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Fadli RA, Yamanouchi Y, Jovanovic LI, Popovic MR, Marquez-Chin C, Nomura T, Milosevic M. Effectiveness of motor and prefrontal cortical areas for brain-controlled functional electrical stimulation neuromodulation. J Neural Eng 2023; 20:056022. [PMID: 37714143 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/acfa22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
Objective. Brain-computer interface (BCI)-controlled functional electrical stimulation (FES) could excite the central nervous system to enhance upper limb motor recovery. Our current study assessed the effectiveness of motor and prefrontal cortical activity-based BCI-FES to help elucidate the underlying neuromodulation mechanisms of this neurorehabilitation approach.Approach. The primary motor cortex (M1) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) BCI-FES interventions were performed for 25 min on separate days with twelve non-disabled participants. During the interventions, a single electrode from the contralateral M1 or PFC was used to detect event-related desynchronization (ERD) in the calibrated frequency range. If the BCI system detected ERD within 15 s of motor imagery, FES activated wrist extensor muscles. Otherwise, if the BCI system did not detect ERD within 15 s, a subsequent trial was initiated without FES. To evaluate neuromodulation effects, corticospinal excitability was assessed using single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation, and cortical excitability was assessed by motor imagery ERD and resting-state functional connectivity before, immediately, 30 min, and 60 min after each intervention.Main results. M1 and PFC BCI-FES interventions had similar success rates of approximately 80%, while the M1 intervention was faster in detecting ERD activity. Consequently, only the M1 intervention effectively elicited corticospinal excitability changes for at least 60 min around the targeted cortical area in the M1, suggesting a degree of spatial localization. However, cortical excitability measures did not indicate changes after either M1 or PFC BCI-FES.Significance. Neural mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of BCI-FES neuromodulation may be attributed to the M1 direct corticospinal projections and/or the closer timing between ERD detection and FES, which likely enhanced Hebbian-like plasticity by synchronizing cortical activation detected by the BCI system with the sensory nerve activation and movement related reafference elicited by FES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rizaldi A Fadli
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka 560-8531, Japan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami College of Engineering, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States of America
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Terrace, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Yuki Yamanouchi
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Lazar I Jovanovic
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- KITE Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, 520 Sutherland Drive, Toronto, Ontario M4G 3V9, Canada
| | - Milos R Popovic
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- KITE Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, 520 Sutherland Drive, Toronto, Ontario M4G 3V9, Canada
- CRANIA, University Health Network & University of Toronto. 550 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2A2, Canada
| | - Cesar Marquez-Chin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- KITE Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute-University Health Network, 520 Sutherland Drive, Toronto, Ontario M4G 3V9, Canada
- CRANIA, University Health Network & University of Toronto. 550 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2A2, Canada
| | - Taishin Nomura
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Matija Milosevic
- Graduate School of Engineering Science, Department of Mechanical Science and Bioengineering, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka 560-8531, Japan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami College of Engineering, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States of America
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Terrace, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
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Behboodi A, Lee WA, Hinchberger VS, Damiano DL. Determining optimal mobile neurofeedback methods for motor neurorehabilitation in children and adults with non-progressive neurological disorders: a scoping review. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2022; 19:104. [PMID: 36171602 PMCID: PMC9516814 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-022-01081-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Brain–computer interfaces (BCI), initially designed to bypass the peripheral motor system to externally control movement using brain signals, are additionally being utilized for motor rehabilitation in stroke and other neurological disorders. Also called neurofeedback training, multiple approaches have been developed to link motor-related cortical signals to assistive robotic or electrical stimulation devices during active motor training with variable, but mostly positive, functional outcomes reported. Our specific research question for this scoping review was: for persons with non-progressive neurological injuries who have the potential to improve voluntary motor control, which mobile BCI-based neurofeedback methods demonstrate or are associated with improved motor outcomes for Neurorehabilitation applications? Methods We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases with all steps from study selection to data extraction performed independently by at least 2 individuals. Search terms included: brain machine or computer interfaces, neurofeedback and motor; however, only studies requiring a motor attempt, versus motor imagery, were retained. Data extraction included participant characteristics, study design details and motor outcomes. Results From 5109 papers, 139 full texts were reviewed with 23 unique studies identified. All utilized EEG and, except for one, were on the stroke population. The most commonly reported functional outcomes were the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA; n = 13) and the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT; n = 6) which were then utilized to assess effectiveness, evaluate design features, and correlate with training doses. Statistically and functionally significant pre-to post training changes were seen in FMA, but not ARAT. Results did not differ between robotic and electrical stimulation feedback paradigms. Notably, FMA outcomes were positively correlated with training dose. Conclusion This review on BCI-based neurofeedback training confirms previous findings of effectiveness in improving motor outcomes with some evidence of enhanced neuroplasticity in adults with stroke. Associative learning paradigms have emerged more recently which may be particularly feasible and effective methods for Neurorehabilitation. More clinical trials in pediatric and adult neurorehabilitation to refine methods and doses and to compare to other evidence-based training strategies are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahad Behboodi
- Rehabilitation Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Walker A Lee
- Rehabilitation Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Diane L Damiano
