Bisphenols and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Narrative Review of the Impact of Diet and Bioactive Food Components

Bisphenol S exposure promotes stemness of triple-negative breast cancer cells via regulating Gli1-mediated Sonic hedgehog pathway

Bisphenol S (BPS), one of the most common alternatives for bisphenol A (BPA), has been implied to increase the risk of breast cancer. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive type of breast cancer with a poor prognosis. However, the association between BPS and TNBC remains unclear. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have a crucial role in breast cancer initiation, metastasis, and recurrence. Here, we proposed that BPS, equivalent to the human internal exposure and the environmental concentrations, enhanced CSC-like properties by upregulating sphere formation, self-renewal, the percentage of CD44+/CD24- cells, and the expression of CSC markers. Moreover, BPS promoted the migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in TNBC cells. Mechanistically, BPS activated the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway in TNBC cells. Molecular docking analysis further showed that BPS upregulated SHH signaling pathway via directly binding Gli1 protein. Furthermore, inhibitor of SHH pathway or Gli1 siRNA attenuated the promoting effects of BPS on stemness, invasion, and migration of TNBC cells. In summary, our data firstly provide evidence that environmentally relevant BPS concentration treatment significantly enhanced TNBC malignant phenotype by activating the Sonic Hedgehog/Gli1 signaling pathway, raising high concerns about the potential population biology hazards of BPS.

The Impact of Environmental Health Determinants in Surgical Oncology

Environmental determinants of health refer to external factors in our surroundings that influence health outcomes. It is estimated that healthier environments could prevent almost one-quarter of the global burden of disease. Additionally, environmental factors, including lifestyle factors, air pollution, chemical exposures, and natural exposures, are responsible for a significant incidence of cancers and premature cancer deaths. Minority populations, low-income populations, children, and older adults are at increased risk for oncologic risks secondary to environmental factors.

Bisphenol-A in Drinking Water Accelerates Mammary Cancerogenesis and Favors an Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment in BALB-neuT Mice

Bisphenol-A (BPA), a synthetic compound ubiquitously present in the environment, can act as an endocrine disruptor by binding to both canonical and non-canonical estrogen receptors (ERs). Exposure to BPA has been linked to various cancers, in particular, those arising in hormone-targeted tissues such as the breast. In this study, we evaluated the effect of BPA intake through drinking water on ErbB2/neu-driven cancerogenesis in BALB-neuT mice, transgenic for a mutated ErbB2/neu receptor gene, which reproducibly develop carcinomas in all mammary glands. In this model, BPA accelerated mammary cancerogenesis with an increase in the number of tumors per mouse and a concurrent decrease in tumor-free and overall survival. As assessed by immunohistochemistry, BALB-neuT tumors were ER-negative but expressed high levels of the alternative estrogen receptor GPR30, regardless of BPA exposure. On the other hand, BPA exposure resulted in a marked upregulation of progesterone receptors in preinvasive tumors and of Ki67, CD31, and phosphorylated Akt in invasive tumors. Moreover, based on several infiltration markers of immune cells, BPA favored an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Finally, in vitro cell survival studies performed on a cell line established from a BALB-neuT breast carcinoma confirmed that BPA's impact on cancer progression can be particularly relevant after chronic, low-dose exposure.

High-Performance enrichment and sensitive analysis of bisphenol and its analogues in water and milk using a novel Ni-Based cationic Metal-Organic framework

A novel cationic metal-organic framework (iMOF-Ni) was designed and synthesized by a solvothermal method. It was fabricated as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridge and exhibited high adsorption performance for Bisphenols (BPs). The theoretical simulation demonstrated that the adsorption mechanism between iMOF-Ni and BPs was attributed to cation-π bonding, π-π interaction, and electrostatic interactions. Under optimized SPE, a method for analyzing BPs was established by combining high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The developed method has good linearity (R2 ≥ 0.994), low detection limits (0.07-0.16 ng/mL), and good reproducibility (1.72-6.35 %, n = 6). The applicability of the method was further evaluated by analyzing water and milk samples. Recoveries of four BPs in spiked samples were from 72.2 % to 96.6 %.

