towards painful errors and thus show a stronger neural response to them. Thirdly, the ERN as a component of the neural response to error commission is considered an endophenotype of threat sensitivity. As high sensitivity to pain threats is known to incite avoidance behavior, this raises the intriguing possibility that neural signatures of error processing predict pain-related protective behaviors, such as avoidance. We propose an integration of these findings into a common framework to inspire future research. Perspectives Inspired by research in anxiety disorders, we discuss the potential bi-directional relationships between error processing and pain, and identify future directions to examine the neural and psychological processes involved in acute and chronic pain and respective avoidance behavior.

Disentangling the effects of trait and state worry on error-related brain activity: Results from a randomized controlled trial using worry manipulations

Enhanced amplitudes of the error-related negativity (ERN) have been suggested to be a transdiagnostic neural risk marker for internalizing psychopathology. Previous studies propose worry to be an underlying mechanism driving the association between enhanced ERN and anxiety. The present preregistered study focused on disentangling possible effects of trait and state worry on the ERN by utilizing a cross sectional observational and a longitudinal randomized controlled experimental design. To this end, we examined the ERN of n = 90 students during a flanker task (T0), which were then randomly assigned to one of three groups (worry induction, worry reduction, passive control group). Following the intervention, participants performed another flanker task (T1) to determine potential alterations of their ERN. Manipulation checks revealed that compared to the control group, state worry increased in the induction but also in the reduction group. ERN amplitudes did not vary as a function of state worry. An association of trait worry with larger ERN amplitudes was only observed in females. Furthermore, we found larger ERN amplitudes in participants with a current or lifetime diagnosis of internalizing disorders. In summary, our findings suggest that the ERN seems to be insensitive to variations in state worry, but that an elevated ERN is associated with the trait-like tendency to worry and internalizing psychopathology, which is consistent with the notion that the ERN likely represents a trait-like neural risk associated with anxiety.

Local and network-level dysregulation of error processing is associated with binge drinking

•

Go/NoGo performance does not differ between binge (BDs) and light drinkers.

•

BDs show greater BOLD activity to inhibition errors primarily in prefrontal areas.

•

Greater functional connectivity in the frontal cortex correlates with drinking.

•

Observed increase in error-related activity may serve a compensatory role.

•

This is consistent with allostatic hyperexcitability reflecting neuroadaptation.

Binge drinking refers to the pattern of alcohol consumption that brings blood alcohol levels to or above legal intoxication levels. Commonly practiced by young adults, it is associated with neurofunctional alterations, raising health-related concerns. Executive deficits may contribute to the inability to refrain from excessive alcohol intake. As a facet of cognitive control, error processing allows for flexible modification of behavior to optimize future outcomes. It is highly relevant to addiction research, as a failure to inhibit excessive drinking results in relapses, which is a hallmark of alcohol use disorder. However, research on local and system-level neural underpinnings of inhibition failures as a function of binge drinking is limited. To address these gaps, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine local changes and interregional functional connectivity during response inhibition errors on a Go/NoGo task. Young adult binge drinkers (BDs) performed equally well as light drinkers (LDs), a group of demographically matched individuals who drink regularly but in low-risk patterns. In contrast, BDs exhibited greater fMRI activity to inhibition errors contrasted with correct NoGo trials in the rostral anterior (rACC) and posterior cingulate cortices (PCC), as well as right middle frontal gyrus (R-MFG). Furthermore, BDs showed increased connectivity between the rACC and right lateral prefrontal cortex, in addition to greater connectivity between the R-MFG and the left ventrolateral and superior frontal cortices. Imaging indices were positively correlated only with alcohol-related measures, but not with those related to moods, disposition, or cognitive capacity. Taken together, greater error-related activity and expanded functional connectivity among prefrontal regions may serve a compensatory role to maintain efficiency of inhibitory control. Aligned with prominent models of addiction, these findings accentuate the importance of top-down control in maintaining low-risk drinking levels. They provide insight into potentially early signs of deteriorating cognitive control functions in BDs and may help guide intervention strategies aimed at preventing excessive drinking habits.

Associations between childhood family emotional health, fronto-limbic grey matter volume, and saliva 5mC in young adulthood

Background

Poor family emotional health (FEH) during childhood is prevalent and impactful, and likely confers similar neurodevelopmental risks as other adverse social environments. Pointed FEH study efforts are underdeveloped, and the mechanisms by which poor FEH are biologically embedded are unclear. The current exploratory study examined whether variability in 5-methyl-cytosine (5mC) and fronto-limbic grey matter volume may represent pathways through which FEH may become biologically embedded.

Results

In 98 university students aged 18–22 years, retrospective self-reported childhood FEH was associated with right hemisphere hippocampus (b = 10.4, p = 0.005), left hemisphere amygdala (b = 5.3, p = 0.009), and right hemisphere amygdala (b = 5.8, p = 0.016) volumes. After pre-processing and filtering to 5mC probes correlated between saliva and brain, analyses showed that childhood FEH was associated with 49 5mC principal components (module eigengenes; MEs) (p_range = 3 × 10^–6 to 0.047). Saliva-derived 5mC MEs partially mediated the association between FEH and right hippocampal volume (Burlywood ME indirect effect b = − 111, p = 0.014), and fully mediated the FEH and right amygdala volume relationship (Pink4 ME indirect effect b = − 48, p = 0.026). Modules were enriched with probes falling in genes with immune, central nervous system (CNS), cellular development/differentiation, and metabolic functions.

Conclusions

Findings extend work highlighting neurodevelopmental variability associated with adverse social environment exposure during childhood by specifically implicating poor FEH, while informing a mechanism of biological embedding. FEH-associated epigenetic signatures could function as proxies of altered fronto-limbic grey matter volume associated with poor childhood FEH and inform further investigation into primarily affected tissues such as endocrine, immune, and CNS cell types.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13148-021-01056-y.