- Rehabilitation Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Remsik AB, van Kan PLE, Gloe S, Gjini K, Williams L, Nair V, Caldera K, Williams JC, Prabhakaran V. BCI-FES With Multimodal Feedback for Motor Recovery Poststroke. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:725715. [PMID: 35874158 PMCID: PMC9296822 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.725715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of research teams are investigating the efficacy of brain-computer interface (BCI)-mediated interventions for promoting motor recovery following stroke. A growing body of evidence suggests that of the various BCI designs, most effective are those that deliver functional electrical stimulation (FES) of upper extremity (UE) muscles contingent on movement intent. More specifically, BCI-FES interventions utilize algorithms that isolate motor signals-user-generated intent-to-move neural activity recorded from cerebral cortical motor areas-to drive electrical stimulation of individual muscles or muscle synergies. BCI-FES interventions aim to recover sensorimotor function of an impaired extremity by facilitating and/or inducing long-term motor learning-related neuroplastic changes in appropriate control circuitry. We developed a non-invasive, electroencephalogram (EEG)-based BCI-FES system that delivers closed-loop neural activity-triggered electrical stimulation of targeted distal muscles while providing the user with multimodal sensory feedback. This BCI-FES system consists of three components: (1) EEG acquisition and signal processing to extract real-time volitional and task-dependent neural command signals from cerebral cortical motor areas, (2) FES of muscles of the impaired hand contingent on the motor cortical neural command signals, and (3) multimodal sensory feedback associated with performance of the behavioral task, including visual information, linked activation of somatosensory afferents through intact sensorimotor circuits, and electro-tactile stimulation of the tongue. In this report, we describe device parameters and intervention protocols of our BCI-FES system which, combined with standard physical rehabilitation approaches, has proven efficacious in treating UE motor impairment in stroke survivors, regardless of level of impairment and chronicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander B. Remsik
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- School of Medicine and Public Health, Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Peter L. E. van Kan
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Shawna Gloe
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Klevest Gjini
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Leroy Williams
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Veena Nair
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Kristin Caldera
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Justin C. Williams
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Vivek Prabhakaran
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Zhan G, Chen S, Ji Y, Xu Y, Song Z, Wang J, Niu L, Bin J, Kang X, Jia J. EEG-Based Brain Network Analysis of Chronic Stroke Patients After BCI Rehabilitation Training. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:909610. [PMID: 35832876 PMCID: PMC9271662 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.909610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional rehabilitation strategies become difficult in the chronic phase stage of stroke prognosis. Brain–computer interface (BCI) combined with external devices may improve motor function in chronic stroke patients, but it lacks comprehensive assessments of neurological changes regarding functional rehabilitation. This study aimed to comprehensively and quantitatively investigate the changes in brain activity induced by BCI–FES training in patients with chronic stroke. We analyzed the EEG of two groups of patients with chronic stroke, one group received functional electrical stimulation (FES) rehabilitation training (FES group) and the other group received BCI combined with FES training (BCI–FES group). We constructed functional networks in both groups of patients based on direct directed transfer function (dDTF) and assessed the changes in brain activity using graph theory analysis. The results of this study can be summarized as follows: (i) after rehabilitation training, the Fugl–Meyer assessment scale (FMA) score was significantly improved in the BCI–FES group (p < 0.05), and there was no significant difference in the FES group. (ii) Both the global and local graph theory measures of the brain network of patients with chronic stroke in the BCI–FES group were improved after rehabilitation training. (iii) The node strength in the contralesional hemisphere and central region of patients in the BCI–FES group was significantly higher than that in the FES group after the intervention (p < 0.05), and a significant increase in the node strength of C4 in the contralesional sensorimotor cortex region could be observed in the BCI–FES group (p < 0.05). These results suggest that BCI–FES rehabilitation training can induce clinically significant improvements in motor function of patients with chronic stroke. It can improve the functional integration and functional separation of brain networks and boost compensatory activity in the contralesional hemisphere to a certain extent. The findings of our study may provide new insights into understanding the plastic changes of brain activity in patients with chronic stroke induced by BCI–FES rehabilitation training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gege Zhan
- Laboratory for Neural Interface and Brain Computer Interface, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute of AI and Robotics, Academy for Engineering and Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shugeng Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanyun Ji
- Shanghai Jinshan Zhongren Geriatric Nursing Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Xu
- Shanghai Jinshan Zhongren Geriatric Nursing Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zuoting Song
- Laboratory for Neural Interface and Brain Computer Interface, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute of AI and Robotics, Academy for Engineering and Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Junkongshuai Wang
- Laboratory for Neural Interface and Brain Computer Interface, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute of AI and Robotics, Academy for Engineering and Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan Niu
- Ji Hua Laboratory, Foshan, China
| | | | - Xiaoyang Kang
- Laboratory for Neural Interface and Brain Computer Interface, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of AI and Robotics, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institute of AI and Robotics, Academy for Engineering and Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Ji Hua Laboratory, Foshan, China
- Yiwu Research Institute of Fudan University, Yiwu, China
- Research Center for Intelligent Sensing, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyang Kang
| | - Jie Jia
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
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Girges C, Vijiaratnam N, Zrinzo L, Ekanayake J, Foltynie T. Volitional Control of Brain Motor Activity and Its Therapeutic Potential. Neuromodulation 2022; 25:1187-1196. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurom.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Li C, Wei J, Huang X, Duan Q, Zhang T. Effects of a Brain-Computer Interface-Operated Lower Limb Rehabilitation Robot on Motor Function Recovery in Patients with Stroke. JOURNAL OF HEALTHCARE ENGINEERING 2021; 2021:4710044. [PMID: 34966524 PMCID: PMC8712171 DOI: 10.1155/2021/4710044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To observe the effect of a brain-computer interface-operated lower limb rehabilitation robot (BCI-LLRR) on functional recovery from stroke and to explore mechanisms. Methods Subacute-phase stroke patients were randomly divided into two groups. In addition to the routine intervention, patients in the treatment group trained on the BCI-LLRR and underwent the lower limb pedal training in the control group, both for the same time (30 min/day). All patients underwent assessment by instruments such as the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and the Fugl-Meyer upper and lower limb motor function and balance tests, at 2 and 4 weeks of treatment and at 3 months after the end of treatment. Patients were also tested before treatment and after 4 weeks by leg motor evoked potential (MEP) and diffusion tensor imaging/tractography (DTI/DTT) of the head. Results After 4 weeks, the Fugl-Meyer leg function and NIHSS scores were significantly improved in the treatment group vs. controls (P < 0.01). At 3 months, further significant improvement was observed. The MEP amplitude and latency of the treatment group were significantly improved vs. controls. The effect of treatment on fractional anisotropy values was not significant. Conclusions The BCI-LLRR promoted leg functional recovery after stroke and improved activities of daily living, possibly by improving cerebral-cortex excitability and white matter connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Department of Neurology, The People's Hospital of China Three Gorges University.The First People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang, China
