The molecular characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children

Reemergence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae disease: Pathogenesis and new approaches

The review discusses the recurrence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae), a bacterium causing atypical pneumonia, primarily affecting Europe and Asia due to climate change, immunity decline, antibiotic resistance, and genetic heterogeneity. The COVID-19 pandemic initially reduced M. pneumoniae cases due to preventative measures, but its reemergence suggests different transmission dynamics and exacerbates clinical severity with co-infections with other viruses. The pathogenicity of M. pneumoniae is attributed to its intracellular changes, toxin release, and adhesion processes, which can result in a variety of symptoms and problems. Antibiotics and immunomodulators are used in treatment, and attempts are being made to create vaccines. Effective management of its reappearance necessitates surveillance and preventative measures, especially in the context of co-infections and potential outbreaks. M. pneumoniae's resurgence highlights its reliance on a polarized cytoskeletal architecture for host cell attachment and pathogenicity through cytoadherence and cytotoxic agent synthesis. M. pneumoniae has returned even though the COVID-19 pandemic originally reduced incidence; this might be because of things like declining immunity and particular pathogenic characteristics. Meteorological factors like temperature and humidity, along with air quality, including pollutants like PM2.5 and NO2, increase susceptibility to environmental hazards. During the pandemic, non-pharmaceutical measures decreased transmission but did not eradicate the infection. Epidemics typically occur three to five years apart, emphasizing the need for ongoing study and observation. Antimicrobial resistance is a serious issue, necessitating caution and alternative therapies, especially in macrolides. COVID-19 pandemic lessons, such as mask use and hand hygiene, may help limit M. pneumoniae transmission.

Clinical characteristics and logistic regression analysis of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in children

PURPOSE

To investigate macrolide-resistant Mycobacterium pneumoniae (MRMP) pneumonia in children and construct a logistic regression model for mutations in the Mycoplasma pneumoniae drug-resistant gene.

METHODS

Clinical data of 281 children were analyzed. Sequencing confirmed a mutation at the A2063G locus of the 23 S rRNA gene in 227 children (A2063G group); 54 children showed no mutations (non-MRMP [NMRMP] group). We compared clinical features, laboratory tests, imaging, and bronchoscopy results and constructed a multifactorial logistic regression model to analyze risk and protective factors.

RESULTS

The A2063G group had longer durations of fever and hospitalization before admission, a higher proportion of treatment with sodium methylprednisolone succinate (MPS)/dexamethasone, longer time to discontinue hormones, and higher probability of combined infections. Monocyte percentage was significantly higher in the A2063G group. Imaging suggested a higher incidence of infections in the right lung compared to both lungs. Univariate analysis revealed fever duration before admission, hormone dose and duration, monocyte percentage, and mixed infections as risk factors for Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection with the A2063G mutation. The logistic regression model showed that mixed infections were an independent risk factor for the A2063G locus mutation, whereas hormone dose was a protective factor.

CONCLUSION

A prevalence of macrolide resistance of 80.8% among children was observed in the region. Logistic regression analysis revealed that co-infection with other respiratory pathogens is an independent risk factor for the development of resistance genes, while the use of hormone dosage acts as a protective factor.

Yinqin Qingfei granules alleviate Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia via inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated macrophage pyroptosis

Background

Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (MPP) is a prevalent respiratory infectious disease in children. Given the increasing resistance of M. pneumoniae (MP) to macrolide antibiotics, the identification of new therapeutic agents is critical. Yinqin Qingfei granules (YQQFG), a Chinese patent medicine formulated specifically for pediatric MPP, lacks a clear explanation of its mechanism.

Methods

The primary components of YQQFG were identified using LC-MS/MS. In vitro, RAW264.7 cells infected with MP underwent morphological examination via scanning electron microscopy. Drug-containing serum was prepared, and its intervention concentration was determined using the CCK-8 assay. The active components of YQQFG were molecularly docked with NLRP3 protein using Autodock Vina software. A RAW264.7 cell line overexpressing NLRP3 was created using lentivirus to pinpoint the target of YQQFG. In vivo, MPP model mice were established via nasal instillation of MP. Lung damage was assessed by lung index and H&E staining. Pyroptosis-associated protein levels in cells and lung tissue were measured by western blot, while interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 levels in cell supernatants and mouse serum were quantified using ELISA. Immunofluorescence double staining of lung tissue sections was conducted to assess the correlation between NLRP3 protein expression and macrophages. The expression of the community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin (CARDS TX) was evaluated by qPCR.

Results

25 effective components with favorable oral bioavailability were identified in YQQFG. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that YQQFG substantially reduced the expression of the NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD pathway, decreasing the release of IL-1β and IL-18, and inhibited MP exotoxin. Molecular docking indicated strong affinity between most YQQFG components and NLRP3 protein. Lentivirus transfection and immunofluorescence double staining confirmed that YQQFG significantly suppressed NLRP3 expression in macrophages, outperforming azithromycin (AZM). The combination of YQQFG and AZM yielded the optimal therapeutic effect for MPP.

Conclusion

YQQFG mitigates inflammatory responses by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated macrophage pyroptosis, thereby ameliorating MP-induced acute lung injury. YQQFG serves as an effective adjunct and alternative medication for pediatric MPP treatment.

Epidemiological characteristics of mycoplasma pneumoniae in hospitalized children before, during, and after COVID-19 pandemic restrictions in Chongqing, China

Background

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) is a significant cause of community-acquired pneumonia with high macrolide resistance rates. Various COVID-19 pandemic restrictions have impacted the prevalence of MP.