Test-Retest Reliability of Neural Correlates of Response Inhibition and Error Monitoring: An fMRI Study of a Stop-Signal Task

Response inhibition (RI) and error monitoring (EM) are important processes of adaptive goal-directed behavior, and neural correlates of these processes are being increasingly used as transdiagnostic biomarkers of risk for a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. Potential utility of these purported biomarkers relies on the assumption that individual differences in brain activation are reproducible over time; however, available data on test-retest reliability (TRR) of task-fMRI are very mixed. This study examined TRR of RI and EM-related activations using a stop signal task in young adults (n = 56, including 27 pairs of monozygotic (MZ) twins) in order to identify brain regions with high TRR and familial influences (as indicated by MZ twin correlations) and to examine factors potentially affecting reliability. We identified brain regions with good TRR of activations related to RI (inferior/middle frontal, superior parietal, and precentral gyri) and EM (insula, medial superior frontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). No subcortical regions showed significant TRR. Regions with higher group-level activation showed higher TRR; increasing task duration improved TRR; within-session reliability was weakly related to the long-term TRR; motion negatively affected TRR, but this effect was abolished after the application of ICA-FIX, a data-driven noise removal method.

Neural signature of error processing in major depression

The clinical presentation of major depression (MD) is heterogenous and comprises various affective and cognitive symptoms including an increased sensitivity to errors. Various electrophysiological but only few functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies investigated neural error processing in MD with inconsistent findings. Thus, reliable evidence regarding neural signatures of error processing in patients with current MD is limited despite its potential relevance as viable neurobiological marker of psychopathology. We therefore investigated a sample of 16 young adult female patients with current MD and 17 healthy controls (HC). During fMRI, we used an established Erikson-flanker Go/NoGo-paradigm and focused on neural alterations during errors of commission. In the absence of significant differences in rates of errors of commission in MD compared to HC, we observed significantly (p < 0.05, FWE-corrected on cluster level) enhanced neural activations of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) in MD relative to HC and thus, in brain regions consistently associated to neural error processing and corresponding behavioral adjustments. Considering comparable task performance, in particular similar commission error rates in MD and HC, our results support the evidence regarding an enhanced responsivity of neural error detection mechanisms in MD as a potential neural signature of increased negative feedback sensitivity as one of the core psychopathological features of this disorder.

Depressogenic self-schemas are associated with smaller regional grey matter volume in never-depressed preadolescents

Self-referential processing (i.e., self-schemas that guide processing of self-descriptive information) emerges early in youth, with deeper encoding of negative self-descriptors and/or shallower encoding of positive self-descriptors causally linked to depression. However, the relationship between depressogenic self-schemas and brain structure is unclear. We investigated associations between self-schemas and regional grey matter volume (GMV) in 84 never-depressed preadolescents oversampled for depression risk based on maternal depression history. Self-schemas were assessed using a Self-Referent Encoding Task (SRET) and regional GMV was indexed via voxel-based morphometry analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging data. Youths' positive self-schemas were associated with greater regional GMV within the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), while negative self-schemas were associated with smaller regional GMV within vlPFC and PCC, areas important to emotion regulation and self-referential processing. These associations remained significant after controlling for youths' concurrent depressive symptoms. Exploratory mediation analysis suggested that adolescents' depressogenic self-schemas may mediate associations between GMV and depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that the observed GMV variations within vlPFC and PCC may serve as neurobiological markers of depressogenic self-schemas during preadolescence.

Were we erring? The impact of worry and arousal on error-related negativity in a non-clinical sample

The monitoring of one's own actions allows humans to adjust to a changing and complex world. Previous neuroscientific research found overactive action monitoring and increased sensitivity to errors to be associated with anxiety and it is assumed to contribute to the development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms. A largely shared decomposition of anxiety differentiates two dimensions: anxious apprehension (i.e., worry) and anxious arousal (i.e., physiological hyperarousal). Alterations in neural correlates of error monitoring have been more closely linked to anxious apprehension compared to anxious arousal. This study examined the relationship between anxiety dimensions and electrophysiological correlates of action monitoring (i.e., error-related negativity, ERN, and correct-response negativity, CRN). A total of 135 non-clinical participants performed a flanker task while their electroencephalogram was recorded. We recruited participants with converging and diverging anxiety dimension profiles (i.e., above or below median in anxious apprehension and anxious arousal or above median in one and below in the other dimension). This grouping strategy facilitates disentangling possible interactions and allows the investigation of the isolated effect of each anxiety dimension. Regression analyses did not reveal a significant main or interaction effect of anxiety dimensions on ERN or CRN, irrespective of gender. In addition, Bayesian statistical analyzes yielded evidence for the absence of an association between both anxiety dimensions and ERN and CRN. Altogether, our results suggest that the association of anxiety dimensions, particularly anxious apprehension, and action monitoring might be smaller in non-clinical samples as previous studies indicate.

The Utility of Event-Related Potentials in Clinical Psychology

Event-related potentials (ERPs) are direct measures of brain activity that can be leveraged for clinically meaningful research. They can relate robustly both to continuous measures of individual difference and to categorical diagnoses in ways that clarify similarities and distinctions between apparently related disorders and traits. ERPs can be linked to genetic risk, can act as moderators of developmental trajectories and responses to stress, and can be leveraged to identify those at greater risk for psychopathology, especially when used in combination with other neural and self-report measures. ERPs can inform models of the development of, and risk for, psychopathology. Finally, ERPs can be used as targets for existing and novel interventions and prevention efforts. We provide concrete examples for each of these possibilities by focusing on programmatic research on the error-related negativity and anxiety, and thus show that ERPs are poised to make greater contributions toward the identification, prediction, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

The erring brain: Error-related negativity as an endophenotype for OCD-A review and meta-analysis

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a complex and heterogeneous disorder that is associated with high personal and societal costs. Feelings of doubt, worry, and repetitive behavior, key symptoms of OCD, have been linked to hyperactive error signals in the brain. The error-related negativity (ERN) represents a validated marker of error processing in the ERP. Increased ERN amplitudes in OCD have been reported very robustly over the last 20 years. This article integrates results from 38 studies analyzing the ERN in OCD, using a quantitative meta-analysis. Meta-regressions were used to examine potential moderators such as task type, symptom severity, age, and sample size. The meta-analysis reveals a robust increase of ERN in OCD patients compared to healthy participants in response-conflict tasks (SMD -0.55) that is not modulated by symptom severity and age. No increase in ERN in OCD was observed in tasks that do not induce response conflict (SMD -0.10). In addition to the meta-analysis, the current article reviews evidence supporting that increased ERN amplitudes in OCD fulfill central criteria for an endophenotype. Further, the specificity of increased ERN amplitudes for OCD and its suitability as a potential transdiagnostic endophenotype is discussed. Finally, the clinical utility and clinical applications are examined. Overall, the evidence that increased ERN amplitudes represent a promising endophenotype indicating vulnerability for OCD is compelling. Furthermore, alterations in ERN are not limited to OCD and may constitute a transdiagnostic endophenotype. Altered neural error signals might serve as a diagnostic or predictive marker and represent a promising target for interventions.