| | - Jinyu Wei
- Department of Ultrasound, Yichang Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital. Yichang Children's Hospital, Yichang, China
| | - Xiaoqun Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The People's Hospital of China Three Gorges University.The First People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang, China
| | - Qiang Duan
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The People's Hospital of China Three Gorges University.The First People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Radiology, The People's Hospital of China Three Gorges University.The First People's Hospital of Yichang, Yichang, China
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7
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Remsik AB, Gjini K, Williams L, van Kan PLE, Gloe S, Bjorklund E, Rivera CA, Romero S, Young BM, Nair VA, Caldera KE, Williams JC, Prabhakaran V. Ipsilesional Mu Rhythm Desynchronization Correlates With Improvements in Affected Hand Grip Strength and Functional Connectivity in Sensorimotor Cortices Following BCI-FES Intervention for Upper Extremity in Stroke Survivors. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:725645. [PMID: 34776902 PMCID: PMC8581197 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.725645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of acquired long-term upper extremity motor disability. Current standard of care trajectories fail to deliver sufficient motor rehabilitation to stroke survivors. Recent research suggests that use of brain-computer interface (BCI) devices improves motor function in stroke survivors, regardless of stroke severity and chronicity, and may induce and/or facilitate neuroplastic changes associated with motor rehabilitation. The present sub analyses of ongoing crossover-controlled trial NCT02098265 examine first whether, during movements of the affected hand compared to rest, ipsilesional Mu rhythm desynchronization of cerebral cortical sensorimotor areas [Brodmann’s areas (BA) 1-7] is localized and tracks with changes in grip force strength. Secondly, we test the hypothesis that BCI intervention results in changes in frequency-specific directional flow of information transmission (direct path functional connectivity) in BA 1-7 by measuring changes in isolated effective coherence (iCoh) between cerebral cortical sensorimotor areas thought to relate to electrophysiological signatures of motor actions and motor learning. A sample of 16 stroke survivors with right hemisphere lesions (left hand motor impairment), received a maximum of 18–30 h of BCI intervention. Electroencephalograms were recorded during intervention sessions while outcome measures of motor function and capacity were assessed at baseline and completion of intervention. Greater desynchronization of Mu rhythm, during movements of the impaired hand compared to rest, were primarily localized to ipsilesional sensorimotor cortices (BA 1-7). In addition, increased Mu desynchronization in the ipsilesional primary motor cortex, Post vs. Pre BCI intervention, correlated significantly with improvements in hand function as assessed by grip force measurements. Moreover, the results show a significant change in the direction of causal information flow, as measured by iCoh, toward the ipsilesional motor (BA 4) and ipsilesional premotor cortices (BA 6) during BCI intervention. Significant iCoh increases from ipsilesional BA 4 to ipsilesional BA 6 were observed in both Mu [8–12 Hz] and Beta [18–26 Hz] frequency ranges. In summary, the present results are indicative of improvements in motor capacity and behavior, and they are consistent with the view that BCI-FES intervention improves functional motor capacity of the ipsilesional hemisphere and the impaired hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander B Remsik
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Klevest Gjini
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Leroy Williams
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Center for Women's Health Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Peter L E van Kan
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Shawna Gloe
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Erik Bjorklund
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Clinical Neuroengineering Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Cameron A Rivera
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Sophia Romero
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Brittany M Young
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States.,Clinical Neuroengineering Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Veena A Nair
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Kristin E Caldera
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Justin C Williams
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Vivek Prabhakaran
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Hu M, Cheng HJ, Ji F, Chong JSX, Lu Z, Huang W, Ang KK, Phua KS, Chuang KH, Jiang X, Chew E, Guan C, Zhou JH. Brain Functional Changes in Stroke Following Rehabilitation Using Brain-Computer Interface-Assisted Motor Imagery With and Without tDCS: A Pilot Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:692304. [PMID: 34335210 PMCID: PMC8322606 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.692304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-computer interface-assisted motor imagery (MI-BCI) or transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been proven effective in post-stroke motor function enhancement, yet whether the combination of MI-BCI and tDCS may further benefit the rehabilitation of motor functions remains unknown. This study investigated brain functional activity and connectivity changes after a 2 week MI-BCI and tDCS combined intervention in 19 chronic subcortical stroke patients. Patients were randomized into MI-BCI with tDCS group and MI-BCI only group who underwent 10 sessions of 20 min real or sham tDCS followed by 1 h MI-BCI training with robotic feedback. We derived amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), regional homogeneity (ReHo), and functional connectivity (FC) from resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data pre- and post-intervention. At baseline, stroke patients had lower ALFF in the ipsilesional somatomotor network (SMN), lower ReHo in the contralesional insula, and higher ALFF/Reho in the bilateral posterior default mode network (DMN) compared to age-matched healthy controls. After the intervention, the MI-BCI only group showed increased ALFF in contralesional SMN and decreased ALFF/Reho in the posterior DMN. In contrast, no post-intervention changes were detected in the MI-BCI + tDCS group. Furthermore, higher increases in ALFF/ReHo/FC measures were related to better motor function recovery (measured by the Fugl-Meyer Assessment scores) in the MI-BCI group while the opposite association was detected in the MI-BCI + tDCS group. Taken together, our findings suggest that brain functional re-normalization and network-specific compensation were found in the MI-BCI only group but not in the MI-BCI + tDCS group although both groups gained significant motor function improvement post-intervention with no group difference. MI-BCI and tDCS may exert differential or even opposing impact on brain functional reorganization during post-stroke motor rehabilitation; therefore, the integration of the two strategies requires further refinement to improve efficacy and effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjiao Hu
- NTU Institute for Health Technologies, Interdisciplinary Graduate Programme, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Center for Sleep and Cognition, Center for Translational MR Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hsiao-Ju Cheng
- Center for Sleep and Cognition, Center for Translational MR Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Fang Ji
- Center for Sleep and Cognition, Center for Translational MR Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joanna Su Xian Chong
- Center for Sleep and Cognition, Center for Translational MR Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zhongkang Lu
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Weimin Huang
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kai Keng Ang