Breast Cancer Exposomics

We are exposed to a mixture of environmental man-made and natural xenobiotics. We experience a wide spectrum of environmental exposure in our lifetime, including the effects of xenobiotics on gametogenesis and gametes that undergo fertilization as the starting point of individual development and, moreover, in utero exposure, which can itself cause the first somatic or germline mutation necessary for breast cancer (BC) initiation. Most xenobiotics are metabolized or/and bioaccumulate and biomagnify in our tissues and cells, including breast tissues, so the xenobiotic metabolism plays an important role in BC initiation and progression. Many considerations necessitate a more valuable explanation regarding the molecular mechanisms of action of xenobiotics which act as genotoxic and epigenetic carcinogens. Thus, exposomics and the exposome concept are based on the diversity and range of exposures to physical factors, synthetic chemicals, dietary components, and psychosocial stressors, as well as their associated biologic processes and molecular pathways. Existing evidence for BC risk (BCR) suggests that food-borne chemical carcinogens, air pollution, ionizing radiation, and socioeconomic status are closely related to breast carcinogenesis. The aim of this review was to depict the dynamics and kinetics of several xenobiotics involved in BC development, emphasizing the role of new omics fields related to BC exposomics, such as environmental toxicogenomics, epigenomics and interactomics, metagenomics, nutrigenomics, nutriproteomics, and nutrimiRomics. We are mainly focused on food and nutrition, as well as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), involved in BC development. Overall, cell and tissue accumulation and xenobiotic metabolism or biotransformation can lead to modifications in breast tissue composition and breast cell morphology, DNA damage and genomic instability, epimutations, RNA-mediated and extracellular vesicle effects, aberrant blood methylation, stimulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), disruption of cell-cell junctions, reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, metabolic reprogramming, and overexpression of mesenchymal genes. Moreover, the metabolism of xenobiotics into BC cells impacts almost all known carcinogenic pathways. Conversely, in our food, there are many bioactive compounds with anti-cancer potential, exerting pro-apoptotic roles, inhibiting cell cycle progression and proliferation, migration, invasion, DNA damage, and cell stress conditions. We can conclude that exposomics has a high potential to demonstrate how environmental exposure to xenobiotics acts as a double-edged sword, promoting or suppressing tumorigenesis in BC.

Futuristic advancements in phytoremediation of endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A: A step towards sustainable pollutant degradation for rehabilitated environment

Bisphenol A (BPA) accumulates in the environment at lethal concentrations because of its high production rate and utilization. BPA, originating from industrial effluent, plastic production, and consumer products, poses serious risks to both the environment and human health. The widespread aggregation of BPA leads to endocrine disruption, reactive oxygen species-mediated DNA damage, epigenetic modifications and carcinogenicity, which can disturb the normal homeostasis of the body. The living being in a population is subjected to BPA exposure via air, water and food. Globally, urinary analysis reports have shown higher BPA concentrations in all age groups, with children being particularly susceptible due to its occurrence in items such as milk bottles. The conventional methods are costly with a low removal rate. Since there is no proper eco-friendly and cost-effective degradation of BPA reported so far. The phytoremediation, green-biotechnology based method which is a cost-effective and renewable resource can be used to sequestrate BPA. Phytoremediation is observed in numerous plant species with different mechanisms to remove harmful contaminants. Plants normally undergo several improvements in genetic and molecular levels to withstand stress and lower levels of toxicants. But such natural adaptation requires more time and also higher concentration of contaminants may disrupt the normal growth, survival and yield of the plants. Therefore, natural or synthetic amendments and genetic modifications can improve the xenobiotics removal rate by the plants. Also, constructed wetlands technique utilizes the plant's phytoremediation mechanisms to remove industrial effluents and medical residues. In this review, we have discussed the limitations and futuristic advancement strategies for degrading BPA using phytoremediation-associated mechanisms.