Neural Activity During Self-referential Processing in Children at Risk for Depression

BACKGROUND

According to cognitive theories of depression, more negative and less positive self-schemas are thought to play a causal role in the disorder. Existing evidence speaks to the neural substrates of self-referential processes in both healthy and depressed individuals, but little is known about how the brain relates to self-referential processing in the context of depression risk in children. We therefore studied the neural substrates of self-referential processing in never-depressed preadolescent children at high and low risk for depression based on maternal depression history.

METHODS

A total of 87 never-depressed 10-12-year-old children (29 with maternal depression) completed a self-referential encoding task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging session, in which they were presented a series of positive and negative trait adjectives and endorsed whether each word was self-descriptive. Small volume correction analyses were conducted within 7 regions of interest that are important for self-referential and emotion-related processes.

RESULTS

Analyses of small volume correction indicated that high-risk children showed greater activation in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and ventromedial prefrontal cortex during the positive-word self-referential encoding task condition than low-risk children. Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation mediated the association between maternal depression and child depressive symptoms only when children had lower positive self-schemas, indicating that more positive self-schemas may protect at-risk children from developing depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Cortical midline and prefrontal regions are important to self-, emotion-, and regulation-related processes. Heightened activation within these regions in never-depressed high-risk children indicates that these neurobiological substrates may mediate early vulnerability to depression in the context of cognitive processes relevant to self-concepts.

Childhood adversity, externalizing behavior, and substance use in adolescence: Mediating effects of anterior cingulate cortex activation during inhibitory errors

Childhood adversity can negatively impact development across various domains, including physical and mental health. Adverse childhood experiences have been linked to aggression and substance use; however, developmental pathways to explain these associations are not well characterized. Understanding early precursors to later problem behavior and substance use can inform preventive interventions. The aim of the current study was to examine neurobiological pathways through which childhood adversity may lead to early adolescent problem behavior and substance use in late adolescence by testing two prospective models. Our first model found that early adolescent externalizing behavior mediates the association between childhood adversity and alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use in late adolescence. Our second model found that activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during an inhibitory control task mediates the association between childhood adversity and early adolescent externalizing behavior, with lower ACC activation associated with higher levels of adversity and more externalizing behavior. Together these findings indicate that the path to substance use in late adolescence from childhood adversity may operate through lower functioning in the ACC related to inhibitory control and externalizing behavior. Early life stressors should be considered an integral component in the etiology and prevention of early and problematic substance use.

Evidence for cerebello-thalamo-cortical hyperconnectivity as a heritable trait for schizophrenia

Our recent study has demonstrated that increased connectivity in the cerebello-thalamo-cortical (CTC) circuitry is a state-independent neural trait that can potentially predict the onset of psychosis. One possible cause of such "trait" abnormality would be genetic predisposition. Here, we tested this hypothesis using multi-paradigm functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data from two independent twin cohorts. In a sample of 85 monozygotic (MZ) and 52 dizygotic (DZ) healthy twin pairs acquired from the Human Connectome Project, we showed that the connectivity pattern of the identified CTC circuitry was more similar in the MZ twins (r = 0.54) compared with that in the DZ twins (r = 0.22). The structural equation modeling analysis revealed a heritability estimate of 0.52 for the CTC connectivity, suggesting a moderately strong genetic effect. Moreover, using an independent schizophrenia cotwin sample (10 discordant MZ cotwins, 30 discordant DZ cotwins, and 32 control cotwins), we observed a significant linear relationship between genetic distance to schizophrenia and the connectivity strength in the CTC circuitry (i.e., schizophrenia MZ cotwins > schizophrenia DZ cotwins > control twins, P = 0.045). The present data provide converging evidence that increased connectivity in the CTC circuitry is likely to be a heritable trait that is associated with the genetic risk of schizophrenia.

Error-related neural activity and alcohol use disorder: Differences from risk to remission

Studies suggest that individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) display abnormal neural error-processing, measured via the error-related negativity (ERN). The nature of the error-related abnormalities in AUD is unclear, however, as prior research has yielded discrepant findings. In addition, no study to date has attempted to characterize the dispositional nature of the ERN in AUD and directly test to what extent ERN amplitude reflects a risk factor, disease marker, and/or scar of AUD psychopathology. The current study compared ERN amplitude across 244 adult volunteers in the following five groups: 1) current AUD (n = 39), 2) AUD in remission (n = 60), 3) at-risk for AUD (n = 43), 4) psychiatric controls with comparable rates of internalizing psychopathology as the AUD groups (n = 53), and 5) healthy controls with no lifetime history of psychopathology (n = 49). Risk for AUD was defined as a positive, first-degree family history. All participants completed a well-validated flanker task, designed to robustly elicit the ERN, during continuous electroencephalographic (EEG) data collection. Results indicated that individuals with current AUD displayed smaller ERNs compared with individuals at-risk for AUD, with AUD in remission, psychiatric controls, and healthy controls. There were no differences amongst any of the other groups. This suggests that a blunted ERN may be concomitant with current AUD psychopathology and relatedly, a novel neurobiological AUD treatment target and/or objective marker of AUD disease status.

Error Processing and Inhibitory Control in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Meta-analysis Using Statistical Parametric Maps

BACKGROUND

Error processing and inhibitory control enable the adjustment of behaviors to meet task demands. Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies report brain activation abnormalities in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) during both processes. However, conclusions are limited by inconsistencies in the literature and small sample sizes. Therefore, the aim here was to perform a meta-analysis of the existing literature using unthresholded statistical maps from previous studies.