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore.,School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kok Soon Phua
- Institute for Infocomm Research, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kai-Hsiang Chuang
- Singapore Bioimaging Consortium, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore.,Queensland Brain Institute and Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Xudong Jiang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Effie Chew
- Division of Neurology, University Medicine Cluster, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Cuntai Guan
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Juan Helen Zhou
- Center for Sleep and Cognition, Center for Translational MR Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme (ISEP), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Mattos DJS, Rutlin J, Hong X, Zinn K, Shimony JS, Carter AR. White matter integrity of contralesional and transcallosal tracts may predict response to upper limb task-specific training in chronic stroke. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2021; 31:102710. [PMID: 34126348 PMCID: PMC8209270 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Increase in upper limb function post task specific training in chronic stroke. Motor improvements were not accompanied by changes in white matter integrity. Integrity in contralesional fibers predicted larger motor recovery in Responders. Non-responders had more severe damage of transcallosal fibers than Responders.
Objective To investigate white matter (WM) plasticity induced by intensive upper limb (UL) task specific training (TST) in chronic stroke. Methods Diffusion tensor imaging data and UL function measured by the Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) were collected in 30 individuals with chronic stroke prior to and after intensive TST. ANOVAs tested the effects of training on the entire sample and on the Responders [ΔARAT ≥ 5.8, N = 13] and Non-Responders [ΔARAT < 5.8, N = 17] groups. Baseline fractional anisotropy (FA) values were correlated with ARATpost TST controlling for baseline ARAT and age to identify voxels predictive of response to TST. Results. While ARAT scores increased following training (p < 0.0001), FA changes within major WM tracts were not significant at p < 0.05. In the Responder group, larger baseline FA of both contralesional (CL) and transcallosal tracts predicted larger ARAT scores post-TST. Subcortical lesions and more severe damage to transcallosal tracts were more pronounced in the Non-Responder than in the Responder group. Conclusions The motor improvements post-TST in the Responder group may reflect the engagement of interhemispheric processes not available to the Non-Responder group. Future studies should clarify differences in the role of CL and transcallosal pathways as biomarkers of recovery in response to training for individuals with cortical and subcortical stroke. This knowledge may help to identify sources of heterogeneity in stroke recovery, which is necessary for the development of customized rehabilitation interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela J S Mattos
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Jerrel Rutlin
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Xin Hong
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Kristina Zinn
- Department of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Joshua S Shimony
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Alexandre R Carter
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110 USA.
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Yoo IG. Electroencephalogram-based neurofeedback training in persons with stroke: A scoping review in occupational therapy. NeuroRehabilitation 2021; 48:9-18. [PMID: 33386824 DOI: 10.3233/nre-201579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurofeedback training targets the relevant brain response under minimal stress. It could be a promising approach for the treatment of patients with brain injury. OBJECTIVE This review aimed to examine the existing literature to confirm the effectiveness of applied electroencephalogram (EEG)-based neurofeedback training in the area of occupational therapy for upper limb stroke rehabilitation. METHOD All relevant literature published until July 1, 2020 in five prominent databases (PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, MEDLINE Complete, and Web of Science) was reviewed, based on the five-step review framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley. RESULTS After a thorough review, a total of 14 studies were included in this review. Almost studies reported significant improvements as a result of EEG-based neurofeedback training, but this had not always account for the differences in effectiveness between groups. However, the results of these studies suggested that neurofeedback training was effective as compared to the traditional treatment and more effective in combination with EEG than that with simple equipment application. CONCLUSION This review demonstrated the effectiveness of the combination of occupational therapy and EEG-based neurofeedback training. Most of these treatments are intended for inpatients, but they may be more effective for outpatients, especially if customized to their requirements. Also, such explorations to assess the suitability of the treatment for patient rehabilitation will help reduce barriers to effective interventions. An analysis of the opinions of participants and experts through satisfaction surveys will be helpful.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G Yoo
- Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medical Sciences, Jeonju University, Hyoja-dong 3-ga, Wansan-gu, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, 560-759, Republic of Korea
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Yuan K, Chen C, Wang X, Chu WCW, Tong RKY. BCI Training Effects on Chronic Stroke Correlate with Functional Reorganization in Motor-Related Regions: A Concurrent EEG and fMRI Study. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11010056. [PMID: 33418846 PMCID: PMC7824842 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain–computer interface (BCI)-guided robot-assisted training strategy has been increasingly applied to stroke rehabilitation, while few studies have investigated the neuroplasticity change and functional reorganization after intervention from multimodality neuroimaging perspective. The present study aims to investigate the hemodynamic and electrophysical changes induced by BCI training using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) respectively, as well as the relationship between the neurological changes and motor function improvement. Fourteen chronic stroke subjects received 20 sessions of BCI-guided robot hand training. Simultaneous EEG and fMRI data were acquired before and immediately after the intervention. Seed-based functional connectivity for resting-state fMRI data and effective connectivity analysis for EEG were processed to reveal the neuroplasticity changes and interaction between different brain regions. Moreover, the relationship among motor function improvement, hemodynamic changes, and electrophysical changes derived from the two neuroimaging modalities was also investigated. This work suggested that (a) significant motor function improvement could be obtained after BCI training therapy, (b) training effect significantly correlated with functional connectivity change between ipsilesional M1 (iM1) and contralesional Brodmann area 6 (including premotor area (cPMA) and supplementary motor area (SMA)) derived from fMRI, (c) training effect significantly correlated with information flow change from cPMA to iM1 and strongly correlated with information flow change from SMA to iM1 derived from EEG, and (d) consistency of fMRI and EEG results illustrated by the correlation between functional connectivity change and information flow change. Our study showed changes in the brain after the BCI training therapy from chronic stroke survivors and provided a better understanding of neural mechanisms, especially the interaction among motor-related brain regions during stroke recovery. Besides, our finding demonstrated the feasibility and consistency of combining multiple neuroimaging modalities to investigate the neuroplasticity change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; (K.Y.); (C.C.); (X.W.)