Onco-Breastomics: An Eco-Evo-Devo Holistic Approach

Known as a diverse collection of neoplastic diseases, breast cancer (BC) can be hyperbolically characterized as a dynamic pseudo-organ, a living organism able to build a complex, open, hierarchically organized, self-sustainable, and self-renewable tumor system, a population, a species, a local community, a biocenosis, or an evolving dynamical ecosystem (i.e., immune or metabolic ecosystem) that emphasizes both developmental continuity and spatio-temporal change. Moreover, a cancer cell community, also known as an oncobiota, has been described as non-sexually reproducing species, as well as a migratory or invasive species that expresses intelligent behavior, or an endangered or parasite species that fights to survive, to optimize its features inside the host's ecosystem, or that is able to exploit or to disrupt its host circadian cycle for improving the own proliferation and spreading. BC tumorigenesis has also been compared with the early embryo and placenta development that may suggest new strategies for research and therapy. Furthermore, BC has also been characterized as an environmental disease or as an ecological disorder. Many mechanisms of cancer progression have been explained by principles of ecology, developmental biology, and evolutionary paradigms. Many authors have discussed ecological, developmental, and evolutionary strategies for more successful anti-cancer therapies, or for understanding the ecological, developmental, and evolutionary bases of BC exploitable vulnerabilities. Herein, we used the integrated framework of three well known ecological theories: the Bronfenbrenner's theory of human development, the Vannote's River Continuum Concept (RCC), and the Ecological Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Eco-Evo-Devo) theory, to explain and understand several eco-evo-devo-based principles that govern BC progression. Multi-omics fields, taken together as onco-breastomics, offer better opportunities to integrate, analyze, and interpret large amounts of complex heterogeneous data, such as various and big-omics data obtained by multiple investigative modalities, for understanding the eco-evo-devo-based principles that drive BC progression and treatment. These integrative eco-evo-devo theories can help clinicians better diagnose and treat BC, for example, by using non-invasive biomarkers in liquid-biopsies that have emerged from integrated omics-based data that accurately reflect the biomolecular landscape of the primary tumor in order to avoid mutilating preventive surgery, like bilateral mastectomy. From the perspective of preventive, personalized, and participatory medicine, these hypotheses may help patients to think about this disease as a process governed by natural rules, to understand the possible causes of the disease, and to gain control on their own health.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds and metabolomic reprogramming in breast cancer

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals pose a growing threat to human health through their increasing presence in the environment and their potential interactions with the mammalian endocrine systems. Due to their structural similarity to hormones like estrogen, these chemicals can interfere with endocrine signaling, leading to many deleterious effects. Exposure to estrogenic endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC) is a suggested risk factor for the development of breast cancer, one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers in women. However, the mechanisms through which EDCs contribute to breast cancer development remain elusive. To rapidly proliferate, cancer cells undertake distinct metabolic programs to utilize existing nutrients in the tumor microenvironment and synthesize macromolecules de novo. EDCs are known to dysregulate cell signaling pathways related to cellular metabolism, which may be an important mechanism through which they exert their cancer-promoting effects. These altered pathways can be studied via metabolomic analysis, a new advancement in -omics technologies that can interrogate molecular pathways that favor cancer development and progression. This review will summarize recent discoveries regarding EDCs and the metabolic reprogramming that they may induce to facilitate the development of breast cancer.

Effects of Functional and Nutraceutical Foods in the Context of the Mediterranean Diet in Patients Diagnosed with Breast Cancer

Several studies report that breast cancer survivors (BCS) tend to have a poor diet, as fruit, vegetable, and legume consumption is often reduced, resulting in a decreased intake of nutraceuticals. Moreover, weight gain has been commonly described among BCS during treatment, increasing recurrence rate and mortality. Improving lifestyle and nutrition after the diagnosis of BC may have important benefits on patients' general health and on specific clinical outcomes. The Mediterranean diet (MD), known for its multiple beneficial effects on health, can be considered a nutritional pool comprising several nutraceuticals: bioactive compounds and foods with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Recent scientific advances have led to the identification of nutraceuticals that could amplify the benefits of the MD and favorably influence gene expression in these patients. Nutraceuticals could have beneficial effects in the postdiagnostic phase of BC, including helping to mitigate the adverse effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Moreover, the MD could be a valid and easy-to-follow option for managing excess weight. The aim of this narrative review is to evaluate the recent scientific literature on the possible beneficial effects of consuming functional and nutraceutical foods in the framework of MD in BCS.

Alterations induced by Bisphenol A on cellular organelles and potential relevance on human health

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical partially soluble in water and exists in a solid state. Its structural similarity with estrogen makes it an endocrine-disrupting chemical. BPA can disrupt signaling pathways at very low doses and may cause organellar stress. According to in vitro and in vivo studies, BPA interacts with various cell surface receptors to cause organellar stress, producing free radicals, cellular toxicity, structural changes, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, cytoskeleton remodeling, centriole duplication, and aberrant changes in several cell signaling pathways. The current review summarizes the impact of BPA exposure on the structural and functional aspects of subcellular components of cells such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, and microtubules and its consequent impact on human health.

