OX40 Agonists and Combination Immunotherapy: Putting the Pedal to the Metal

Impact of isotype on the mechanism of action of agonist anti-OX40 antibodies in cancer: implications for therapeutic combinations

BACKGROUND

OX40 has been widely studied as a target for immunotherapy with agonist antibodies taken forward into clinical trials for cancer where they are yet to show substantial efficacy. Here, we investigated potential mechanisms of action of anti-mouse (m) OX40 and anti-human (h) OX40 antibodies, including a clinically relevant monoclonal antibody (mAb) (GSK3174998) and evaluated how isotype can alter those mechanisms with the aim to develop improved antibodies for use in rational combination treatments for cancer.

METHODS

Anti-mOX40 and anti-hOX40 mAbs were evaluated in a number of in vivo models, including an OT-I adoptive transfer immunization model in hOX40 knock-in (KI) mice and syngeneic tumor models. The impact of FcγR engagement was evaluated in hOX40 KI mice deficient for Fc gamma receptors (FcγR). Additionally, combination studies using anti-mouse programmed cell death protein-1 (mPD-1) were assessed. In vitro experiments using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) examining possible anti-hOX40 mAb mechanisms of action were also performed.

RESULTS

Isotype variants of the clinically relevant mAb GSK3174998 showed immunomodulatory effects that differed in mechanism; mIgG1 mediated direct T-cell agonism while mIgG2a acted indirectly, likely through depletion of regulatory T cells (Tregs) via activating FcγRs. In both the OT-I and EG.7-OVA models, hIgG1 was the most effective human isotype, capable of acting both directly and through Treg depletion. The anti-hOX40 hIgG1 synergized with anti-mPD-1 to improve therapeutic outcomes in the EG.7-OVA model. Finally, in vitro assays with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs), anti-hOX40 hIgG1 also showed the potential for T-cell stimulation and Treg depletion.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underline the importance of understanding the role of isotype in the mechanism of action of therapeutic mAbs. As an hIgG1, the anti-hOX40 mAb can elicit multiple mechanisms of action that could aid or hinder therapeutic outcomes, dependent on the microenvironment. This should be considered when designing potential combinatorial partners and their FcγR requirements to achieve maximal benefit and improvement of patient outcomes.

Establishment and validation of a novel disulfidptosis-related immune checkpoint gene signature in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the most prevalent subtype of renal tumors and is associated with a unfavorable prognosis. Disulfidptosis is a recently identified form of cell death mediated by disulfide bonds. Numerous studies have highlighted the significance of immune checkpoint genes (ICGs) in ccRCC. Nevertheless, the involvement of disulfidptosis-related immune checkpoint genes (DRICGs) in ccRCC remains poorly understood.

METHODS

The mRNA expression profiles and clinicopathological data of ccRCC patients were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases. The associations between disulfidptosis-related genes (DRGs) and immune checkpoint genes (ICGs) were assessed to identify DRICGs. Cox regression analysis and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) analysis were conducted to construct a risk signature.

RESULTS

A total of 39 differentially expressed immune-related candidate genes were identified. A prognostic signature was constructed utilizing nine DRICGs (CD276, CD80, CD86, HLA-E, LAG3, PDCD1LG2, PVR, TIGIT, and TNFRSF4) and validated using GEO data. The risk model functioned as an independent prognostic indicator for ccRCC, while the associated nomogram provided a reliable scoring system for ccRCC. Gene set enrichment analysis indicated enrichment of phospholipase D, antigen processing and presentation, and ascorbate and aldarate metabolism-related signaling pathways in the high-risk group. Furthermore, the DRICGs exhibited correlations with the infiltration of various immune cells. It is noteworthy that patients with ccRCC categorized into distinct risk groups based on this model displayed varying sensitivities to potential therapeutic agents.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel DRICG-based risk signature is a reliable indicator for the prognosis of ccRCC patients. Moreover, it also aids in drug selection and correlates with the tumour immune microenvironment in ccRCC.

Soluble Plasma Proteins of Tumor Necrosis Factor and Immunoglobulin Superfamilies Reveal New Insights into Immune Regulation in People with HIV and Opioid Use Disorder

People with HIV (PWH) frequently suffer from Opioid (OP) Use Disorder (OUD). In an investigation of the impact of OUD on underlying immune dysfunction in PWH, we previously reported that OP use exacerbates inflammation in virally controlled PWH followed in the Infectious Diseases Elimination Act (IDEA) Syringe Services Program (SSP). Unexpectedly, Flu vaccination-induced antibody responses in groups with OUD were superior to PWH without OUD. Here, we investigated the profile of 48 plasma biomarkers comprised of TNF and Ig superfamily (SF) molecules known to impact interactions between T and B cells in 209 participants divided into four groups: (1) HIV+OP+, (2) HIV-OP+, (3) HIV+OP-, and (4) HIV-OP-. The differential expression of the top eight molecules ranked by median values in individual Groups 1-3 in comparison to Group 4 was highly significant. Both OP+ groups 1 and 2 had higher co-stimulatory TNF SF molecules, including 4-1BB, OX-40, CD40, CD30, and 4-1BBL, which were found to positively correlate with Flu Ab titers. In contrast, HIV+OP- exhibited a profile dominant in Ig SF molecules, including PDL-2, CTLA-4, and Perforin, with PDL-2 showing a negative correlation with Flu vaccine titers. These findings are relevant to vaccine development in the fields of HIV and OUD.

Aging-related biomarker discovery in the era of immune checkpoint inhibitors for cancer patients

Older patients with cancer, particularly those over 75 years of age, often experience poorer clinical outcomes compared to younger patients. This can be attributed to age-related comorbidities, weakened immune function, and reduced tolerance to treatment-related adverse effects. In the immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) era, age has emerged as an influential factor impacting the discovery of predictive biomarkers for ICI treatment. These age-linked changes in the immune system can influence the composition and functionality of tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) that play a crucial role in the cancer response. Older patients may have lower levels of TIICs infiltration due to age-related immune senescence particularly T cell function, which can limit the effectivity of cancer immunotherapies. Furthermore, age-related immune dysregulation increases the exhaustion of immune cells, characterized by the dysregulation of ICI-related biomarkers and a dampened response to ICI. Our review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to the impact of age on ICI-related biomarkers and ICI response. Understanding these mechanisms will facilitate the development of treatment approaches tailored to elderly individuals with cancer.

Dynamic modulation of the non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway for HIV shock and kill

HIV cure still remains an elusive target. The "Shock and Kill" strategy which aims to reactivate HIV from latently infected cells and subsequently kill them through virally induced apoptosis or immune mediated clearance, is the subject of widespread investigation. NF-κB is a ubiquitous transcription factor which serves as a point of confluence for a number of intracellular signaling pathways and is also a crucial regulator of HIV transcription. Due to its relatively lower side effect profile and proven role in HIV transcription, the non-canonical NF-κB pathway has emerged as an attractive target for HIV reactivation, as a first step towards eradication. A comprehensive review examining this pathway in the setting of HIV and its potential utility to cure efforts is currently lacking. This review aims to summarize non-canonical NF-κB signaling and the importance of this pathway in HIV shock-and-kill efforts.

Phase 1/2 trial of avelumab combined with utomilumab (4-1BB agonist), PF-04518600 (OX40 agonist), or radiotherapy in patients with advanced gynecologic malignancies

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint blockade has shown mixed results in advanced/recurrent gynecologic malignancies. Efficacy may be improved through costimulation with OX40 and 4-1BB agonists. The authors sought to evaluate the safety and efficacy of avelumab combined with utomilumab (a 4-1BB agonist), PF-04518600 (an OX40 agonist), and radiotherapy in patients with recurrent gynecologic malignancies.

METHODS

The primary end point in this six-arm, phase 1/2 trial was safety of the combination regimens. Secondary end points included the objective response rate (ORR) according to Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors and immune-related Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors, the disease control rate (DCR), the duration of response, progression-free survival, and overall survival.

