FeTPPS Reduces Secondary Damage and Improves Neurobehavioral Functions after Traumatic Brain Injury

Vascular oxidative stress causes neutrophil arrest in brain capillaries, leading to decreased cerebral blood flow and contributing to memory impairment in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

INTRODUCTION

In this study, we explore the role of oxidative stress produced by NOX2-containing NADPH oxidase as a molecular mechanism causing capillary stalling and cerebral blood flow deficits in the APP/PS1 mouse model of AD.

METHODS

We inhibited NOX2 in APP/PS1 mice by administering a 10 mg/kg dose of the peptide inhibitor gp91-ds-tat i.p., for two weeks. We used in vivo two-photon imaging to measure capillary stalling, penetrating arteriole flow, and vascular inflammation. We also characterized short-term memory function and gene expression changes in cerebral microvessels.

RESULTS

We found that after NOX2 inhibition capillary stalling, as well as parenchymal and vascular inflammation, were significantly reduced. In addition, we found a significant increase in penetrating arteriole flow, followed by an improvement in short-term memory, and downregulation of inflammatory gene expression pathways.

DISCUSSION

Oxidative stress is a major mechanism leading to microvascular dysfunction in AD, and represents an important therapeutic target.

Iron dyshomeostasis and time-course changes in iron-uptake systems and ferritin level in relation to pro-inflammatory microglia polarization in sepsis-induced encephalopathy

Encephalopathy is a frequent and lethal consequence of sepsis. Recently, a growing body of evidence has provided important insights into the role of iron dyshomeostasis in the context of inflammation. The molecular mechanisms underlying iron dyshomeostasis and its relationship with macrophage phenotypes are largely unknown. Here, we aimed to characterize the changes in iron-transporter and storage proteins and the microglia phenotype that occur during the course of sepsis, as well as their relationship with sepsis-induced encephalopathy. We used a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) murine model that closely resembles sepsis-induced encephalopathy. Rats were subjected to CLP or sham laparotomy, then were neurologically assessed at 6 h, 24 h, and 3 days after sepsis induction. The serum and brain were collected for subsequent biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical assessment. Here, an iron excess was observed at time points that followed the pro-inflammatory macrophage polarization in CLP-induced encephalopathy. Our results revealed that the upregulation of non-transferrin-bound iron uptake (NTBI) and ferritin reduction appeared to be partially responsible for the excess free iron detected within the brain tissues. We further demonstrated that the microglia were shifted toward the pro-inflammatory phenotype, leading to persistent neuro-inflammation and neuronal damage after CLP. Taken together, these findings led us to conclude that sepsis increased the susceptibility of the brain to the iron burden via the upregulation of NTBI and the reduction of ferritin, which was concomitantly and correlatively associated with dominance of pro-inflammatory microglia and could explain the neurological dysfunction observed during sepsis.

Improved spatial memory, neurobehavioral outcomes, and neuroprotective effect after progesterone administration in ovariectomized rats with traumatic brain injury: Role of RU486 progesterone receptor antagonist

OBJECTIVES

The contribution of classic progesterone receptors (PR) in interceding the neuroprotective efficacy of progesterone (P4) on the prevention of brain edema and long-time behavioral disturbances was assessed in traumatic brain injury (TBI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female Wistar rats were ovariectomized and apportioned into 6 groups: sham, TBI, oil, P4, vehicle, and RU486. P4 or oil was injected following TBI. The antagonist of PR (RU486) or DMSO was administered before TBI. The brain edema and destruction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) were determined. Intracranial pressure (ICP), cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), and beam walk (BW) task were evaluated previously and at various times post-trauma. Long-time locomotor and cognitive consequences were measured one day before and on days 3, 7, 14, and 21 after the trauma.

RESULTS

RU486 eliminated the inhibitory effects of P4 on brain edema and BBB leakage (P<0.05, P<0.001, respectively). RU486 inhibited the decremental effect of P4 on ICP as well as the increasing effect of P4 on CPP (P<0.001) after TBI. Also, RU486 inhibited the effect of P4 on the increase in traversal time and reduction in vestibulomotor score in the BW task (P<0.001). TBI induced motor, cognitive, and anxiety-like disorders, which lasted for 3 weeks after TBI; but, P4 prevented these cognitive and behavioral abnormalities (P<0.05), and RU486 opposed this P4 effect (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

The classic progesterone receptors have neuroprotective effects and prevent long-time behavioral and memory deficiency after brain trauma.

Adenosine A3 receptor as a novel therapeutic target to reduce secondary events and improve neurocognitive functions following traumatic brain injury

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common pathological condition that presently lacks a specific pharmacological treatment. Adenosine levels rise following TBI, which is thought to be neuroprotective against secondary brain injury. Evidence from stroke and inflammatory disease models suggests that adenosine signaling through the G protein-coupled A₃ adenosine receptor (A₃AR) can provide antiinflammatory and neuroprotective effects. However, the role of A₃AR in TBI has not been investigated.

Methods

Using the selective A₃AR agonist, MRS5980, we evaluated the effects of A₃AR activation on the pathological outcomes and cognitive function in CD1 male mouse models of TBI.