Association of parabens and bisphenols with lung function in children aged 5-12 years from Shanghai, China

Epidemiological studies have reported potential effects of individual paraben or bisphenol exposure on lung function, but few studies have estimated their joint effects. We conducted a cross sectional survey to investigate the associations of parabens and bisphenols exposure with lung function in 205 children aged 5-12 years from Shanghai, China. Urinary concentrations of six parabens [methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, butyl-, benzyl-, and heptyl-paraben (MeP, EtP, PrP, BuP, BzP, and HeP)] and seven bisphenols [bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol AP (BPAP), bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol P (BPP), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol Z (BPZ)] were assessed by the high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Lung function, including forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁), forced vital capacity (FVC), FEV₁/FVC, peak expiratory flow (PEF), and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of forced vital capacity (FEF_25-75%), was further measured. Linear regression, bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum regression (WQS) evaluated the individual and joint relationships of the parabens and bisphenols with the lung function parameters. Further, the analysis was stratified by child sex. Parabens (MeP, EtP, PrP, and BuP) and bisphenols (BPA, BPAP, BPB, and BPS) with detection rates >75% were included for analyses. In linear regressions, parabens (MeP, PrP, and BuP) were generally negatively associated with FEV₁, FVC, PEF, and FEF_25-75%, but no associations for bisphenols were found. The association of parabens with lung function was more pronounced in girls. The aforementioned negative associations between parabens and lung function were confirmed by both the BKMR and WQS, with MeP being considered most heavily weighing chemical. Our findings suggested that exposure to parabens, either individuals or as a mixture, were associated with decreased lung function in children aged 5-12 years, and these associations were stronger among girls. Considering the cross-sectional study design, large longitudinal studies are warranted to confirm our findings.

Associations of bisphenol exposure with thyroid hormones in pregnant women: a prospective birth cohort study in China

Bisphenols are endocrine disruptor chemicals that disrupt thyroid hormone homeostasis. However, evidence on the effects of bisphenol mixtures on thyroid hormones are insufficient. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the effects of bisphenol substitutes and bisphenol mixtures on thyroid hormones during pregnancy. The study was conducted among 446 pregnant women in the Guangxi Zhuang Birth Cohort (GZBC), China. In multiple linear regressions, compared with the low-exposure group, bisphenol S (BPS) concentrations in the middle-exposure group led to a 10.90% (95% CI: - 18.16%, - 2.99%) decrease in triiodothyronine (T3) levels in the first trimester; tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) levels in the middle-exposure group led to an 8.26% (95% CI: - 15.82%, - 0.01%) decrease in T3 levels in the first trimester; bisphenol B (BPB) levels in the middle-exposure group led to higher free thyroxine (FT4) levels (9.84%; 95% CI: 1.73%, 18.60%) in the second trimester; bisphenol F (BPF) in the middle-exposure group led to higher FT4 levels (8.59%, 95% CI: 0.53%, 17.31%) in the second trimester; and TBBPA levels in the high-exposure group led to a 9.39% (95% CI: 1.46%, 17.93%) increase in FT4 levels in the second trimester. The Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) and restricted cubic spline (RCS) models showed a U-shaped dose-response relationship between bisphenol A (BPA) and free triiodothyronine (FT3) (p < 0.01) as well as BPS and FT4 (p < 0.05). Nonlinear relationships were also observed between the bisphenol mixture and FT3. Overall, maternal bisphenol exposure affected thyroid hormone levels during pregnancy. This study provides evidence that BPB, BPF, BPS, and TBBPA are unsafe substitutes for BPA, as well as the overall effect of bisphenols on adverse health in human beings.

Association of Serum Levels of Plasticizers Compounds, Phthalates and Bisphenols, in Patients and Survivors of Breast Cancer: A Real Connection?