RESULTS

Forty patients were included (35% with cervical cancer, 30% with endometrial cancer, and 35% with ovarian cancer). Most patients (n = 33; 83%) were enrolled in arms A-C (no radiation). Among 35 patients who were evaluable for efficacy, the ORR was 2.9%, and the DCR was 37.1%, with a median duration of stable disease of 5.4 months (interquartile range, 4.1-7.3 months). Patients with cervical cancer in arm A (avelumab and utomilumab; n = 9 evaluable patients) achieved an ORR of 11% and a DCR of 78%. The median progression-free survival was 2.1 months (95% CI, 1.8-3.5 months), and overall survival was 9.4 months (95% CI, 5.6-11.9 months). No dose-limiting toxicities or grade 3-5 immune-related adverse events were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this trial highlight that, in heavily pretreated patients with gynecologic cancer, even multidrug regimens targeting multiple immunologic pathways, although safe, did not produce significant responses. A DCR of 78% in patients with cervical cancer who received avelumab and utomilumab indicates that further research on this combination in select patients may be warranted.

Comparative evaluation of antitumor effects of TNF superfamily costimulatory ligands delivered by mesenchymal stem cells

Stimulation of costimulatory receptors serves as an alternative immunotherapeutic strategy other than checkpoint inhibition. However, systemic administration of the agonistic antibodies is associated with severe toxicities, which is one of the major obstacles for their clinical application. This study aimed to develop a mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based system for tumor-targeted delivery of TNF superfamily ligands and assess their potential in enhancing antitumor immunity. Here we established an MSC-based system for tumor-targeted delivery of TNF superfamily ligands, including TNFSF4, 9 and 18. The TNFSF receptors (TNFRSFs) were evaluated in mouse models and patient samples for lung and colorectal cancers. TNFRSFs were all expressed at various levels on tumor-infiltrated lymphocytes, with TNFRSF18 being the most prevalent receptor. Human umbilical cord-derived MSCs expressing these costimulatory ligands (MSC-TNFSFs) effectively activated lymphocytes in vitro and elicited antitumor immunity in mice. TNFSF4 showed the least antitumor efficacy in both LLC1 and CT26 tumor models. MSC-TNFSF9 showed the most potent tumor-inhibiting effect in the LLC1 tumor model, while MSCs expressing TNFSF18 in combination with CXCL9 most significantly repressed CT26 tumor growth. Overall, TNFSF9 and TNFSF18 exhibited stronger lymphocyte-stimulating and antitumor activities than TNFSF4. Our study provides evidence that antitumor effects of agonism of different costimulatory receptors may vary in different tumor types and presents a promising approach for targeted delivery of TNF superfamily costimulatory ligands to avoid the systemic toxicities and side effects associated with immune agonist antibodies.

Agonistic Bivalent Human scFvs-Fcγ Fusion Antibodies to OX40 Ectodomain Enhance T Cell Activities against Cancer

(1) Background: Understanding how advanced cancers evade host innate and adaptive immune opponents has led to cancer immunotherapy. Among several immunotherapeutic strategies, the reversal of immunosuppression mediated by regulatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) using blockers of immune-checkpoint signaling in effector T cells is the most successful treatment measure. Furthermore, agonists of T cell costimulatory molecules (CD40, 4-1BB, OX40) play an additional anti-cancer role to that of checkpoint blocking in combined therapy and serve also as adjuvant/neoadjuvant/induction therapy to conventional cancer treatments, such as tumor resection and radio- and chemo- therapies. (2) Methods and Results: In this study, novel agonistic antibodies to the OX40/CD134 ectodomain (EcOX40), i.e., fully human bivalent single-chain variable fragments (HuscFvs) linked to IgG Fc (bivalent HuscFv-Fcγ fusion antibodies) were generated by using phage-display technology and genetic engineering. The HuscFvs in the fusion antibodies bound to the cysteine-rich domain-2 of the EcOX40, which is known to be involved in OX40-OX40L signaling for NF-κB activation in T cells. The fusion antibodies caused proliferation, and increased the survival and cytokine production of CD3-CD28-activated human T cells. They showed enhancement trends for other effector T cell activities like granzyme B production and lysis of ovarian cancer cells when added to the activated T cells. (3) Conclusions: The novel OX40 agonistic fusion antibodies should be further tested step-by-step toward their safe use as an adjunctive non-immunogenic cancer immunotherapeutic agent.

BGB-A445, a novel non-ligand-blocking agonistic anti-OX40 antibody, exhibits superior immune activation and antitumor effects in preclinical models

OX40 is a costimulatory receptor that is expressed primarily on activated CD4+, CD8+, and regulatory T cells. The ligation of OX40 to its sole ligand OX40L potentiates T cell expansion, differentiation, and activation and also promotes dendritic cells to mature to enhance their cytokine production. Therefore, the use of agonistic anti-OX40 antibodies for cancer immunotherapy has gained great interest. However, most of the agonistic anti-OX40 antibodies in the clinic are OX40L-competitive and show limited efficacy. Here, we discovered that BGB-A445, a non-ligand-competitive agonistic anti-OX40 antibody currently under clinical investigation, induced optimal T cell activation without impairing dendritic cell function. In addition, BGB-A445 dose-dependently and significantly depleted regulatory T cells in vitro and in vivo via antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. In the MC38 syngeneic model established in humanized OX40 knock-in mice, BGB-A445 demonstrated robust and dose-dependent antitumor efficacy, whereas the ligand-competitive anti-OX40 antibody showed antitumor efficacy characterized by a hook effect. Furthermore, BGB-A445 demonstrated a strong combination antitumor effect with an anti-PD-1 antibody. Taken together, our findings show that BGB-A445, which does not block OX40-OX40L interaction in contrast to clinical-stage anti-OX40 antibodies, shows superior immune-stimulating effects and antitumor efficacy and thus warrants further clinical investigation.

Enhanced systemic tumor suppression by in situ vaccine combining radiation and OX40 agonist with CpG therapy

BACKGROUND

In situ tumor vaccine has been gradually becoming a hot research field for its advantage of achieving personalized tumor therapy without prior antigen identification. Various in situ tumor vaccine regimens have been reported to exert considerable antitumor efficacy in preclinical and clinical studies. However, the design of in situ tumor vaccines still needs further optimization and the underlying immune mechanism also waits for deeper investigation.

METHODS

A novel triple in situ vaccine strategy that combining local radiation with intratumoral injection of TLR9 agonist CpG and OX40 agonist was established in this sturdy. Local and abscopal antitumor efficacy as well as survival benefit were evaluated in the bilateral tumors and pulmonary metastasis model of B16F10 melanoma. In situ vaccine-induced immune responses and immune-associated variation in tumor environment were further investigated using multiparameter flow cytometry and RNA sequencing. Base on the analysis, the RT + CpG + αOX40 triple in situ vaccine was combined with checkpoint blockade therapy to explore the potential synergistic antitumor efficacy.

RESULTS

Enhanced tumor suppression was observed with minimal toxicity in both treated and untreated abscopal tumors after receiving RT + CpG + αOX40 triple vaccine. The introduction of local radiation and OX40 agonist benefit more to the inhibition of local and abscopal lesions respectively, which might be partially attributed to the increase of effector memory T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Further analysis implied that the triple in situ vaccine did not only activate the microenvironment of treated tumors, with the upregulation of multiple immune-associated pathways, but also enhanced systemic antitumor responses, thus achieved superior systemic tumor control and survival benefit. Moreover, the triple in situ vaccine synergized with checkpoint blockade therapy, and significantly improved the therapeutic effect of anti-programmed cell death protein (PD)-1 antibody.

CONCLUSION

This triple combining in situ vaccine induced intensive antitumor responses, mediated effective systemic tumor control and survival benefit, and displayed impressive synergistic antitumor effect with checkpoint blockade therapy. These data preliminary confirmed the efficacy, feasibility and safety of the triple combining in situ vaccine, suggesting its great application potential as both monotherapy and a part of combined immunotherapeutic regimens in clinical scenario.

Emerging therapeutic strategies for enhancing sensitivity and countering resistance to programmed cell death protein 1 or programmed death-ligand 1 inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer

The availability of agents targeting the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) immune checkpoint has transformed treatment of advanced and/or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, a substantial proportion of patients treated with these agents do not respond or experience only a brief period of clinical benefit. Even among those whose disease responds, many subsequently experience disease progression. Consequently, novel approaches are needed that enhance antitumor immunity and counter resistance to PD-(L)1 inhibitors, thereby improving and/or prolonging responses and patient outcomes, in both PD-(L)1 inhibitor-sensitive and inhibitor-resistant NSCLC. Mechanisms contributing to sensitivity and/or resistance to PD-(L)1 inhibitors in NSCLC include upregulation of other immune checkpoints and/or the presence of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, which represent potential targets for new therapies. This review explores novel therapeutic regimens under investigation for enhancing responses to PD-(L)1 inhibitors and countering resistance, and summarizes the latest clinical evidence in NSCLC.