| | - Cheng Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; (K.Y.); (C.C.); (X.W.)
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; (K.Y.); (C.C.); (X.W.)
| | - Winnie Chiu-wing Chu
- Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong;
| | - Raymond Kai-yu Tong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; (K.Y.); (C.C.); (X.W.)
- Correspondence:
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12
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Pillette L, Lotte F, N'Kaoua B, Joseph PA, Jeunet C, Glize B. Why we should systematically assess, control and report somatosensory impairments in BCI-based motor rehabilitation after stroke studies. Neuroimage Clin 2020; 28:102417. [PMID: 33039972 PMCID: PMC7551360 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal loss resulting from stroke forces 80% of the patients to undergo motor rehabilitation, for which Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) and NeuroFeedback (NF) can be used. During the rehabilitation, when patients attempt or imagine performing a movement, BCIs/NF provide them with a synchronized sensory (e.g., tactile) feedback based on their sensorimotor-related brain activity that aims at fostering brain plasticity and motor recovery. The co-activation of ascending (i.e., somatosensory) and descending (i.e., motor) networks indeed enables significant functional motor improvement, together with significant sensorimotor-related neurophysiological changes. Somatosensory abilities are essential for patients to perceive the feedback provided by the BCI system. Thus, somatosensory impairments may significantly alter the efficiency of BCI-based motor rehabilitation. In order to precisely understand and assess the impact of somatosensory impairments, we first review the literature on post-stroke BCI-based motor rehabilitation (14 randomized clinical trials). We show that despite the central role that somatosensory abilities play on BCI-based motor rehabilitation post-stroke, the latter are rarely reported and used as inclusion/exclusion criteria in the literature on the matter. We then argue that somatosensory abilities have repeatedly been shown to influence the motor rehabilitation outcome, in general. This stresses the importance of also considering them and reporting them in the literature in BCI-based rehabilitation after stroke, especially since half of post-stroke patients suffer from somatosensory impairments. We argue that somatosensory abilities should systematically be assessed, controlled and reported if we want to precisely assess the influence they have on BCI efficiency. Not doing so could result in the misinterpretation of reported results, while doing so could improve (1) our understanding of the mechanisms underlying motor recovery (2) our ability to adapt the therapy to the patients' impairments and (3) our comprehension of the between-subject and between-study variability of therapeutic outcomes mentioned in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Pillette
- Inria, 200 av.de la Vieille Tour, 33400 Talence, France; LaBRI (Univ.Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux-INP), 351, cours de la Libération, 33405 Talence, France.
| | - Fabien Lotte
- Inria, 200 av.de la Vieille Tour, 33400 Talence, France; LaBRI (Univ.Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux-INP), 351, cours de la Libération, 33405 Talence, France.
| | - Bernard N'Kaoua
- Handicap, Activity, Cognition, Health, Inserm/University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux cedex, France.
| | - Pierre-Alain Joseph
- Handicap, Activity, Cognition, Health, Inserm/University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux cedex, France; Service MPR Pôle de Neurosciences Cliniques CHU, University of Bordeaux, Place Amélie Raba-Léon, 33000 Bordeaux cedex, France.
| | - Camille Jeunet
- CLLE (CNRS, Univ.Toulouse Jean Jaurès), 5 Allées Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse cedex 9, France.
| | - Bertrand Glize
- Handicap, Activity, Cognition, Health, Inserm/University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux cedex, France; Service MPR Pôle de Neurosciences Cliniques CHU, University of Bordeaux, Place Amélie Raba-Léon, 33000 Bordeaux cedex, France.
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13
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Neurofeedback of scalp bi-hemispheric EEG sensorimotor rhythm guides hemispheric activation of sensorimotor cortex in the targeted hemisphere. Neuroimage 2020; 223:117298. [PMID: 32828924 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Oscillatory electroencephalographic (EEG) activity is associated with the excitability of cortical regions. Visual feedback of EEG-oscillations may promote sensorimotor cortical activation, but its spatial specificity is not truly guaranteed due to signal interaction among interhemispheric brain regions. Guiding spatially specific activation is important for facilitating neural rehabilitation processes. Here, we tested whether users could explicitly guide sensorimotor cortical activity to the contralateral or ipsilateral hemisphere using a spatially bivariate EEG-based neurofeedback that monitors bi-hemispheric sensorimotor cortical activities for healthy participants. Two different motor imageries (shoulder and hand MIs) were selected to see how differences in intrinsic corticomuscular projection patterns might influence activity lateralization. We showed sensorimotor cortical activities during shoulder, but not hand MI, can be brought under ipsilateral control with guided EEG-based neurofeedback. These results are compatible with neuroanatomy; shoulder muscles are innervated bihemispherically, whereas hand muscles are mostly innervated contralaterally. We demonstrate the neuroanatomically-inspired approach enables us to investigate potent neural remodeling functions that underlie EEG-based neurofeedback via a BCI.