METHODS

A voxelwise seed-based d mapping meta-analysis was performed using t-maps from studies comparing patients with OCD and healthy control subjects (HCs) during error processing and inhibitory control. For the error processing analysis, 239 patients with OCD (120 male; 79 medicated) and 229 HCs (129 male) were included, while the inhibitory control analysis included 245 patients with OCD (120 male; 91 medicated) and 239 HCs (135 male).

RESULTS

Patients with OCD, relative to HCs, showed longer inhibitory control reaction time (standardized mean difference = 0.20, p = .03, 95% confidence interval = 0.016, 0.393) and more inhibitory control errors (standardized mean difference = 0.22, p = .02, 95% confidence interval = 0.039, 0.399). In the brain, patients showed hyperactivation in the bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, supplementary motor area, and pre-supplementary motor area as well as right anterior insula/frontal operculum and anterior lateral prefrontal cortex during error processing but showed hypoactivation during inhibitory control in the rostral and ventral anterior cingulate cortices and bilateral thalamus/caudate, as well as the right anterior insula/frontal operculum, supramarginal gyrus, and medial orbitofrontal cortex (all seed-based d mapping z value >2, p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

A hyperactive error processing mechanism in conjunction with impairments in implementing inhibitory control may underlie deficits in stopping unwanted compulsive behaviors in the disorder.

Error-related brain activity as a transdiagnostic endophenotype for obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety and substance use disorder

BACKGROUND

Increased neural error-signals have been observed in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, and inconsistently in depression. Reduced neural error-signals have been observed in substance use disorders (SUD). Thus, alterations in error-monitoring are proposed as a transdiagnostic endophenotype. To strengthen this notion, data from unaffected individuals with a family history for the respective disorders are needed.

METHODS

The error-related negativity (ERN) as a neural indicator of error-monitoring was measured during a flanker task from 117 OCD patients, 50 unaffected first-degree relatives of OCD patients, and 130 healthy comparison participants. Family history information indicated, that 76 healthy controls were free of a family history for psychopathology, whereas the remaining had first-degree relatives with depression (n = 28), anxiety (n = 27), and/or SUD (n = 27).

RESULTS

Increased ERN amplitudes were found in OCD patients and unaffected first-degree relatives of OCD patients. In addition, unaffected first-degree relatives of individuals with anxiety disorders were also characterized by increased ERN amplitudes, whereas relatives of individuals with SUD showed reduced amplitudes.

CONCLUSIONS

Alterations in neural error-signals in unaffected first-degree relatives with a family history of OCD, anxiety, or SUD support the utility of the ERN as a transdiagnostic endophenotype. Reduced neural error-signals may indicate vulnerability for under-controlled behavior and risk for substance use, whereas a harm- or error-avoidant response style and vulnerability for OCD and anxiety appears to be associated with increased ERN. This adds to findings suggesting a common neurobiological substrate across psychiatric disorders involving the anterior cingulate cortex and deficits in cognitive control.

A neural biomarker, the error-related negativity, predicts the first onset of generalized anxiety disorder in a large sample of adolescent females

OBJECTIVE

An increased neural response to making mistakes has emerged as a potential biomarker of anxiety across development. The error-related negativity (ERN) is an event-related potential elicited when people make mistakes on simple laboratory-based reaction time tasks that has been associated with risk for anxiety. This study examined whether the ERN prospectively predicted the first onset of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) over 1.5 years in adolescent girls.

METHODS

The sample included 457 girls between the ages of 13.5 and 15.5 years, with no history of GAD. At baseline, the ERN was measured using a flankers task. Psychiatric history of the adolescent and biological parent was assessed with diagnostic interviews, and the adolescent completed a self-report questionnaire regarding anxiety symptoms. Approximately 1.5 years later, adolescents completed the same interview.

RESULTS

An increased neural response to errors at baseline predicted first-onset GAD over 1.5 years. The ERN was a significant predictor independent of other prominent risk factors, including baseline anxiety and depression symptoms and parental lifetime psychiatric history. Jointly the ERN and social anxiety symptoms provided the greatest power for predicting first-onset GAD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence for the utility of the ERN as a biomarker of risk for GAD during a key developmental period.

Brief training in mindfulness may normalize a blunted error-related negativity in chronically depressed patients

The error-related negativity (ERN), an evoked-potential that arises in response to the commission of errors, is an important early indicator of self-regulatory capacities. In this study we investigated whether brief mindfulness training can reverse ERN deficits in chronically depressed patients. The ERN was assessed in a sustained attention task. Chronically depressed patients (n = 59) showed significantly blunted expression of the ERN in frontocentral and frontal regions, relative to healthy controls (n = 18). Following two weeks of training, the patients (n = 24) in the mindfulness condition showed a significantly increased ERN magnitude in the frontal region, but there were no significant changes in patients who had received a resting control (n = 22). The findings suggest that brief training in mindfulness may help normalize aberrations in the ERN in chronically depressed patients, providing preliminary evidence for the responsiveness of this parameter to mental training.

Thalamic Cortical Error-Related Responses in Adult Social Drinkers: Sex Differences and Problem Alcohol Use

BACKGROUND

Error-related brain activities are altered in individuals with substance use disorders. Here we examined error-related activities in relation to problem drinking in nondependent alcohol drinkers. In particular, we investigated sex differences and whether altered error responses are related to post-error behavioral control.

METHODS

A sample of 145 nondependent drinkers (77 women) performed the stop-signal task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Imaging data were processed and modeled using statistical parametric mapping. Independent sample t test and linear regression were employed to examine sex differences in error response and relationship between error response and problem drinking.