Immune cellular patterns of distribution affect outcomes of patients with non-small cell lung cancer

Studying the cellular geographic distribution in non-small cell lung cancer is essential to understand the roles of cell populations in this type of tumor. In this study, we characterize the spatial cellular distribution of immune cell populations using 23 makers placed in five multiplex immunofluorescence panels and their associations with clinicopathologic variables and outcomes. Our results demonstrate two cellular distribution patterns-an unmixed pattern mostly related to immunoprotective cells and a mixed pattern mostly related to immunosuppressive cells. Distance analysis shows that T-cells expressing immune checkpoints are closer to malignant cells than other cells. Combining the cellular distribution patterns with cellular distances, we can identify four groups related to inflamed and not-inflamed tumors. Cellular distribution patterns and distance are associated with survival in univariate and multivariable analyses. Spatial distribution is a tool to better understand the tumor microenvironment, predict outcomes, and may can help select therapeutic interventions.

Delivering co-stimulatory tumor necrosis factor receptor agonism for cancer immunotherapy: past, current and future perspectives

The tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) and their receptors (TNFRSF) are important regulators of the immune system, mediating proliferation, survival, differentiation, and function of immune cells. As a result, their targeting for immunotherapy is attractive, although to date, under-exploited. In this review we discuss the importance of co-stimulatory members of the TNFRSF in optimal immune response generation, the rationale behind targeting these receptors for immunotherapy, the success of targeting them in pre-clinical studies and the challenges in translating this success into the clinic. The efficacy and limitations of the currently available agents are discussed alongside the development of next generation immunostimulatory agents designed to overcome current issues, and capitalize on this receptor class to deliver potent, durable and safe drugs for patients.

Compartmentalized spatial profiling of the tumor microenvironment in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma identifies immune checkpoint molecules and tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily members as biomarkers of response to immunotherapy

Mucosal head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are the seventh most common cancer, with approximately 50% of patients living beyond 5 years. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown promising results in patients with recurrent or metastatic (R/M) disease, however, only a subset of patients benefit from immunotherapy. Studies have implicated the tumor microenvironment (TME) of HNSCC as a major factor in therapy response, highlighting the need to better understand the TME, particularly by spatially resolved means to determine cellular and molecular components. Here, we employed targeted spatial profiling of proteins on a cohort of pre-treatment tissues from patients with R/M disease to identify novel biomarkers of response within the tumor and stromal margins. By grouping patient outcome categories into response or non-response, we show that immune checkpoint molecules, including PD-L1, B7-H3, and VISTA, were differentially expressed. Patient responders possessed significantly higher tumor expression of PD-L1 and B7-H3, but lower expression of VISTA. Analysis of response subgroups by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) criteria indicated that tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily members including OX40L, CD27, 4-1BB, CD40, and CD95/Fas, were associated with immunotherapy outcome. OX40L expression in tumor regions was higher in patient-responders than those with progressive disease (PD), while other TNFR members, CD27 and CD95/Fas were lower expressed in patients with a partial response (PR) compared to those with PD. Furthermore, we found that high 4-1BB expression in the tumor compartment, but not in the stroma, was associated with better overall survival (OS) (HR= 0.28, p-adjusted= 0.040). Moreover, high CD40 expression in tumor regions (HR= 0.27, p-adjusted= 0.035), and high CD27 expression in the stroma (HR= 0.2, p-adjusted=0.032) were associated with better survival outcomes. Taken together, this study supports the role of immune checkpoint molecules and implicates the TNFR superfamily as key players in immunotherapy response in our cohort of HNSCC. Validation of these findings in a prospective study is required to determine the robustness of these tissue signatures.

The therapeutic potential of immunotherapy in the treatment of breast cancer: Rational strategies and recent progress

The second leading cause of cancer death in women worldwide is breast cancer (BC), and despite significant advances in BC therapies, a significant proportion of patients develop metastasis and disease recurrence. Currently used treatments, like radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and hormone replacement therapy, result in poor responses and high recurrence rates. Alternative therapies are therefore needed for this type of cancer. Cancer patients may benefit from immunotherapy, a novel treatment strategy in cancer treatment. Even though immunotherapy has been successful in many cases, some patients do not respond to the treatment or those who do respond relapse or progress. The purpose of this review is to discuss several different immunotherapy approaches approved for the treatment of BC, as well as different strategies for immunotherapy for the treatment of BC.

Multiagent Intratumoral Immunotherapy Can Be Effective in A20 Lymphoma Clearance and Generation of Systemic T Cell Immunity

The use of immunotherapies has shown promise against selective human cancers. Identifying novel combinations of innate and adaptive immune cell-activating agents that can work synergistically to suppress tumor growth and provide additional protection against resistance or recurrence is critical. The A20 murine lymphoma model was used to evaluate the effect of various combination immunotherapies administered intratumorally. We show that single-modality treatment with Poly(I:C) or GM-CSF-secreting allogeneic cells only modestly controls tumor growth, whereas when given together there is an improved benefit, with 50% of animals clearing tumors and surviving long-term. Neither heat nor irradiation of GM-CSF-secreting cells enhanced the response over use of live cells. The use of a TIM-3 inhibitory antibody and an OX40 agonist in combination with Poly(I:C) allowed for improved tumor control, with 90% of animals clearing tumors with or without a combination of GM-CSF-secreting cells. Across all treatment groups, mice rejecting their primary A20 tumors were immune to subsequent challenge with A20, and this longstanding immunity was T-cell dependent. The results herein support the use of combinations of innate and adaptive immune activating agents for immunotherapy against lymphoma and should be investigated in other cancer types.

Pharmacodynamic activity of BMS-986156, a glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor-related protein agonist, alone or in combination with nivolumab in patients with advanced solid tumors

BACKGROUND

The success of immune checkpoint inhibitors has revolutionized cancer treatment options and triggered development of new complementary immunotherapeutic strategies, including T-cell co-stimulatory molecules, such as glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor-related protein (GITR). BMS-986156 is a fully agonistic human immunoglobulin G subclass 1 monoclonal antibody targeting GITR. We recently presented the clinical data for BMS-986156 with or without nivolumab, which demonstrated no compelling evidence of clinical activity in patients with advanced solid tumors. Here, we further report the pharmacodynamic (PD) biomarker data from this open-label, first-in-human, phase I/IIa study of BMS-986156 ± nivolumab in patients with advanced solid tumors (NCT02598960).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed PD changes of circulating immune cell subsets and cytokines in peripheral blood or serum samples collected from a dataset of 292 patients with solid tumors before and during treatment with BMS-986156 ± nivolumab. PD changes in the tumor immune microenvironment were measured by immunohistochemistry and a targeted gene expression panel.

RESULTS

BMS-986156 + nivolumab induced a significant increase in peripheral T-cell and natural killer (NK) cell proliferation and activation, accompanied by production of proinflammatory cytokines. However, no significant changes in expression of CD8A, programmed death-ligand 1, tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily members, or key genes linked with functional parameters of T and NK cells were observed in tumor tissue upon treatment with BMS-986156.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the robust evidence of peripheral PD activity of BMS-986156, with or without nivolumab, limited evidence of T- or NK cell activation in the tumor microenvironment was observed. The data therefore explain, at least in part, the lack of clinical activity of BMS-986156 with or without nivolumab in unselected populations of cancer patients.

Physical- and Chemical-Dually ROS-Responsive Nano-in-Gel Platforms with Sequential Release of OX40 Agonist and PD-1 Inhibitor for Augmented Combination Immunotherapy

Combination immunotherapy synergizing the PD-1 blockade with OX40 agonism has become a research hotspot, due to its enormous potential to overcome the restricted clinical objective response suffered by monotherapy. Questions of timing and sequence have been important aspects of immunotherapies when considering immunologic mechanisms; however, most of the time the straightforward additive approach was taken. Herein, our work is the first to investigate an alternative timing of aOX40 and aPD-1 treatment in melanoma-bearing mice, and it demonstrates that sequential administration (aOX40 first, then aPD-1 following) provided superior antitumor benefits than concurrent treatment. Based on that, to further avoid the limits suffered by solution forms, we adopted pharmaceutical technologies to construct an in situ-formed physical- and chemical-dually ROS-responsive nano-in-gel platform to implement sequential and prolonged release of aPD-1 and aOX40. Equipped with these advantages, the as-prepared (aPD-1NCs&aOX40)@Gels elicited augmented combination immunity and achieved great eradication of both primary and distant melanoma tumors in vivo.