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15
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Caria A, da Rocha JLD, Gallitto G, Birbaumer N, Sitaram R, Murguialday AR. Brain-Machine Interface Induced Morpho-Functional Remodeling of the Neural Motor System in Severe Chronic Stroke. Neurotherapeutics 2020; 17:635-650. [PMID: 31802435 PMCID: PMC7283440 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-019-00816-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-machine interfaces (BMI) permit bypass motor system disruption by coupling contingent neuroelectric signals related to motor activity with prosthetic devices that enhance afferent and proprioceptive feedback to the somatosensory cortex. In this study, we investigated neural plasticity in the motor network of severely impaired chronic stroke patients after an EEG-BMI-based treatment reinforcing sensorimotor contingency of ipsilesional motor commands. Our structural connectivity analysis revealed decreased fractional anisotropy in the splenium and body of the corpus callosum, and in the contralesional hemisphere in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, the posterior thalamic radiation, and the superior corona radiata. Functional connectivity analysis showed decreased negative interhemispheric coupling between contralesional and ipsilesional sensorimotor regions, and decreased positive intrahemispheric coupling among contralesional sensorimotor regions. These findings indicate that BMI reinforcing ipsilesional brain activity and enhancing proprioceptive function of the affected hand elicits reorganization of contralesional and ipsilesional somatosensory and motor-assemblies as well as afferent and efferent connection-related motor circuits that support the partial re-establishment of the original neurophysiology of the motor system even in severe chronic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Caria
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Corso Bettini 33, 38068, Rovereto, Italy.
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Fondazione Ospedale San Camillo, Venice, Italy.
- Institut für Medizinische Psychologie und Verhaltensneurobiologie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Josué Luiz Dalboni da Rocha
- Brain and Language Laboratory, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giuseppe Gallitto
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Corso Bettini 33, 38068, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Niels Birbaumer
- Institut für Medizinische Psychologie und Verhaltensneurobiologie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ranganatha Sitaram
- Institute of Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Department of Psychiatry, Section of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratory for Brain-Machine Interfaces and Neuromodulation, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ander Ramos Murguialday
- Institut für Medizinische Psychologie und Verhaltensneurobiologie, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Health Technologies Department, TECNALIA, San Sebastian, Spain
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16
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Pichiorri F, Mattia D. Brain-computer interfaces in neurologic rehabilitation practice. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 168:101-116. [PMID: 32164846 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63934-9.00009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) for neurologic rehabilitation are based on the assumption that by retraining the brain to specific activities, an ultimate improvement of function can be expected. In this chapter, we review the present status, key determinants, and future directions of the clinical use of BCI in neurorehabilitation. The recent advancements in noninvasive BCIs as a therapeutic tool to promote functional motor recovery by inducing neuroplasticity are described, focusing on stroke as it represents the major cause of long-term motor disability. The relevance of recent findings on BCI use in spinal cord injury beyond the control of neuroprosthetic devices to restore motor function is briefly discussed. In a dedicated section, we examine the potential role of BCI technology in the domain of cognitive function recovery by instantiating BCIs in the long history of neurofeedback and some emerging BCI paradigms to address cognitive rehabilitation are highlighted. Despite the knowledge acquired over the last decade and the growing number of studies providing evidence for clinical efficacy of BCI in motor rehabilitation, an exhaustive deployment of this technology in clinical practice is still on its way. The pipeline to translate BCI to clinical practice in neurorehabilitation is the subject of this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriana Pichiorri
- Neuroelectrical Imaging and Brain Computer Interface Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Mattia
- Neuroelectrical Imaging and Brain Computer Interface Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
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17
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Huggins JE, Guger C, Aarnoutse E, Allison B, Anderson CW, Bedrick S, Besio W, Chavarriaga R, Collinger JL, Do AH, Herff C, Hohmann M, Kinsella M, Lee K, Lotte F, Müller-Putz G, Nijholt A, Pels E, Peters B, Putze F, Rupp R, Schalk G, Scott S, Tangermann M, Tubig P, Zander T. Workshops of the Seventh International Brain-Computer Interface Meeting: Not Getting Lost in Translation. BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACES 2019; 6:71-101. [PMID: 33033729 PMCID: PMC7539697 DOI: 10.1080/2326263x.2019.1697163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Seventh International Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) Meeting was held May 21-25th, 2018 at the Asilomar Conference Grounds, Pacific Grove, California, United States. The interactive nature of this conference was embodied by 25 workshops covering topics in BCI (also called brain-machine interface) research. Workshops covered foundational topics such as hardware development and signal analysis algorithms, new and imaginative topics such as BCI for virtual reality and multi-brain BCIs, and translational topics such as clinical applications and ethical assumptions of BCI development. BCI research is expanding in the diversity of applications and populations for whom those applications are being developed. BCI applications are moving toward clinical readiness as researchers struggle with the practical considerations to make sure that BCI translational efforts will be successful. This paper summarizes each workshop, providing an overview of the topic of discussion, references for additional information, and identifying future issues for research and development that resulted from the interactions and discussion at the workshop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Huggins
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States, 325 East Eisenhower, Room 3017; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108-5744
| | - Christoph Guger
- g.tec medical engineering GmbH/Guger Technologies OG, Austria, Sierningstrasse 14, 4521 Schiedlberg, Austria
| | - Erik Aarnoutse
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Brendan Allison
- Dept. of Cognitive Science, Mail Code 0515, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Charles W Anderson
- Department of Computer Science, Molecular, Cellular and Integrative Neurosience Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523
| | - Steven Bedrick
- Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239
| | - Walter Besio
- Department of Electrical, Computer, & Biomedical Engineering and Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA, CREmedical Corp. Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Ricardo Chavarriaga
- Defitech Chair in Brain-Machine Interface (CNBI), Center for Neuroprosthetics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne - EPFL, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer L Collinger