RESULTS

Compared with men, women showed greater error-related (stop error > go success) activations in the bilateral thalamus, right middle/superior temporal cortex, and bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. In whole-brain linear regression of error responses against the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test score, a wide swath of cortical and subcortical regions, including the thalamus, showed decreased activation in association with problem drinking in women but not in men. However, men and women were not different in the extent of post-error slowing and decreased thalamic error response in association with problem drinking was not related to the extent of post-error slowing in women.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest sex differences in error-related activations with heavier drinking associated with reduced error activations in women but not in men. These differences in cerebral activations may reflect higher physiological arousal in response to errors and greater vulnerability of saliency-related arousal response to problem drinking in female as compared with male social drinkers.

Attention bias modification reduces neural correlates of response monitoring

The error-related negativity (ERN) is an electrophysiological response to errors. Individual differences in the ERN have been posited to reflect sensitivity to threat and linked with risk for anxiety disorders. Attention bias modification is a promising computerized intervention that has been shown to decrease threat biases and anxiety symptoms. In the present study, we examined the impact of a single session of attention bias modification, relative to a control task, on the neural correlates of response monitoring, including the ERN, correct response negativity (CRN), and their difference (i.e., the ERN - CRN or ΔERN). The final sample included 60 participants who first completed a flanker task to elicit the ERN and CRN, and were then randomly assigned to attention bias modification (n=30) or a control task (n=30). After completing the attention bias modification or control task, participants completed the same flanker task to again elicit the ERN and CRN. Among participants who completed attention bias modification training, the ERN, CRN, and ΔERN decreased from the pre- to post-training assessment. In contrast, in participants who completed the control task, the CRN, ERN, and ΔERN did not differ between the pre- and post-training assessment. The presents study suggests that a single session of attention bias modification reduces neural correlates of response monitoring, including error-related brain activity. These results also support attention bias modification as a potential mechanistic-based intervention for the prevention and treatment of anxiety pathology.

Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD: A consensus statement. Part II: Neurochemistry, neurophysiology and neurocognition

OBJECTIVE

Biomarkers are defined as anatomical, biochemical or physiological traits that are specific to certain disorders or syndromes. The objective of this paper is to summarise the current knowledge of biomarkers for anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

METHODS

Findings in biomarker research were reviewed by a task force of international experts in the field, consisting of members of the World Federation of Societies for Biological Psychiatry Task Force on Biological Markers and of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology Anxiety Disorders Research Network.

RESULTS

The present article (Part II) summarises findings on potential biomarkers in neurochemistry (neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine or GABA, neuropeptides such as cholecystokinin, neurokinins, atrial natriuretic peptide, or oxytocin, the HPA axis, neurotrophic factors such as NGF and BDNF, immunology and CO2 hypersensitivity), neurophysiology (EEG, heart rate variability) and neurocognition. The accompanying paper (Part I) focuses on neuroimaging and genetics.

CONCLUSIONS

Although at present, none of the putative biomarkers is sufficient and specific as a diagnostic tool, an abundance of high quality research has accumulated that should improve our understanding of the neurobiological causes of anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD.

EEG-based single-trial detection of errors from multiple error-related brain activity

A key ability of the human brain is to monitor erroneous events and adjust behaviors accordingly. Electrophysiological and neuroimaging studies have demonstrated different brain activities related to errors. Meanwhile, the recognition of error-related brain activity as one aspect of performance monitoring has been reported for potential applications in clinical neuroscience and brain-machine interface, where single-trial analysis and classification would provide novel insights on dynamic brain responses to errors. However, procedures of selecting features, as well as procedures of single-trial classification, are not fully investigated for optimal performance. In the present study, we investigated the performance of different configurations of feature extractions in both temporal and frequency domains, for discriminating response errors in a color-word matching Stroop task. Motivated by our previous investigations, we evaluated both temporal and frequency features with component signals, which were obtained from EEG signals via an independent component analysis (ICA). Five component signals (independent components, ICs), originated from the frontal, motor, parietal, and occipital areas, were included in detecting error-related brain activity from single-trial EEG data. The results showed that better performance can be achieved by optimizing time window and frequency range of selected features, sampling scheme of feature-related data, and training of classifiers. However, a simple combination of features from multiple component signals can only slightly improve the detection performance of errors in single-trial data as compared to the frontal IC only. More importantly, it is indicated that four ICs other than the frontal one also carry similar discriminative information about errors in both temporal and frequency domains. The fact suggests flexible means in detecting errors from EEG beyond the frontal brain areas, which might be very valuable in practical applications such that the frontal area is not accessible.

The genetics of anxiety-related negative valence system traits

NIMH's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) domain of negative valence systems (NVS) captures constructs of negative affect such as fear and distress traditionally subsumed under the various internalizing disorders. Through its aims to capture dimensional measures that cut across diagnostic categories and are linked to underlying neurobiological systems, a large number of phenotypic constructs have been proposed as potential research targets. Since "genes" represent a central "unit of analysis" in the RDoC matrix, it is important for studies going forward to apply what is known about the genetics of these phenotypes as well as fill in the gaps of existing knowledge. This article reviews the extant genetic epidemiological data (twin studies, heritability) and molecular genetic association findings for a broad range of putative NVS phenotypic measures. We find that scant genetic epidemiological data is available for experimentally derived measures such as attentional bias, peripheral physiology, or brain-based measures of threat response. The molecular genetic basis of NVS phenotypes is in its infancy, since most studies have focused on a small number of candidate genes selected for putative association to anxiety disorders (ADs). Thus, more research is required to provide a firm understanding of the genetic aspects of anxiety-related NVS constructs. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Endophenotype best practices

This review examines the current state of electrophysiological endophenotype research and recommends best practices that are based on knowledge gleaned from the last decade of molecular genetic research with complex traits. Endophenotype research is being oversold for its potential to help discover psychopathology relevant genes using the types of small samples feasible for electrophysiological research. This is largely because the genetic architecture of endophenotypes appears to be very much like that of behavioral traits and disorders: they are complex, influenced by many variants (e.g., tens of thousands) within many genes, each contributing a very small effect. Out of over 40 electrophysiological endophenotypes covered by our review, only resting heart, a measure that has received scant advocacy as an endophenotype, emerges as an electrophysiological variable with verified associations with molecular genetic variants. To move the field forward, investigations designed to discover novel variants associated with endophenotypes will need extremely large samples best obtained by forming consortia and sharing data obtained from genome wide arrays. In addition, endophenotype research can benefit from successful molecular genetic studies of psychopathology by examining the degree to which these verified psychopathology-relevant variants are also associated with an endophenotype, and by using knowledge about the functional significance of these variants to generate new endophenotypes. Even without molecular genetic associations, endophenotypes still have value in studying the development of disorders in unaffected individuals at high genetic risk, constructing animal models, and gaining insight into neural mechanisms that are relevant to clinical disorder.