In or out of control: Modulating regulatory T cell homeostasis and function with immune checkpoint pathways

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are the master regulators of immunity and they have been implicated in different disease states such as infection, autoimmunity and cancer. Since their discovery, many studies have focused on understanding Treg development, differentiation, and function. While there are many players in the generation and function of truly suppressive Tregs, the role of checkpoint pathways in these processes have been studied extensively. In this paper, we systematically review the role of different checkpoint pathways in Treg homeostasis and function. We describe how co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory pathways modulate Treg homeostasis and function and highlight data from mouse and human studies. Multiple checkpoint pathways are being targeted in cancer and autoimmunity; therefore, we share insights from the clinic and discuss the effect of experimental and approved therapeutics on Treg biology.

Checkpoint inhibitors as immunotherapy for fungal infections: Promises, challenges, and unanswered questions

Opportunistic fungal infections have high mortality in patients with severe immune dysfunction. Growing evidence suggests that the immune environment of invasive fungal infections and cancers share common features of immune cell exhaustion through activation of immune checkpoint pathways. This observation gave rise to several preclinical studies and clinical case reports describing blockade of the Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 and Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Antigen 4 immune checkpoint pathways as an adjunct immune enhancement strategy to treat opportunistic fungal infections. The first part of this review summarizes the emerging evidence for contributions of checkpoint pathways to the immunopathology of fungal sepsis, opportunistic mold infections, and dimorphic fungal infections. We then review the potential merits of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) as an antifungal immunotherapy, including the incomplete knowledge of the mechanisms involved in both immuno-protective effects and toxicities. In the second part of this review, we discuss the limitations of the current evidence and the many unknowns about ICIs as an antifungal immune enhancement strategy. Based on these gaps of knowledge and lessons learned from cancer immunology studies, we outline a research agenda to determine a "sweet spot" for ICIs in medical mycology. We specifically discuss the importance of more nuanced animal models, the need to study ICI-based combination therapy, potential ICI resistance, the role of the immune microenvironment, and the impact of ICIs given as part of oncological therapies on the natural immunity to various pathogenic fungi.

Emerging Targets in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma

The dual immune checkpoint blockade targeting CTLA-4 and PD-1 (ipilimumab/nivolumab) or the IO combinations targeting PD-1 and anti-VEGF TKIs (pembrolizumab/axitinib, nivolumab/cabozantinib, pembrolizumab/lenvatinib) have demonstrated an overall survival benefit in advanced clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Despite this significant improvement in clinical outcomes in the frontline setting from IO/IO or the IO/TKI combinations, there is a subset of patients of advanced ccRCC that do not respond to such combinations or will lose the initial efficacy and have disease progression. Therefore, a remarkable unmet need exists to develop new therapeutics to improve outcomes. With an enhanced understanding of ccRCC biology and its interaction with the tumor microenvironment, several new therapies are under development targeting ccRCC metabolism, cytokine-signaling, alternative immune checkpoint proteins, and novel biological pathways. In addition, microbiome products enhancing IO response, antibody-drug conjugates, and targeted radionuclides are also being investigated. This review summarizes selected emerging agents that are under development in ccRCC.

Emerging Trends in Immunotherapy for Cancer

Recent advances in cancer immunology have enabled the discovery of promising immunotherapies for various malignancies that have shifted the cancer treatment paradigm. The innovative research and clinical advancements of immunotherapy approaches have prolonged the survival of patients with relapsed or refractory metastatic cancers. Since the U.S. FDA approved the first immune checkpoint inhibitor in 2011, the field of cancer immunotherapy has grown exponentially. Multiple therapeutic approaches or agents to manipulate different aspects of the immune system are currently in development. These include cancer vaccines, adoptive cell therapies (such as CAR-T or NK cell therapy), monoclonal antibodies, cytokine therapies, oncolytic viruses, and inhibitors targeting immune checkpoints that have demonstrated promising clinical efficacy. Multiple immunotherapeutic approaches have been approved for specific cancer treatments, while others are currently in preclinical and clinical trial stages. Given the success of immunotherapy, there has been a tremendous thrust to improve the clinical efficacy of various agents and strategies implemented so far. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the development and clinical implementation of various immunotherapy approaches currently being used to treat cancer. We also highlight the latest developments, emerging trends, limitations, and future promises of cancer immunotherapy.

Interaction of Radiotherapy and Hyperthermia with the Immune System: a Brief Current Overview

Purpose of Review

This review focuses on the opposing effects on the immune system of radiotherapy (RT) and the consequences for combined cancer treatment strategies of RT with immunotherapies, including hyperthermia (HT). How RT and HT might affect cancer stem cell populations is also briefly outlined in this context.

Recent Findings

RT is one of the crucial standard cancer therapies. Most patients with solid tumors receive RT for curative and palliative purposes in the course of their disease. RT achieves a local tumor control by inducing DNA damage which can lead to tumor cell death. In recent years, it has become evident that RT does not only have local effects, but also systemic effects which involves induction of anti-tumor immunity and possible alteration of the immunosuppressive properties of the tumor microenvironment. Though, often RT alone is not able to induce potent anti-tumor immune responses since the effects of RT on the immune system can be both immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive.

Summary

RT with additional therapies such as HT and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are promising approaches to induce anti-tumor immunity effectively. HT is not only a potent sensitizer for RT, but it might also improve the efficacy of RT and certain chemotherapeutic agents (CT) by additionally sensitizing resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs).

Graphical abstract

Effects of the combination of a monoclonal agonistic mouse anti-OX40 antibody and toll-like receptor agonists: Unmethylated CpG and LPS on an MB49 bladder cancer cell line in a mouse model

Purpose

The basis of the antitumor immunotherapy, of which the purpose is the stimulation of the immune system. We have used two of the Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns: unmethylated CpG oligonucleotide, a ligand of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which is recognized by TLR4, combined with an agonistic OX40 receptor-specific monoclonal antibody (anti-OX40), which is expressed by activated regulatory T-cells (and by other activated T-cell populations as well). The objective of this study was to prove the effectiveness of the aforementioned compounds in an animal model, on a bladder cancer cell line.

Methods

We have instilled MB49 cells subcutaneously, to the left musculus biceps femoris. We have created three observation groups, each containing ten mice. After eleven days, all treated mice bearing the size of 5–8 mm (in diameter) tumor were administered CpG + anti-OX40 or LPS + anti-OX40 three times with a three-day lap between each treatment. Mice in the control group did not receive any treatment.

Results

All the specimens from the control and LPS + anti-OX40 groups have died by the sixtieth day of the observation period, however, five mice from the CpG + anti-OX40 group were still alive. The experiment lasted until the last surviving mouse died, which occurred on the 357th day after tumor implantation.

Discussion

The treatment with LPS did not make anti-OX40 more potent and did not increase the survival times. However, CpG + anti-OX40 has shown increased antitumor activity compared to the other two groups.

Safety and tolerability of MEDI0562, an OX40 agonist monoclonal antibody, in combination with durvalumab or tremelimumab in adult patients with advanced solid tumors

PURPOSE

Combination therapies targeting immunological checkpoints have shown promise in treating multiple tumor types. We report safety and tolerability of MEDI0562, a humanized IgG1K OX40 monoclonal antibody, in combination with durvalumab (anti-PD-L1), or tremelimumab (anti-CTLA-4), in adult patients with previously treated advanced solid tumors.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

In this phase 1, multicenter, open-label study, patients received escalating doses of MEDI0562 (2.25, 7.5, or 22.5 mg) every two weeks (Q2W) in combination with durvalumab (1500 mg) or tremelimumab (75 or 225 mg) Q4W, intravenously, until unacceptable toxicity or progressive disease. Tumor assessments were performed Q8W. The primary objective was to evaluate safety and tolerability.