Phthalates and bisphenols are ubiquitous environmental pollutants with the ability to perturb different systems. Specifically, they can alter the endocrine system, and this is why they are also known as endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs). Interestingly, they are related to the development and progression of breast cancer (BC), but the threshold concentrations at which they trigger that are not well established. Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare the concentration measures of parent EDCs in three groups of women (without BC, with BC, and BC survivors) from two urban populations in Mexico, to establish a possible association between EDCs and this disease. We consider the measure of the parent compounds would reflect the individual’s exposure. Methods: The levels of di-ethyl-hexyl-phthalate (DEHP), butyl-benzyl-phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-ethyl-phthalate (DEP), bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol S (BPS) were determined by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry in 102 subjects, including 37 women without any pathological disease, 46 patients with BC and 19 women survivals of BC of Mexico and Toluca City. Results: All phthalates were detected in 100% of women, two of them were significantly higher in patients with different BC subtypes in Mexico City. Differential increases were observed mainly in the serum concentration of phthalates in women with BC compared to women without disease between Mexico and Toluca City. In addition, when performing an analysis of the concentrations of phthalates by molecular type of BC, DEP and BBP were found mainly in aggressive and poorly differentiated types of BC. It should be noted that female BC survivors treated with anti-hormonal therapy showed lower levels of BBP than patients with BC. BPA and BPS were found in most samples from Mexico City. However, BPS was undetectable in women from Toluca City. Discussion: The results of our study support the hypothesis of a positive association between exposure to phthalates and BC incidence.

A critical review of presence, removal and potential impacts of endocrine disruptors bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic organic compound that is mainly used in the production of polymer materials polycarbonate and epoxy resin. Widespread use and irregular processing methods have led to BPA being detected globally, raising concerns about its environmental and health effects. This review outlines an overview of the presence and removal of BPA in the environment and consumer products. We also summarized the endocrine-disrupting toxicity of BPA, and the relatively less summarized neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Human exposure data show that humans have been exposed to low concentrations of BPA for a long time, future research should focus on the long-term exposure and the migration of BPA from consumer products to humans and the possible health risks associated with human exposure to BPA. Exploring economical and effective methods to reduce and remove BPA from the environment is imperative. The development of safe, functional and reproducible BPA analogs and the study of its degradation products can be the focus of subsequent research.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Disorders of Penile Development in Humans

This paper reviews the current knowledge on the environmental effects on penile development in humans. The specific focus is on endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), a heterogeneous group of natural or manmade substances that interfere with endocrine function, and whether they can induce hypospadias and micropenis in male neonates. Epidemiological data and animal observations first raised suspicions about environmental effects, leading to the testis dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) hypothesis. More recent research has provided stronger indications that TDS may indeed be the result of the direct or indirect effects of EDCs. Drawing on epidemiological and toxicological studies, we also report on the effects of maternal diet and substances like pesticides, phthalates, bisphenol A, and polychlorinated biphenyls. Proximity to contamination hazards and occupational exposure are also suspected to contribute to the occurrence of hypospadias and micropenis. Lastly, the cumulative effects of EDCs and the possibility of transgenerational effects, with the penile development of subsequent generations being affected, raise concerns for long-term public health.

Effect of a Humanized Diet Profile on Colonization Efficiency and Gut Microbial Diversity in Human Flora-Associated Mice

Human flora-associated (HFA) mouse models allow us to design interventions for human disease research to test specific hypotheses and explore the complex commensal microbiome while avoiding the ethical limitations of using humans as models to directly study intestinal flora diseases. However, few studies have investigated the effect of a humanized diet profile (coarse-feed diet; CFD) on colonization efficiency and gut microbial diversity in HFA mice. We tested the colonization efficiency and gut microbial diversity in germ-free Kunming (KM) mice fed a CFD or a purified feed diet (PFD) at 1, 2, and 4 weeks. Although the colonization efficiencies differed significantly (67.50–70.00% vs. 72.69–85.96%) in the HFA mice, the colonization efficiency of the PFD-fed HFA mice (85.96%) was significantly higher than that of the CFD-fed mice (69.61%) at 2 weeks. At 4 weeks, the colonization efficiency of the PFD-fed mice (72.69%) was comparable to that of the CFD-fed mice (70.00%). Additionally, the gut microbial diversity of the CFD-fed HFA mice was similar to that of a human fecal donor. Regarding the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes colonic microbiota metabolic pathways, the CFD-fed HFA mice showed more similarities to the human donor than to the PFD-fed mice in amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids, carbon metabolism, purine metabolism, and phosphotransferase systems. In conclusion, the humanized diet profiles of the CFD and PFD could help establish human microbiotas in mice. Constructing HFA mouse models fed a CFD for 4 weeks may be useful in researching human-derived intestinal diseases.