Presupplementary Motor Area Contributes to Altered Error Monitoring in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

BACKGROUND

Hyperactive performance monitoring, as measured by the error-related negativity (ERN) in the event-related potential, is a reliable finding in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) research and may be an endophenotype of the disorder. Imaging studies revealed inconsistent results as to which brain regions are involved in altered performance monitoring in OCD. We investigated performance monitoring in OCD with simultaneous recording of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals to determine the neural source of the enhanced ERN.

METHODS

Concurrent EEG and fMRI data were collected from 20 patients with OCD and 22 healthy control subjects during a flanker task. Independent component analysis was used separately on EEG and fMRI to segment the data functionally and focus on processes of interest. The ERN, hemodynamic responses following errors, and intraindividual correlation of the ERN and blood oxygen level-dependent activity were compared between groups.

RESULTS

Patients with OCD showed significantly increased ERN amplitudes. Blood oxygen level-dependent activity in midcingulate cortex was not significantly different between groups. Increased activation of the right amygdala and the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex following errors was observed in patients with OCD. Increased intraindividual correlation of the ERN and activity of the presupplementary motor area was found in patients with OCD compared with healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher error-related activity was found in the amygdala and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, suggesting a stronger affective response toward errors in patients with OCD. Additionally, increased correlation of the ERN and presupplementary motor area may indicate stronger recruitment of proactive control in OCD.

Single-session attention bias modification and error-related brain activity

An attentional bias to threat has been implicated in the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. Recently, attention bias modification (ABM) has been shown to reduce threat biases and decrease anxiety. However, it is unclear whether ABM modifies neural activity linked to anxiety and risk. The current study examined the relationship between ABM and the error-related negativity (ERN), a putative biomarker of risk for anxiety disorders, and the relationship between the ERN and ABM-based changes in attention to threat. Fifty-nine participants completed a single-session of ABM and a flanker task to elicit the ERN--in counterbalanced order (i.e., ABM-before vs. ABM-after the ERN was measured). Results indicated that the ERN was smaller (i.e., less negative) among individuals who completed ABM-before relative to those who completed ABM-after. Furthermore, greater attentional disengagement from negative stimuli during ABM was associated with a smaller ERN among ABM-before and ABM-after participants. The present study suggests a direct relationship between the malleability of negative attention bias and the ERN. Explanations are provided for how ABM may contribute to reductions in the ERN. Overall, the present study indicates that a single-session of ABM may be related to a decrease in neural activity linked to anxiety and risk.

Neurophysiological evidence of impaired self-monitoring in schizotypal personality disorder and its reversal by dopaminergic antagonism

Background

Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) is a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder characterized by odd or bizarre behavior, strange speech, magical thinking, unusual perceptual experiences, and social anhedonia. Schizophrenia proper has been associated with anomalies in dopaminergic neurotransmission and deficits in neurophysiological markers of self-monitoring, such as low amplitude in cognitive event-related brain potentials (ERPs) like the error-related negativity (ERN), and the error positivity (Pe). These components occur after performance errors, rely on adequate fronto-striatal function, and are sensitive to dopaminergic modulation. Here we postulated that analogous to observations in schizophrenia, SPD individuals would show deficits in self-monitoring, as measured by the ERN and the Pe. We also assessed the capacity of dopaminergic antagonists to reverse these postulated deficits.

Methods

We recorded the electroencephalogram (EEG) from 9 SPD individuals and 12 healthy controls in two separate experimental sessions while they performed the Eriksen Flanker Task, a classical task recruiting behavioral monitoring. Participants received a placebo or 1 mg risperidone according to a double-blind randomized design.

Results

After placebo, SPD individuals showed slower reaction times to hits, longer correction times following errors and reduced ERN and Pe amplitudes. While risperidone impaired performance and decreased ERN and Pe in the control group, it led to behavioral improvements and ERN amplitude increases in the SPD individuals.

Conclusions

These results indicate that SPD individuals show deficits in self-monitoring analogous to those in schizophrenia. These deficits can be evidenced by neurophysiological measures, suggest a dopaminergic imbalance, and can be reverted by dopaminergic antagonists.

Challenges in developing drugs for pediatric CNS disorders: A focus on psychopharmacology

Many psychiatric and behavioral disorders manifest in childhood (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, etc.) and the opportunity for intervening early may attenuate full development of the disorder and lessen long term disability. Yet, pediatric drug approvals for CNS indications are limited, and pediatric testing generally occurs only after establishing adult efficacy, more as an afterthought rather than with the initial goal of developing the medication for a pediatric CNS indication. With pharmaceutical companies decreasing funding of their neuroscience research divisions overall, the prospects for moving promising investigational drugs forward into pediatrics will only decline. The goal of this review is to highlight important challenges around pediatric drug development for psychiatric disorders, specifically during clinical development, and to present opportunities for filling these gaps, using new strategies for de-risking investigational drugs in new clinical trial designs/models. We will first present the current trends in pediatric drug efficacy testing in academic research and in industry trials, we will then discuss the regulatory landscape of pediatric drug testing, including policies intended to support and encourage more testing. Obstacles that remain will then be presented, followed by new designs, funding opportunities and considerations for testing investigational drugs safely.

BDNF Val66Met Polymorphism Is Related to Motor System Function After Stroke

BACKGROUND

The val(66)met polymorphism in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been associated with poorer outcomes after stroke. The mechanism for this finding remains uncertain but might be related to the reduced motor system activation associated with this polymorphism in healthy people.

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined whether the presence of the BDNF val(66)met polymorphism is associated with reduced motor system activation after stroke.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Forty-two patients with stroke who were enrolled in 1 of 2 studies of robot-assisted arm motor therapy participated in the study. All participants were tested for the BDNF val(66)met polymorphism followed by functional magnetic resonance imaging during affected hand movement.