RESULTS

Among the 27 and 31 patients who received MEDI0562 + durvalumab or MEDI0562 + tremelimumab, 74.1% and 67.7% reported a treatment-related adverse event (AE), and 22.2% and 19.4% experienced a treatment‑emergent AE that led to discontinuation, respectively. The maximum tolerated dose of MEDI0562 + durvalumab was 7.5 mg MEDI0562 + 1500 mg durvalumab; the maximum administered dose of MEDI0562 + tremelimumab was 22.5 mg MEDI0562 + 225 mg tremelimumab. Three patients in the MEDI0562 + durvalumab arm had a partial response. The mean percentage of Ki67+CD4+ and Ki67+CD8+ memory T cells increased by >100% following the first dose of MEDI0562 + durvalumab or tremelimumab in all dose cohorts. A decrease in OX40+FOXP3 T regulatory cells was observed in a subset of patients with available paired biopsies.

CONCLUSIONS

Following dose escalation, moderate toxicity was observed in both treatment arms, with no clear efficacy signals demonstrated.

Melanoma: An immunotherapy journey from bench to bedside

Melanoma gave science a window into the role immune evasion plays in the development of malignancy. The entire spectrum of immune focused anti-cancer therapies has been subjected to clinical trials in this disease, with limited success until the immune checkpoint blockade era. That revolution launched first in melanoma, heralded a landscape change throughout cancer that continues to reverberate today.

Emerging treatment strategies for metastatic triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a heterogeneous subtype of breast cancer that is often associated with an aggressive phenotype and a poor prognosis. Cytotoxic chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for most patients with metastatic TNBC (mTNBC), but duration of response is often short and median overall survival is only 12–18 months. Therefore, it is critical to identify novel treatment strategies to improve outcomes for these patients. In this review article, we discuss recent advances in treatment strategies for patients with mTNBC including the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors, targeted therapies, and antibody–drug conjugates. For each topic, we summarize important preclinical and clinical data, discuss implications for clinical practice, and highlight future research directions.

Current Clinical Trial Landscape of OX40 Agonists

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Despite the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) immunotherapy, most cancer patients still develop progressive disease necessitating additional treatment options. One approach is ligation of the OX40 (CD134) costimulatory receptor which promotes T cell activation, effector function, and the generation of long-lived memory cells.

RECENT FINDINGS

Numerous preclinical studies have demonstrated that OX40 agonists alone or in combination with ICB (e.g., anti-PD-1, anti-PD-L1, and anti-CTLA-4) augment anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we discuss the impact of OX40 agonists on T cell function and the therapeutic potential of OX40 agonists alone or in conjunction with ICB for patients with advanced malignancies.

Enhanced SARS-CoV-2-Specific CD4+ T Cell Activation and Multifunctionality in Late Convalescent COVID-19 Individuals

Background: Examination of CD4+ T cell responses during the natural course of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection offers useful information for the improvement of vaccination strategies against this virus and the protective effect of these T cells. Methods: We characterized the SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cell activation marker, multifunctional cytokine and cytotoxic marker expression in recovered coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) individuals. Results: CD4+ T-cell responses in late convalescent (>6 months of diagnosis) individuals are characterized by elevated frequencies of activated as well as mono, dual- and multi-functional Th1 and Th17 CD4+ T cells in comparison to early convalescent (<1 month of diagnosis) individuals following stimulation with SARS-CoV-2-specific antigens. Similarly, the frequencies of cytotoxic marker expressing CD4+ T cells were also enhanced in late convalescent compared to early convalescent individuals. Conclusion: Our findings from a low-to middle-income country suggest protective adaptive immune responses following natural infection of SARS-CoV-2 are elevated even at six months following initial symptoms, indicating the CD4+ T cell mediated immune protection lasts for six months or more in natural infection.

Comprehensive analysis of a TNF family based-signature in diffuse gliomas with regard to prognosis and immune significance

BACKGROUND

Several studies have shown that members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family play an important role in cancer immunoregulation, and trials targeting these molecules are already underway. Our study aimed to integrate and analyze the expression patterns and clinical significance of TNF family-related genes in gliomas.

METHODS

A total of 1749 gliomas from 4 datasets were enrolled in our study, including the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset as the training cohort and the other three datasets (CGGA, GSE16011, and Rembrandt) as validation cohorts. Clinical information, RNA expression data, and genomic profile were collected for analysis. We screened the signature gene set by Cox proportional hazards modelling. We evaluated the prognostic value of the signature by Kaplan-Meier analysis and timeROC curve. Gene Ontology (GO) and Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) analysis were performed for functional annotation. CIBERSORT algorithm and inflammatory metagenes were used to reveal immune characteristics.

RESULTS

In gliomas, the expression of most TNF family members was positively correlated. Univariate analysis showed that most TNF family members were related to the overall survival of patients. Then through the LASSO regression model, we developed a TNF family-based signature, which was related to clinical, molecular, and genetic characteristics of patients with glioma. Moreover, the signature was found to be an independent prognostic marker through survival curve analysis and Cox regression analysis. Furthermore, a nomogram prognostic model was constructed to predict individual survival rates at 1, 3 and 5 years. Functional annotation analysis revealed that the immune and inflammatory response pathways were enriched in the high-risk group. Immunological analysis showed the immunosuppressive status in the high-risk group.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed a TNF family-based signature to predict the prognosis of patients with glioma. Video abstract.

Combinatorial immunotherapy induces tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells with distinct functional, migratory, and stem-like properties

Background

Programmed death (ligand) 1 (PD-(L)1) blockade and OX40/4-1BB costimulation have been separately evaluated in the clinic to elicit potent antitumor T cell responses. The precise mechanisms underlying single agent activity are incompletely understood. It also remains unclear if combining individual therapies leads to synergism, elicits novel immune mechanisms, or invokes additive effects.

Methods

We performed high-dimensional flow cytometry and single-cell RNA sequencing-based immunoprofiling of murine tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) isolated from hosts bearing B16 or MC38 syngeneic tumors. This baseline infiltrate was compared to TILs after treatment with either anti-PD-(L)1, anti-OX40, or anti-4-1BB as single agents or as double and triple combinatorial therapies. Fingolimod treatment and CXCR3 blockade were used to evaluate the contribution of intratumoral versus peripheral CD8⁺ T cells to therapeutic efficacy.

Results

We identified CD8⁺ T cell subtypes with distinct functional and migratory signatures highly predictive of tumor rejection upon treatment with single agent versus combination therapies. Rather than reinvigorating terminally exhausted CD8⁺ T cells, OX40/4-1BB agonism expanded a stem-like PD-1^loKLRG-1⁺Ki-67⁺CD8⁺ T cell subpopulation, which PD-(L)1 blockade alone did not. However, PD-(L)1 blockade synergized with OX40/4-1BB costimulation by dramatically enhancing stem-like TIL presence via a CXCR3-dependent mechanism.

Conclusions

Our findings provide new mechanistic insights into the interplay between components of combinatorial immunotherapy, where agonism of select costimulatory pathways seeds a pool of stem-like CD8⁺ T cells more responsive to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB).

Short-term treatment with multi-drug regimens combining BRAF/MEK-targeted therapy and immunotherapy results in durable responses in Braf-mutated melanoma

Targeted and immunotherapy regimens have revolutionized the treatment of advanced melanoma patients. Despite this, only a subset of patients respond durably. Recently, combination strategies of BRAF/MEK inhibitors with immune checkpoint inhibitor monotherapy (α-CTLA-4 or α-PD-1) have increased the rate of durable responses. Based on evidence from our group and others, these therapies appear synergistic, but at the cost of significant toxicity. We know from other treatment paradigms (e.g. hematologic malignancies) that combination strategies with multi-drug regimens (>4 drugs) are associated with more durable disease control. To better understand the mechanism of these improved outcomes, and to identify and prioritize new strategies for testing, we studied several multi-drug regimens combining BRAF/MEK targeted therapy and immunotherapy combinations in a Braf-mutant murine melanoma model (Braf^V600E/Pten^−/−). Short-term treatment with α-PD-1 and α-CTLA-4 monotherapies were relatively ineffective, while treatment with α-OX40 demonstrated some efficacy [17% of mice with no evidence of disease, (NED), at 60-days]. Outcomes were improved in the combined α-OX40/α-PD-1 group (42% NED). Short-term treatment with quadruplet therapy of immunotherapy doublets in combination with targeted therapy [dabrafenib and trametinib (DT)] was associated with excellent tumor control, with 100% of mice having NED after combined DT/α-CTLA-4/α-PD-1 or DT/α-OX40/α-PD-1. Notably, tumors from mice in these groups demonstrated a high proportion of effector memory T cells, and immunologic memory was maintained with tumor re-challenge. Together, these data provide important evidence regarding the potential utility of multi-drug therapy in treating advanced melanoma and suggest these models can be used to guide and prioritize combinatorial treatment strategies.