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Department of Veterans Affairs, 3520 5th Ave, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213
| | - An H Do
- UC Irvine Brain Computer Interface Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Irvine
| | - Christian Herff
- School of Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Matthias Hohmann
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Department for Empirical Inference, Max-Planck-Ring 4, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michelle Kinsella
- Oregon Health & Science University, Institute on Development & Disability, 707 SW Gaines St, #1290, Portland, OR 97239
| | - Kyuhwa Lee
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne-EPFL
| | - Fabien Lotte
- Inria Bordeaux Sud-Ouest, LaBRI (Univ. Bordeaux/CNRS/Bordeaux INP), 200 avenue de la vieille tour, 33405, Talence Cedex, France
| | | | - Anton Nijholt
- Faculty EEMCS, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Elmar Pels
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Betts Peters
- Oregon Health & Science University, Institute on Development & Disability, 707 SW Gaines St, #1290, Portland, OR 97239
| | - Felix Putze
- University of Bremen, Germany, Cognitive Systems Lab, University of Bremen, Enrique-Schmidt-Straße 5 (Cartesium), 28359 Bremen
| | - Rüdiger Rupp
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital
| | - Gerwin Schalk
- National Center for Adaptive Neurotechnologies, Wadsworth Center, NYS Dept. of Health, Dept. of Neurology, Albany Medical College, Dept. of Biomed. Sci., State Univ. of New York at Albany, Center for Medical Sciences 2003, 150 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208
| | - Stephanie Scott
- Department of Media Communications, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523
| | - Michael Tangermann
- Brain State Decoding Lab, Cluster of Excellence BrainLinks-BrainTools, Computer Science Dept., University of Freiburg, Germany, Autonomous Intelligent Systems Lab, Computer Science Dept., University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Paul Tubig
- Department of Philosophy, Center for Neurotechnology, University of Washington, Savery Hall, Room 361, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Thorsten Zander
- Team PhyPA, Biological Psychology and Neuroergonomics, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany, 7 Zander Laboratories B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Carvalho R, Dias N, Cerqueira JJ. Brain-machine interface of upper limb recovery in stroke patients rehabilitation: A systematic review. PHYSIOTHERAPY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 24:e1764. [PMID: 30609208 DOI: 10.1002/pri.1764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Technologies such as brain-computer interfaces are able to guide mental practice, in particular motor imagery performance, to promote recovery in stroke patients, as a combined approach to conventional therapy. OBJECTIVE The aim of this systematic review was to provide a status report regarding advances in brain-computer interface, focusing in particular in upper limb motor recovery. METHODS The databases PubMed, Scopus, and PEDro were systematically searched for articles published between January 2010 and December 2017. The selected studies were randomized controlled trials involving brain-computer interface interventions in stroke patients, with upper limb assessment as primary outcome measures. Reviewers independently extracted data and assessed the methodological quality of the trials, using the PEDro methodologic rating scale. RESULTS From 309 titles, we included nine studies with high quality (PEDro ≥ 6). We found that the most common interface used was non-invasive electroencephalography, and the main neurofeedback, in stroke rehabilitation, was usually visual abstract or a combination with the control of an orthosis/robotic limb. Moreover, the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Scale was a major outcome measure in eight out of nine studies. In addition, the benefits of functional electric stimulation associated to an interface were found in three studies. CONCLUSIONS Neurofeedback training with brain-computer interface systems seem to promote clinical and neurophysiologic changes in stroke patients, in particular those with long-term efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Carvalho
- Department of Physical Therapy, CESPU, Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Gandra, Portugal.,Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Nuno Dias
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,2Ai - Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal
| | - João José Cerqueira
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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Remsik AB, Dodd K, Williams L, Thoma J, Jacobson T, Allen JD, Advani H, Mohanty R, McMillan M, Rajan S, Walczak M, Young BM, Nigogosyan Z, Rivera CA, Mazrooyisebdani M, Tellapragada N, Walton LM, Gjini K, van Kan PL, Kang TJ, Sattin JA, Nair VA, Edwards DF, Williams JC, Prabhakaran V. Behavioral Outcomes Following Brain-Computer Interface Intervention for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation in Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:752. [PMID: 30467461 PMCID: PMC6235950 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of persistent upper extremity (UE) motor disability in adults. Brain-computer interface (BCI) intervention has demonstrated potential as a motor rehabilitation strategy for stroke survivors. This sub-analysis of ongoing clinical trial (NCT02098265) examines rehabilitative efficacy of this BCI design and seeks to identify stroke participant characteristics associated with behavioral improvement. Stroke participants (n = 21) with UE impairment were assessed using Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) and measures of function. Nine participants completed three assessments during the experimental BCI intervention period and at 1-month follow-up. Twelve other participants first completed three assessments over a parallel time-matched control period and then crossed over into the BCI intervention condition 1-month later. Participants who realized positive change (≥1 point) in total ARAT performance of the stroke affected UE between the first and third assessments of the intervention period were dichotomized as "responders" (<1 = "non-responders") and similarly analyzed. Of the 14 participants with room for ARAT improvement, 64% (9/14) showed some positive change at completion and approximately 43% (6/14) of the participants had changes of minimal detectable change (MDC = 3 pts) or minimally clinical important difference (MCID = 5.7 points). Participants with room for improvement in the primary outcome measure made significant mean gains in ARATtotal score at completion (ΔARATtotal = 2, p = 0.028) and 1-month follow-up (ΔARATtotal = 3.4, p = 0.0010), controlling for severity, gender, chronicity, and concordance. Secondary outcome measures, SISmobility, SISadl, SISstrength, and 9HPTaffected, also showed significant improvement over time during intervention. Participants in intervention through follow-up showed a significantly increased improvement rate in SISstrength compared to controls (p = 0.0117), controlling for severity, chronicity, gender, as well as the individual effects of time and intervention type. Participants who best responded to BCI intervention, as evaluated by ARAT score improvement, showed significantly increased outcome values through completion and follow-up for SISmobility (p = 0.0002, p = 0.002) and SISstrength (p = 0.04995, p = 0.0483). These findings may suggest possible secondary outcome measure patterns indicative of increased improvement resulting from this BCI intervention regimen as well as demonstrating primary efficacy of this BCI design for treatment of UE impairment in stroke survivors. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02098265.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander B. Remsik
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Keith Dodd
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Leroy Williams