RESULTS

Participants averaged 12 months poststroke and had wide-ranging motor deficits (Fugl-Meyer scale scores=14-60). Brain activation in participants without the BDNF val(66)met polymorphism (n=26) spanned bilateral motor networks with a larger volume (total=334 cc) than that found in participants with this polymorphism (n=16) (97 cc). Regional analyses were consistent. Participants without this polymorphism showed larger ipsilesional primary sensorimotor cortex activation volume and magnitude compared with those in whom the polymorphism was present.

LIMITATIONS

The extent to which these findings generalize to other populations of people with stroke, such as those with stroke <7 days prior, remains uncertain.

CONCLUSIONS

Functional magnetic resonance imaging during affected hand movement showed decreased brain activation among participants with the BDNF val(66)met polymorphism compared with those lacking this polymorphism, especially in the ipsilesional primary sensorimotor cortex contralateral to movement. These results echo findings in healthy people and suggest that genetic factors affecting the normal brain continue to be operative after stroke. The findings suggest a potential imaging-based endophenotype for the BDNF val(66)met polymorphism's effect on the motor system that may be useful in a clinical trial setting.

Reward Sensitivity of ACC as an Intermediate Phenotype between DRD4-521T and Substance Misuse

The development and expression of the midbrain dopamine system is determined in part by genetic factors that vary across individuals such that dopamine-related genes are partly responsible for addiction vulnerability. However, a complete account of how dopamine-related genes predispose individuals to drug addiction remains to be developed. Adopting an intermediate phenotype approach, we investigated whether reward-related electrophysiological activity of ACC—a cortical region said to utilize dopamine reward signals to learn the value of extended, context-specific sequences of goal-directed behaviors—mediates the influence of multiple dopamine-related functional polymorphisms over substance use. We used structural equation modeling to examine whether two related electrophysiological phenomena associated with the control and reinforcement learning functions of ACC—theta power and the reward positivity—mediated the relationship between the degree of substance misuse and genetic polymorphisms that regulate dopamine processing in frontal cortex. Substance use data were collected from 812 undergraduate students. One hundred ninety-six returned on a subsequent day to participate in an electrophysiological experiment and to provide saliva samples for DNA analysis. We found that these electrophysiological signals mediated a relationship between the DRD4-521T dopamine receptor genotype and substance misuse. Our results provide a theoretical framework that bridges the gap between genes and behavior in drug addiction and illustrate how future interventions might be individually tailored for specific genetic and neurocognitive profiles.

Error-related negativity (ERN) and sustained threat: Conceptual framework and empirical evaluation in an adolescent sample

The error-related negativity (ERN) currently appears as a physiological measure in relation to three Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) constructs: Cognitive Control, Sustained Threat, and Reward Learning. We propose a conceptual model in which variance in the ERN reflects individual differences in the degree to which errors are evaluated as threatening. We also discuss evidence for the placement of the ERN in the "Sustained Threat" construct, as well as evidence that the ERN may more specifically reflect sensitivity to endogenous threat. Following this, we present data from a sample of 515 adolescent females demonstrating a larger ERN in relation to self-reported checking behaviors, but only in older adolescents, suggesting that sensitivity to internal threat and the ERN-checking relationship may follow a developmental course as adolescents develop behavioral control. In contrast, depressive symptoms were linked to a smaller ERN, and this association was invariant with respect to age. Collectively, these data suggest that the magnitude of the ERN is sensitive both to specific anxiety-related processes and depression, in opposing directions that may reflect variation in internal threat sensitivity. We discuss directions for future research, as well as ways in which findings for the ERN complement and challenge aspects of the current RDoC matrix.

Neural mechanisms supporting evaluation of others' errors in real-life like conditions

The ability to evaluate others’ errors makes it possible to learn from their mistakes without the need for first-hand trial-and-error experiences. Here, we compared functional magnetic resonance imaging activation to self-committed errors during a computer game to a variety of errors committed by others during movie clips (e.g., figure skaters falling down and persons behaving inappropriately). While viewing errors by others there was activation in lateral and medial temporal lobe structures, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, and medial prefrontal cortex possibly reflecting simulation and storing for future use alternative action sequences that could have led to successful behaviors. During both self- and other-committed errors activation was seen in the striatum, temporoparietal junction, and inferior frontal gyrus. These areas may be components of a generic error processing mechanism. The ecological validity of the stimuli seemed to matter, since we largely failed to see activations when subjects observed errors by another player in the computer game, as opposed to observing errors in the rich real-life like human behaviors depicted in the movie clips.

Preserved Error-Monitoring in Borderline Personality Disorder Patients with and without Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Behaviors

Background

The presence of non-suicidal self-injury acts in Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is very prevalent. These behaviors are a public health concern and have become a poorly understood phenomenon in the community. It has been proposed that the commission of non-suicidal self-injury might be related to a failure in the brain network regulating executive functions. Previous studies have shown that BPD patients present an impairment in their capacity to monitor actions and conflicts associated with the performance of certain actions, which suppose an important aspect of cognitive control.

Method

We used Event Related Potentials to examine the behavioral and electrophysiological indexes associated with the error monitoring in two BPD outpatients groups (17 patients each) differentiated according to the presence or absence of non-suicidal self-injury behaviors. We also examined 17 age- and intelligence- matched healthy control participants.

Results

The three groups did not show significant differences in event-related potentials associated with errors (Error-Related Negativity and Pe) nor in theta power increase following errors.

Conclusions

This is the first study investigating the behavioral and electrophysiological error monitoring indexes in BPD patients characterized by their history of non-suicidal self-injury behaviors. Our results show that error monitoring is preserved in BPD patients and suggest that non-suicidal self-injury acts are not related to a dysfunction in the cognitive control mechanisms.