Radiation Augments the Local Anti-Tumor Effect of In Situ Vaccine With CpG-Oligodeoxynucleotides and Anti-OX40 in Immunologically Cold Tumor Models

Introduction

Combining CpG oligodeoxynucleotides with anti-OX40 agonist antibody (CpG+OX40) is able to generate an effective in situ vaccine in some tumor models, including the A20 lymphoma model. Immunologically "cold" tumors, which are typically less responsive to immunotherapy, are characterized by few tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), low mutation burden, and limited neoantigen expression. Radiation therapy (RT) can change the tumor microenvironment (TME) of an immunologically "cold" tumor. This study investigated the effect of combining RT with the in situ vaccine CpG+OX40 in immunologically "cold" tumor models.

Methods

Mice bearing flank tumors (A20 lymphoma, B78 melanoma or 4T1 breast cancer) were treated with combinations of local RT, CpG, and/or OX40, and response to treatment was monitored. Flow cytometry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) experiments were conducted to study differences in the TME, secondary lymphoid organs, and immune activation after treatment.

Results

An in situ vaccine regimen of CpG+OX40, which was effective in the A20 model, did not significantly improve tumor response or survival in the "cold" B78 and 4T1 models, as tested here. In both models, treatment with RT prior to CpG+OX40 enabled a local response to this in situ vaccine, significantly improving the anti-tumor response and survival compared to RT alone or CpG+OX40 alone. RT increased OX40 expression on tumor infiltrating CD4+ non-regulatory T cells. RT+CpG+OX40 increased the ratio of tumor-infiltrating effector T cells to T regulatory cells and significantly increased CD4+ and CD8+ T cell activation in the tumor draining lymph node (TDLN) and spleen.

Conclusion

RT significantly improves the local anti-tumor effect of the in situ vaccine CpG+OX40 in immunologically "cold", solid, murine tumor models where RT or CpG+OX40 alone fail to stimulate tumor regression.

Emerging immunotherapeutic strategies for the treatment of breast cancer

Immunotherapy has resulted in unprecedented gains in long-term outcomes for many cancer types and has revolutionized the treatment landscape of solid tumor oncology. Checkpoint inhibition in combination with chemotherapy has proven to be effective for the treatment of a subset of advanced triple-negative breast cancer in the first-line setting. This initial success is likely just the tip of the iceberg as there is much that remains unknown about how to best harness the immune system as a therapeutic strategy in all breast cancer subtypes. Therefore, numerous ongoing studies are currently underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of immunotherapy in breast cancer. In this review, we will discuss emerging immunotherapeutic strategies for breast cancer treatment including the following: (1) Intratumoral therapies, (2) Anti-tumor vaccines, (3) B-specific T-cell engagers, and (4) Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, and (5) Emerging systemic immunotherapy strategies. For each topic, we will review the existing preclinical and clinical literature, discuss ongoing clinical trials, and highlight future directions in the field.

Anti-CD40 Antibodies Fused to CD40 Ligand Have Superagonist Properties

CD40 is a potent activating receptor within the TNFR family expressed on APCs of the immune system, and it regulates many aspects of B and T cell immunity via interaction with CD40 ligand (CD40L; CD154) expressed on the surface of activated T cells. Soluble CD40L and agonistic mAbs directed to CD40 are being explored as adjuvants in therapeutic or vaccination settings. Some anti-CD40 Abs can synergize with soluble monomeric CD40L. We show that direct fusion of CD40L to certain agonistic anti-CD40 Abs confers superagonist properties, reducing the dose required for efficacy, notably greatly increasing total cytokine secretion by human dendritic cells. The tetravalent configuration of anti-CD40-CD40L Abs promotes CD40 cell surface clustering and internalization and is the likely mechanism of increased receptor activation. CD40L fused to either the L or H chain C termini, with or without flexible linkers, were all superagonists with greater potency than CD40L trimer. The increased anti-CD40-CD40L Ab potency was independent of higher order aggregation. Moreover, the anti-CD40-CD40L Ab showed higher potency in vivo in human CD40 transgenic mice compared with the parental anti-CD40 Ab. To broaden the concept of fusing agonistic Ab to natural ligand, we fused OX40L to an agonistic OX40 Ab, and this resulted in dramatically increased efficacy for proliferation and cytokine production of activated human CD4⁺ T cells as well as releasing the Ab from dependency on cross-linking. This work shows that directly fusing antireceptor Abs to ligand is a useful strategy to dramatically increase agonist potency.

Prognostic significance of OX40+ lymphocytes in tumor stroma of surgically resected small-cell lung cancer

OX40 (CD134) is a co-stimulatory molecule mostly expressed on activated T lymphocytes. Previous reports have shown that OX40 can be an immuno-oncology target and a clinical biomarker for cancers of various organs. In this study, we collected formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor samples from 124 patients with small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) who had undergone surgery. We analyzed the expression profiles of OX40 and other relevant molecules, such as CD4, CD8, and Foxp3, in tumor stroma and cancer nest using immunohistochemistry and investigated their association with survival. High infiltration of OX40⁺ lymphocytes (OX40^high) in tumor stroma was positively associated with relapse-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) compared with low infiltration of OX40⁺ lymphocytes (OX40^low) (RFS, median, 26.0 months [95% confidence interval (CI), not reached (NR)–NR] vs 13.2 months [9.1–17.2], p = .024; OS, NR [95% CI, NR–NR] vs 29.8 months [21.3–38.2], p = .049). Multivariate analysis revealed that OX40^high in tumor stroma was an independent indicator of prolonged RFS. Moreover, RFS of patients with OX40^high/CD4^high in tumor stroma was significantly longer than that of patients with OX40^low/CD4^low. The RFS of patients with tumor stroma with OX40^high/CD8^high was significantly longer than that of patients with tumor stroma with OX40^low/CD8^high, OX40^high/CD8^low, or OX40^low/CD8^low. These findings suggest that OX40⁺ lymphocytes in tumor stroma play a complementary role in regulating the relapse of early-stage SCLC. Reinforcing immunity by coordinating the recruitment of OX40⁺ lymphocytes with CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in tumor stroma may constitute a potential immunotherapeutic strategy for patients with SCLC.

PD-1/PD-L1 blockade: Prospectives for immunotherapy in cancer and autoimmunity

Immune checkpoint blockade therapy (ICBT) has become a successful cancer treatment approach in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Blockade of programmed death 1 (PD-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) with monoclonal antibodies have been known as successful examples of cancer immunotherapy in recent years. Although ICBT has been shown to be beneficial in cancers, such benefits have only been seen in a portion of cancer patients. In this regard, enhancing the therapeutic effects of inhibiting PD-1 and PD-L1 and reducing the side effects of this approach can be considered as a potential approach in a successful ICBT. In this review, we have highlighted new viewpoints regarding improving the therapeutic effect of PD-1 and PD-L1 blockades in cancer therapy. Besides, their expression levels as a biomarker with prognostic value, their role in intestinal microbiota modulation, combination therapy, and immune-related side effects (irAEs) have been discussed.

The role of tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 4 (TNFRSF4) gene expression in diagnosis and prognosis of acute myeloid leukemia

OBJECTIVES

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is still challenging in predicting the prognosis due to its high heterogeneity. Molecular aberrations and abnormalities play a significant prognostic role in AML patients. Our aim of the study was to investigate the prognostic role of TNFRSF4 gene expression in AML patients and its potential effect on treatment protocols.

METHODS

Bone marrow mononuclear cells were analyzed for TNFRSF4 expression by real-time quantitative PCR as well as of FLT3/ITD and NPM1 mutations in 80 newly diagnosed AML patients and 80 control subjects.

RESULTS

TNFRSF4 was significantly overexpressed in the AML patients (p < 0.001). TNFRSF4 expression was associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes including treatment response, relapse free survival, and overall survival. On multivariate testing, TNFRSF4 high expression proved to be an independent prognostic marker for clinical remission and relapse free survival but not overall survival.