Results

When measured 24 h after controlled cortical impact (CCI) TBI, male mice treated with intraperitoneal injections of MRS5980 (1 mg/kg) had reduced secondary tissue injury and brain infarction than vehicle-treated mice with TBI. These effects were associated with attenuated neuroinflammation marked by reduced activation of nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B cells (NFκB) and MAPK (p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)) pathways and downstream NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3 inflammasome activation. MRS5980 also attenuated TBI-induced CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell influx. Moreover, when measured 4–5 weeks after closed head weight-drop TBI, male mice treated with MRS5980 (1 mg/kg) performed significantly better in novel object-placement retention tests (NOPRT) and T maze trials than untreated mice with TBI without altered locomotor activity or increased anxiety.

Conclusion

Our results provide support for the beneficial effects of small molecule A₃AR agonists to mitigate secondary tissue injury and cognitive impairment following TBI.

RNS60, a physically-modified saline, inhibits glial activation, suppresses neuronal apoptosis and protects memory in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious health issue that causes long-term neurological disability, particularly in young adults, athletes and war veterans. Despite the use of different medications or surgical procedures, no effective therapy is currently available to halt its pathogenesis. Here, we have undertaken a novel approach to reduce neuroinflammation and improve cognitive, social and locomotor behaviors in a mouse model of TBI. RNS60 is a physiologic saline solution containing oxygen nanobubbles that is generated by subjecting normal saline to Taylor-Couette-Poiseuille (TCP) flow under elevated oxygen pressure. Recently we have delineated that RNS60 inhibits the expression of proinflammatory molecules in glial cells via type 1A phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)-mediated upregulation of IκBα. In this study, we found that TBI decreased the level of IκBα and increased the activation of NF-κB in hippocampus and cortex as monitored by the upregulation of p-p65. However, intraperitoneal administration of RNS60 increased and/or restored the level of IκBα and inhibited the activation of NF-κB in hippocampus and cortex of TBI mice. Accordingly, RNS60 treatment decreased the activation of astrocytes and microglia and reduced neuronal apoptosis in the brain of TBI mice. RNS60 treatment also reduced vascular damage, attenuated blood-brain barrier leakage and decreased the size of lesion in the brain of TBI mice. Importantly, RNS60 treated mice showed significant improvements in memory, social behavior and locomotor activities while displaying reduction in depression-like behaviors. These results delineate a novel neuroprotective property of RNS60 and suggest its possible therapeutic use in TBI.

Structure effect of water-soluble iron porphyrins on catalyzing protein tyrosine nitration in the presence of nitrite and hydrogen peroxide

Water-soluble iron porphyrins, such as FeTPPS (5,10,15,20-tetrakis (4-sulfonatophenyl) porphyrinato iron (III)), FeTMPyP (5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-methyl-4'-pyridyl) porphyrinato iron (III) chloride) and FeTBAP (5,10,15,20-tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrinato iron (III)), are highly active catalysts for peroxynitrite decomposition and thereby have been suggested as therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases that implicate the involvement of nitrotyrosine formation. Here, we systemically investigated catalytic properties of FeTPPS, FeTMPyP and FeTBAP on protein nitration in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and nitrite. We showed that FeTPPS, FeTBAP and FeTMPyP all exhibited higher peroxidase activity in compared with hemin. As to protein nitration, the catalytic effect of FeTPPS and FeTBAP are effective in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and nitrite, while negligible BSA nitration was observed in the case of FeTMPyP. Moreover, the underlying mechanism of the oxidation of FeTPPS, FeTBAP and FeTMPyP was further studied. Collectively, our results suggest that, compound I and II species are involved in as the key intermediates in FeTMPyP/H₂O₂ system as similar as those in FeTPPS/H₂O₂ and FeTBAP/H₂O₂ system. As compared to weak antioxidants, TPPS and TBAP, however, TMPyP scavenges oxo-Fe (IV) intermediates of FeTMPyP at a faster rate by significant self-degradation; results in the shortest lifetimes of OFe^IV-TMPyP and the lowest catalytic activity on oxidizing tyrosine and nitrite; and therefore, attributes to inactivation of FeTMPyP in protein nitration. In addition, association of FeTMPyP to BSA was found weak, while strong binding of FeTPPS and FeTBAP were observed. The weak binding keeps away of target residue of BSA from the center of FeTMPyP where the RNS is generated, which might be attributed as additional factors to the inactivation of FeTMPyP in protein nitration.

A Controlled Cortical Impact Preclinical Model of Traumatic Brain Injury

Over the past three decades, attempts at understanding the multifaceted mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury (TBI) have seen the development of numerous animal models to investigate changes in molecular and cellular pathways and neurobehavioral outcomes. Until now, controlled cortical impact (CCI) represents the most frequently used mechanical model to induce TBI, given its accuracy, easy of control, and, most importantly, its ability to produce brain injuries similar to those seen in humans. The CCI model is based on the use of an impact system that delivers a physical impact to the exposed dura of an animal. This chapter will describe in detail the electromagnetic CCI model of TBI in mice.