Intact error monitoring in combat Veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a neuroelectric signature of performance monitoring during speeded response time tasks. Previous studies indicate that individuals with anxiety disorders show ERN enhancements that correlate with the degree of clinical symptomology. Less is known about the error monitoring system in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is characterized by impairments in the regulation of fear and other emotional responses, as well as deficits in maintaining cognitive control. Here, combat Veterans with PTSD were compared to control Veterans in two different versions of the flanker task (n=13 or 14 per group). Replicating and extending previous findings, PTSD patients showed an intact ERN in both experiments. In addition, task performance and error compensation behavior were intact. Finally, ERN amplitude showed no relationship with self-reported PTSD, depression, or post-concussive symptoms. These results suggest that error monitoring represents a relative strength in PTSD that can dissociate from cognitive control functions that are impaired, such as response inhibition and sustained attention. A healthy awareness of errors in external actions could be leveraged to improve interoceptive awareness of emotional state. The results could have positive implications for PTSD treatments that rely on self-monitoring abilities, such as neurofeedback and mindfulness training.

Blunted neural response to errors as a trait marker of melancholic depression

Identification of biomarkers of vulnerability for Major Depressive Disorder is a high priority, but heterogeneity of the diagnosis can hinder research. Biomarkers of vulnerability should also be present in the absence of the diagnosis. The present study examined the magnitude of the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential component following errors in a sample with remitted melancholic depression (N=17), remitted non-melancholic depression (N=33), and healthy controls (N=55). Remitted melancholic depression was uniquely characterized by a blunted ERN relative to the other two groups. Individuals with remitted non-melancholic depression did not differ from controls in the magnitude of the ERN. This was the case despite the fact that the melancholic and non-melancholic groups did not differ in course or severity of their past illnesses, or in their current functioning. Results suggest that the blunted ERN may be a viable vulnerability marker for melancholia.

Effects of an opioid (proenkephalin) polymorphism on neural response to errors in health and cocaine use disorder

Chronic exposure to drugs of abuse perturbs the endogenous opioid system, which plays a critical role in the development and maintenance of addictive disorders. Opioid genetics may therefore play an important modulatory role in the expression of substance use disorders, but these genes have not been extensively characterized, especially in humans. In the current imaging genetics study, we investigated a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the protein-coding proenkephalin gene (PENK: rs2609997, recently shown to be associated with cannabis dependence) in 55 individuals with cocaine use disorder and 37 healthy controls. Analyses tested for PENK associations with fMRI response to error (during a classical color-word Stroop task) and gray matter volume (voxel-based morphometry) as a function of Diagnosis (cocaine, control). Results revealed whole-brain Diagnosis×PENK interactions on the neural response to errors (fMRI error>correct contrast) in the right putamen, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex/medial orbitofrontal cortex, and right inferior frontal gyrus; there was also a significant Diagnosis×PENK interaction on right inferior frontal gyrus gray matter volume. These interactions were driven by differences between individuals with cocaine use disorders and controls that were accentuated in individuals carrying the higher-risk PENK C-allele. Taken together, the PENK polymorphism-and potentially opioid neurotransmission more generally-modulates functioning and structural integrity of brain regions previously implicated in error-related processing. PENK could potentially render a subgroup of individuals with cocaine use disorder (i.e., C-allele carriers) more sensitive to mistakes or other related challenges; in future studies, these results could contribute to the development of individualized genetics-informed treatments.

Error-related brain activity in the age of RDoC: A review of the literature

The ability to detect and respond to errors is critical to successful adaptation to a changing environment. The error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential (ERP) component, is a well-validated neural response to errors and reflects the error monitoring activity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Additionally, the ERN is implicated in several processes key to adaptive functioning. Abnormalities in error-related brain activity have been linked to multiple forms of psychopathology and individual differences. As such, the component is likely to be useful in NIMH's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative to establish biologically-meaningful dimensions of psychological dysfunction, and currently appears as a unit of measurement in three RDoC domains: Positive Valence Systems, Negative Valence Systems, and Cognitive Systems. In this review paper, we introduce the ERN and discuss evidence related to its psychometric properties, as well as important task differences. Following this, we discuss evidence linking the ERN to clinically diverse forms of psychopathology, as well as the implications of one unit of measurement appearing in multiple RDoC dimensions. And finally, we discuss important future directions, as well as research pathways by which the ERN might be leveraged to track the ways in which dysfunctions in multiple neural systems interact to influence psychological well-being.

Error related negativity and multi-source interference task in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-combined type

Objective To compare performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorders-combined (ADHD-C) type with control children in multi-source interference task (MSIT) evaluated by means of error related negativity (ERN). Method We studied 12 children with ADHD-C type with a median age of 7 years, control children were age- and gender-matched. Children performed MSIT and simultaneous recording of ERN. Results We found no differences in MSIT parameters among groups. We found no differences in ERN variables between groups. We found a significant association of ERN amplitude with MSIT in children with ADHD-C type. Some correlation went in positive direction (frequency of hits and MSIT amplitude), and others in negative direction (frequency of errors and RT in MSIT). Conclusion Children with ADHD-C type exhibited a significant association between ERN amplitude with MSIT. These results underline participation of a cingulo-fronto-parietal network and could help in the comprehension of pathophysiological mechanisms of ADHD.

Enhanced error-related brain activity in children predicts the onset of anxiety disorders between the ages of 6 and 9

Considering that anxiety disorders frequently begin before adulthood and often result in chronic impairment, it is important to characterize the developmental pathways leading to the onset of clinical anxiety. Identifying neural biomarkers that can predict the onset of anxiety in childhood may increase our understanding of the etiopathogenesis of anxiety, as well as inform intervention and prevention strategies. An event-related potential (ERP), the error-related negativity (ERN), has been proposed as a biomarker of risk for anxiety and has previously been associated with anxiety in both adults and children. However, no previous study has examined whether the ERN can predict the onset of anxiety disorders. In the current study, ERPs were recorded while 236 healthy children, approximately 6 years of age, performed a go/no-go task to measure the ERN. Three years later, children and parents came back to the lab and completed diagnostic interviews regarding anxiety disorder status. Results indicated that enhanced error-related brain activity at age 6 predicted the onset of new anxiety disorders by age 9, even when controlling for baseline anxiety symptoms and maternal history of anxiety. Considering the potential utility of identifying early biomarkers of risk, this is a novel and important extension of previous work.