CONCLUSION

TNFRSF4 expression was revealed as an unfavorable prognostic marker and might be a target for immunotherapy in the future.

Clinical Research on the Mechanisms Underlying Immune Checkpoints and Tumor Metastasis

This study highlights aspects of the latest clinical research conducted on the relationship between immune checkpoints and tumor metastasis. The overview of each immune checkpoint is divided into the following three sections: 1) structure and expression; 2) immune mechanism related to tumor metastasis; and 3) clinical research related to tumor metastasis. This review expands on the immunological mechanisms of 17 immune checkpoints, including TIM-3, CD47, and OX-40L, that mediate tumor metastasis; evidence shows that most of these immune checkpoints are expressed on the surface of T cells, which mainly exert immunomodulatory effects. Additionally, we have summarized the roles of these immune checkpoints in the diagnosis and treatment of metastatic tumors, as these checkpoints are considered common predictors of metastasis in various cancers such as prostate cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and melanoma. Moreover, certain immune checkpoints can be used in synergy with PD-1 and CTLA-4, along with the implementation of combination therapies such as LIGHT-VTR and anti-PD-1 antibodies. Presently, most monoclonal antibodies generated against immune checkpoints are under investigation as part of ongoing preclinical or clinical trials conducted to evaluate their efficacy and safety to establish a better combination treatment strategy; however, no significant progress has been made regarding monoclonal antibody targeting of CD28, VISTA, or VTCN1. The application of immune checkpoint inhibitors in early stage tumors to prevent tumor metastasis warrants further evidence; the immune-related adverse events should be considered before combination therapy. This review aims to elucidate the mechanisms of immune checkpoint and the clinical progress on their use in metastatic tumors reported over the last 5 years, which may provide insights into the development of novel therapeutic strategies that will assist with the utilization of various immune checkpoint inhibitors.

The Next-Generation of Combination Cancer Immunotherapy: Epigenetic Immunomodulators Transmogrify Immune Training to Enhance Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy harnesses the immune system by targeting tumor cells that express antigens recognized by immune system cells, thus leading to tumor rejection. These tumor-associated antigens include tumor-specific shared antigens, differentiation antigens, protein products of mutated genes and rearrangements unique to tumor cells, overexpressed tissue-specific antigens, and exogenous viral proteins. However, the development of effective therapeutic approaches has proven difficult, mainly because these tumor antigens are shielded, and cells primarily express self-derived antigens. Despite innovative and notable advances in immunotherapy, challenges associated with variable patient response rates and efficacy on select tumors minimize the overall effectiveness of immunotherapy. Variations observed in response rates to immunotherapy are due to multiple factors, including adaptative resistance, competency, and a diversity of individual immune systems, including cancer stem cells in the tumor microenvironment, composition of the gut microbiota, and broad limitations of current immunotherapeutic approaches. New approaches are positioned to improve the immune response and increase the efficacy of immunotherapies, highlighting the challenges that the current global COVID-19 pandemic places on the present state of immunotherapy.

STING Agonist Combined to a Protein-Based Cancer Vaccine Potentiates Peripheral and Intra-Tumoral T Cell Immunity

Combining different immunotherapy approaches is currently building the future of immunotherapy, with the view to maximize anti-tumoral efficacy for larger patient population. The KISIMA™ platform allows the development of protein-based cancer vaccines able to induce tumor-specific T cell response resulting in anti-tumoral efficacy in various mouse models. Intra-tumoral administration of stimulator of interferon gene agonists (STINGa) was shown to induce a potent inflammatory response leading to the development of tumor-specific immunity. Here, we explored the efficacy and mechanisms of action of subcutaneous STINGa treatment combined with therapeutic vaccination in various mouse tumor models. This combinatory treatment highly enhanced frequency and effector function of both peripheral and intra-tumoral antigen-specific CD8 T cells, promoting potent IFNγ and TNFα production along with increased cytotoxicity. Moreover, combination therapy favorably modulated the tumor microenvironment by dampening immune-suppressive cells and increasing CD4 T cell infiltration together with their polarization toward Th1 phenotype. Combination with STINGa treatment improved the effect of therapeutic vaccination, resulting in a prolonged control and slower growth of B16-OVA and TC-1 tumors. Altogether, the results presented here highlight the potential of combining STINGa with a therapeutic protein vaccine for cancer treatment.

Artificial intelligence-based analysis for immunohistochemistry staining of immune checkpoints to predict resected non-small cell lung cancer survival and relapse

Background

Conventional analysis of single-plex chromogenic immunohistochemistry (IHC) focused on quantitative but spatial analysis. How immune checkpoints localization related to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) prognosis remained unclear.

Methods

Here, we analyzed ten immune checkpoints on 1,859 tumor microarrays (TMAs) from 121 NSCLC patients and recruited an external cohort of 30 NSCLC patients with 214 whole-slide IHC. EfficientUnet was applied to segment tumor cells (TCs) and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), while ResNet was performed to extract prognostic features from IHC images.

Results

The features of galectin-9, OX40, OX40L, KIR2D, and KIR3D played an un-negatable contribution to overall survival (OS) and relapse-free survival (RFS) in the internal cohort, validated in public databases (GEPIA, HPA, and STRING). The IC-Score and Res-Score were two predictive models established by EfficientUnet and ResNet. Based on the IC-Score, Res-Score, and clinical features, the integrated score presented the highest AUC for OS and RFS, which could achieve 0.9 and 0.85 in the internal testing cohort. The robustness of Res-Score was validated in the external cohort (AUC: 0.80–0.87 for OS, and 0.83–0.94 for RFS). Additionally, the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) combined with the PD-1/PD-L1 signature established by EfficientUnet can be a predictor for RFS in the external cohort.

Conclusions

Overall, we established a reliable model to risk-stratify relapse and death in NSCLC with a generalization ability, which provided a convenient approach to spatial analysis of single-plex chromogenic IHC.

Frontline Science: OX40 agonistic antibody reverses immune suppression and improves survival in sepsis

A defining feature of protracted sepsis is development of immunosuppression that is thought to be a major driving force in the morbidity and mortality associated with the syndrome. The immunosuppression that occurs in sepsis is characterized by profound apoptosis-induced depletion of CD4 and CD8 T cells and severely impaired T cell function. OX40, a member of the TNF receptor superfamily, is a positive co-stimulatory molecule expressed on activated T cells. When engaged by OX40 ligand, OX40 stimulates T cell proliferation and shifts the cellular immune phenotype toward TH1 with increased production of cytokines that are essential for control of invading pathogens. The purpose of the present study was to determine if administration of agonistic Ab to OX40 could reverse sepsis-induced immunosuppression, restore T cell function, and improve survival in a clinically relevant animal model of sepsis. The present study demonstrates that OX40 agonistic Ab reversed sepsis-induced impairment of T cell function, increased T cell IFN-γ production, increased the number of immune effector cells, and improved survival in the mouse cecal ligation and puncture model of sepsis. Importantly, OX40 agonistic Ab was not only effective in murine sepsis but also improved T effector cell function in PBMCs from patients with sepsis. The present results provide support for the use of immune adjuvants that target T cell depletion and T cell dysfunction in the therapy of sepsis-induced immunosuppression. In addition to the checkpoint inhibitors anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1, OX40 agonistic Ab may be a new therapeutic approach to the treatment of this highly lethal disorder.