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Center for Women’s Health Research, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Jaclyn Thoma
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Tyler Jacobson
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Janerra D. Allen
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Hemali Advani
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Rosaleena Mohanty
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Matt McMillan
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Shruti Rajan
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Matt Walczak
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Brittany M. Young
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
- Clinical Neuroengineering Training Program, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Zack Nigogosyan
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Cameron A. Rivera
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Neelima Tellapragada
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Leo M. Walton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Klevest Gjini
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Peter L.E. van Kan
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Theresa J. Kang
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Justin A. Sattin
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Veena A. Nair
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Dorothy Farrar Edwards
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Justin C. Williams
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Vivek Prabhakaran
- Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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20
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Caeyenberghs K, Clemente A, Imms P, Egan G, Hocking DR, Leemans A, Metzler-Baddeley C, Jones DK, Wilson PH. Evidence for Training-Dependent Structural Neuroplasticity in Brain-Injured Patients: A Critical Review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2018; 32:99-114. [PMID: 29357743 DOI: 10.1177/1545968317753076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Acquired brain injury (ABI) is associated with a range of cognitive and motor deficits, and poses a significant personal, societal, and economic burden. Rehabilitation programs are available that target motor skills or cognitive functioning. In this review, we summarize the existing evidence that training may enhance structural neuroplasticity in patients with ABI, as assessed using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based techniques that probe microstructure or morphology. Twenty-five research articles met key inclusion criteria. Most trials measured relevant outcomes and had treatment benefits that would justify the risk of potential harm. The rehabilitation program included a variety of task-oriented movement exercises (such as facilitation therapy, postural control training), neurorehabilitation techniques (such as constraint-induced movement therapy) or computer-assisted training programs (eg, Cogmed program). The reviewed studies describe regional alterations in white matter architecture and/or gray matter volume with training. Only weak-to-moderate correlations were observed between improved behavioral function and structural changes. While structural MRI is a powerful tool for detection of longitudinal structural changes, specific measures about the underlying biological mechanisms are lacking. Continued work in this field may potentially see structural MRI metrics used as biomarkers to help guide treatment at the individual patient level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Clemente
- 1 Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Phoebe Imms
- 1 Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gary Egan
- 2 Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | - Peter H Wilson
- 1 Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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21
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Dodd KC, Nair VA, Prabhakaran V. Role of the Contralesional vs. Ipsilesional Hemisphere in Stroke Recovery. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:469. [PMID: 28983244 PMCID: PMC5613154 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Following a stroke, the resulting lesion creates contralateral motor impairment and an interhemispheric imbalance involving hyperexcitability of the contralesional hemisphere. Neuronal reorganization may occur on both the ipsilesional and contralesional hemispheres during recovery to regain motor functionality and therefore bilateral activation for the hemiparetic side is often observed. Although ipsilesional hemispheric reorganization is traditionally thought to be most important for successful recovery, definitive conclusions into the role and importance of the contralesional motor cortex remain under debate. Through examining recent research in functional neuroimaging investigating motor cortex changes post-stroke, as well as brain-computer interface (BCI) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) therapies, this review attempts to clarify the contributions of each hemisphere toward recovery. Several functional magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that continuation of contralesional hemisphere hyperexcitability correlates with lesser recovery, however a subset of well-recovered patients demonstrate contralesional motor activity and show decreased functional capability when the contralesional hemisphere is inhibited. BCI therapy may beneficially activate either the contralesional or ipsilesional hemisphere, depending on the study design, for chronic stroke patients who are otherwise at a functional plateau. Repetitive TMS used to excite the ipsilesional motor cortex or inhibit the contralesional hemisphere has shown promise in enhancing stroke patients' recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith C Dodd
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States
| | - Veena A Nair
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States
| | - Vivek Prabhakaran
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States.,Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, United States
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22
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Shimamura N, Katagai T, Kakuta K, Matsuda N, Katayama K, Fujiwara N, Watanabe Y, Naraoka M, Ohkuma H. Rehabilitation and the Neural Network After Stroke. Transl Stroke Res 2017; 8:507-514. [PMID: 28681346 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-017-0550-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stroke remains a major cause of disability throughout the world: paralysis, cognitive impairment, aphasia, and so on. Surgical or medical intervention is curative in only a small number of cases. Nearly all stroke cases require rehabilitation. Neurorehabilitation generally improves patient outcome, but it sometimes has no effect or even a mal-influence. The aim of this review is the clarification of the mechanisms of neurorehabilitation. We systematically reviewed recently published articles on neural network remodeling, especially from 2014 to 2016. Finally, we summarize progress in neurorehabilitation and discuss future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norihito Shimamura
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan.
| | - Takeshi Katagai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Kiyohide Kakuta
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Naoya Matsuda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Kosuke Katayama
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Nozomi Fujiwara
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Yuuka Watanabe
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Masato Naraoka
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
| | - Hiroki Ohkuma
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5-Zaihuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori, 036-8562, Japan
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