Risk Signature Related to Immunotherapy Reaction of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Based on the Immune-Related Genes Associated With CD8+ T Cell Infiltration

Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common histological type of liver cancer, with an unsatisfactory long-term survival rate. Despite immune checkpoint inhibitors for HCC have got glories in recent clinical trials, the relatively low response rate is still a thorny problem. Therefore, there is an urgent need to screen biomarkers of HCC to predict the prognosis and efficacy of immunotherapy. Methods: Gene expression profiles of HCC were retrieved from TCGA, GEO, and ICGC databases while the immune-related genes (IRGs) were retrieved from the ImmPort database. CIBERSORT and WGCNA algorithms were combined to identify the gene module most related to CD8+ T cells in the GEO cohort. Subsequently, the genes in hub modules were subjected to univariate, LASSO, and multivariate Cox regression analyses in the TCGA cohort to develop a risk signature. Afterward, the accuracy of the risk signature was validated by the ICGC cohort, and its relationships with CD8+ T cell infiltration and PDL1 expression were explored. Results: Nine IRGs were finally incorporated into a risk signature. Patients in the high-risk group had a poorer prognosis than those in the low-risk group. Confirmed by TCGA and ICGC cohorts, the risk signature possessed a relatively high accuracy. Additionally, the risk signature was demonstrated as an independent prognostic factor and closely related to the CD8+ T cell infiltration and PDL1 expression. Conclusion: A risk signature was constructed to predict the prognosis of HCC patients and detect patients who may have a higher positive response rate to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Belantamab mafodotin in combination with novel agents in relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma: DREAMM-5 study design

Belantamab mafodotin (belamaf) is a BCMA-targeted antibody-drug conjugate recently approved as monotherapy for adults with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma who have received ≥4 prior therapies. Belamaf binds to BCMA and eliminates myeloma cells by multimodal mechanisms of action. The cytotoxic and potential immunomodulatory properties of belamaf have led to novel combination studies with other anticancer therapies. Here, we describe the rationale and design of DREAMM-5, an ongoing Phase I/II platform study evaluating the safety and efficacy of belamaf combined with novel agents, including GSK3174998 (OX40 agonist), feladilimab (an ICOS; GSK3359609), nirogacestat (a gamma-secretase inhibitor; PF-03084014) and dostarlimab (a PD-1 blocker) versus belamaf monotherapy for patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma. Clinical trial registration: NCT04126200 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

Accelerating target deconvolution for therapeutic antibody candidates using highly parallelized genome editing

Therapeutic antibodies are transforming the treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases. Today, a key challenge is finding antibodies against new targets. Phenotypic discovery promises to achieve this by enabling discovery of antibodies with therapeutic potential without specifying the molecular target a priori. Yet, deconvoluting the targets of phenotypically discovered antibodies remains a bottleneck; efficient deconvolution methods are needed for phenotypic discovery to reach its full potential. Here, we report a comprehensive investigation of a target deconvolution approach based on pooled CRISPR/Cas9. Applying this approach within three real-world phenotypic discovery programs, we rapidly deconvolute the targets of 38 of 39 test antibodies (97%), a success rate far higher than with existing approaches. Moreover, the approach scales well, requires much less work, and robustly identifies antibodies against the major histocompatibility complex. Our data establish CRISPR/Cas9 as a highly efficient target deconvolution approach, with immediate implications for the development of antibody-based drugs.

Efficient deconvolution of antibody targets is needed for phenotype-based discovery. Here, the authors investigate a deconvolution approach based on pooled CRISPR Cas9 to achieve 97% deconvolution success rate.

Enhancing the Generation of Eomeshi CD8+ T Cells Augments the Efficacy of OX40- and CTLA-4-Targeted Immunotherapy

CTLA-4 blockade in combination with an agonist OX40-specific monoclonal antibody synergizes to augment antitumor immunity through enhanced T-cell effector function, leading to increased survival in preclinical cancer models. We have shown previously that anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4 combination therapy synergistically enhances the expression of Eomesodermin (Eomes) in CD8⁺ T cells. Eomes is a critical transcription factor for the differentiation and memory function of CD8⁺ T cells. We hypothesized that Eomes^hiCD8⁺ T cells were necessary for anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4 immunotherapy efficacy and that further enhancement of this population would improve tumor-free survival. Indeed, CD8⁺ T cell-specific deletion of Eomes abrogated the efficacy of anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4 therapy. We also found that anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4-induced Eomes^hiCD8⁺ T cells expressed lower levels of checkpoint receptors (PD1, Tim-3, and Lag-3) and higher levels of effector cytokines (IFNγ and TNFα) than their Eomes^lo counterparts. Eomes expression is negatively regulated in T cells through interleukin-2-inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) signaling. We investigated the impact of modulating ITK signaling with ibrutinib, an FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitor, and found that anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4/ibrutinib therapy further enhanced CD8⁺ T cell-specific Eomes expression, leading to enhanced tumor regression and improved survival, both of which were associated with increased T-cell effector function across multiple tumor models. Taken together, these data demonstrate the potential of anti-OX40/anti-CTLA-4/ibrutinib as a triple therapy to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Immune Checkpoints: Novel Therapeutic Targets to Attenuate Sepsis-Induced Immunosuppression

Sepsis is a leading cause of death in intensive care units and survivors develop prolonged immunosuppression and a high incidence of recurrent infections. No definitive therapy exists to treat sepsis and physicians rely on supportive care including antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and vasopressors. With the rising incidence of antibiotic resistant microbes, it is becoming increasingly critical to discover novel therapeutics. Sepsis-induced leukocyte dysfunction and immunosuppression is recognized as an important contributor towards increased morbidity and mortality. Pre-clinical and clinical studies show that specific cell surface inhibitory immune checkpoint receptors and ligands including PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA4, BTLA, TIM3, OX40, and 2B4 play important roles in the pathophysiology of sepsis by mediating a fine balance between host immune competency and immunosuppression. Pre-clinical studies targeting the inhibitory effects of these immune checkpoints have demonstrated reversal of leukocyte dysfunction and improved host resistance of infection. Measurement of immune checkpoint expression on peripheral blood leukocytes may serve as a means of stratifying patients to direct individualized therapy. This review focuses on advances in our understanding of the role of immune checkpoints in the host response to infections, and the potential clinical application of therapeutics targeting the inhibitory immune checkpoint pathways for the management of septic patients.

CD137+ T-Cells: Protagonists of the Immunotherapy Revolution

Simple Summary

The CD137 receptor is expressed by activated antigen-specific T-cells. CD137⁺ T-cells were identified inside TILs and PBMCs of different tumor types and have proven to be the naturally occurring antitumor effector cells, capable of expressing a wide variability in terms of TCR specificity against both shared and neoantigenic tumor-derived peptides. The aim of this review is thus summarizing and highlighting their role as drivers of patients’ immune responses in anticancer therapies as well as their potential role in future and current strategies of immunotherapy.

Abstract

The CD137 receptor (4-1BB, TNF RSF9) is an activation induced molecule expressed by antigen-specific T-cells. The engagement with its ligand, CD137L, is capable of increasing T-cell survival, proliferation, and cytokine production. This allowed to identify the CD137⁺ T-cells as the real tumor-specific activated T-cell population. In fact, these cells express various TCRs that are specific for a wide range of tumor-derived peptides, both shared and neoantigenic ones. Moreover, their prevalence in sites close to the tumor and their unicity in killing cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo, raised particular interest in studying their potential role in different strategies of immunotherapy. They indeed showed to be a reliable marker able to predict patient’s outcome to immune-based therapies as well as monitor their response. In addition, the possibility of isolating and expanding this population, turned promising in order to generate effector antitumor T-cells in the context of adoptive T-cell therapies. CD137-targeting monoclonal antibodies have already shown their antitumor efficacy in cancer patients and a number of clinical trials are thus ongoing to test their possible introduction in different combination approaches of immunotherapy. Finally, the intracellular domain of the CD137 receptor was introduced in the anti-CD19 CAR-T cells that were approved by FDA for the treatment of pediatric B-cell leukemia and refractory B-cell lymphoma.

Preclinical Models of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma and Their Utility in Immunotherapy Studies

Simple Summary

Immune checkpoint blockade has provided durable clinical responses in a number of human malignancies, but not in patients with pancreatic cancer. Efforts to understand mechanisms of resistance and increase efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade in pancreatic cancer require the use of appropriate preclinical models in the laboratory. Here, we discuss the benefits, caveats, and potentials for improvement of the most commonly used models, including murine-based and patient-derived models.

Abstract

The advent of immunotherapy has transformed the treatment landscape for several human malignancies. Antibodies against immune checkpoints, such as anti-PD-1/PD-L1 and anti-CTLA-4, demonstrate durable clinical benefits in several cancer types. However, checkpoint blockade has failed to elicit effective anti-tumor responses in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), which remains one of the most lethal malignancies with a dismal prognosis. As a result, there are significant efforts to identify novel immune-based combination regimens for PDAC, which are typically first tested in preclinical models. Here, we discuss the utility and limitations of syngeneic and genetically-engineered mouse models that are currently available for testing immunotherapy regimens. We also discuss patient-derived xenograft mouse models, human PDAC organoids, and ex vivo slice cultures of human PDAC tumors that can complement murine models for a more comprehensive approach to predict response and resistance to immunotherapy regimens.