Objective

To assess the changes in the pattern of MP infections among children before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

A total of 36685 enrolled patients, aged 0-18 years, diagnosed with pneumonia and admitted to Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University from January 2019 to December 2023, were retrospectively reviewed in this study. The epidemiological characteristics of pediatric MP infection were analyzed.

Results

Among 36685 patients, 7610 (20.74%) tested positive for MP. The highest positive rate was observed among children aged over 6 years (55.06%). There was no gender disparity in MP infection across the three phases of the COVID-19 pandemic. Hospital stays were longest for children during the COVID-19 pandemic (P <0.001). MP infection was most prevalent in the summer (29.64%). The lowest positive rate was observed during the pandemic, with the highest rate found after easing the measures across all age groups (P <0.001). There was a surge in the positive rate of MP in the third year after the COVID-19 pandemic. Regression analyses demonstrated a shift in the age range susceptible to MP infection, with children aged 3.8 to 13.5 years post-pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic range of 5.3 to 15.5 years old. Additionally, the average macrolide resistance rate was 79.84%. We observed a higher resistance rate during the pandemic than in the pre- and post-pandemic phases (P <0.001).

Conclusion

The restrictive measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have influenced the spread of MP to some extent and altered demographic and clinical characteristics, such as age, age group, season, length of stay, and macrolide resistance. We recommend continuous surveillance of the evolving epidemiological characteristics of MP infection in the post-pandemic period when restrictions are no longer necessary.

Construction of a predictive model of respiratory endoscopic intervention in children with lobar pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection

Background

This study aimed to analyze the clinical features of children with lobar pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) infection, to explore the independent risk factors for bronchoscopic intervention in children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection. There is a lack of objective assessment tools to guide the use of bronchoscopy in clinical practice. For children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection, whether line shall be actively bronchoscope intervention therapy remains to be further defined. We also aimed to construct an early warning model of bronchoscopic intervention to provide an objective evaluation tool for clinicians.

Methods

We collected the clinical data of 533 children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection. The patients were divided into three groups according to the interventional indications for bronchoscopy and whether they were treated with bronchoscopic intervention, and the clinical features and prognosis of the three groups were compared. A binary logistic regression analysis was performed on the indicators with a significance value of P<0.05, which we retrieved from the comparative analysis between the first two groups to uncover the independent risk factors and regression equations concerning bronchoscopic intervention. The regression coefficient (β) of our regression model was then used to score related values in the model to construct a predictive scoring model of bronchoscopic intervention for the treatment of children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection.

Results

Children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection who demonstrated absolute indications for bronchoscopy exhibited more severe clinical manifestations, and children without absolute indications for bronchoscopy had a better prognosis even without bronchoscopic intervention. To establish our early warning model of bronchoscopic intervention for children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection, we used the following indices: C-reactive protein ≥20.94 mg/L (β1=2.253) received 3 points, while a fever duration before bronchoscopy ≥6.5 d (β2=1.424), lactate dehydrogenase ≥461.5 U/L (β3=1.246), or fever (β4=1.223) each received 2 points, and the complication of pleural effusion (β5=0.841) received 1 point, for a total possible score of 10 points.

Conclusions

When the score for the children with lobar pneumonia caused by MP infection was ≥6, the possibility of bronchoscopic intervention for treatment was >80%. The higher the score, the greater the possibility of bronchoscopic intervention.

A study on viruses and bacteria with particular interest on Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with exacerbation of asthma from a tertiary care hospital in Sri Lanka

Asthma is a significant public health concern, particularly in children with severe symptoms. Exacerbation of asthma (EOA) is life-threatening, and respiratory infections (RIs) play a crucial role. Though viruses play a significant role in EOA, patients are empirically treated with antibiotics, contributing to antibiotic resistance development. Although there are widely reported associations of EOA with viral or Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections, there are no published data for Sri Lanka. The present study aimed to identify the association of common respiratory viruses, typical respiratory bacterial pathogens and M. pneumoniae in children with EOA and relate them with the compatibility of antimicrobial use. A case-control study was conducted in the paediatric unit of North Colombo Teaching Hospital, Sri Lanka, involving two groups of children between 5 and 15 years of age. Group 1 is children with EOA and Group 2 is children with stable asthma (SA). Each group consisted of 100 children. Sputum/throat swabs were tested for common respiratory viruses using virus-specific fluorescein isothiocyanate-labelled monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), bacteria by routine culture, and M. pneumoniae by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Macrolide resistance in M. pneumoniae was detected using conventional PCR and sequencing specific genetic mutations in the 23S rRNA gene. M. pneumoniae was genotyped using nested multilocus sequence typing, which targeted eight housekeeping genes (ppa, pgm, gyrB, gmk, glyA, atpA, arcC and adk). There was no significant difference in age, gender, demographic or geographical location between the two groups. In children with EOA, antibiotics were used in 66 % (66/100) and macrolides in 42 % (42/100). Samples comprised 78 % (78/100) sputum and 22 % (22/100) throat swabs. Adenovirus was the most common virus identified, and it was significantly higher in children with EOA compared to those with SA. Still, the two groups had no significant difference in typical bacteria findings. M. pneumoniae was detected in one patient with EOA, but none was detected in the SA group. The M. pneumoniae was macrolide-sensitive and ST14 by multilocus sequence typing. This study showed that the empiric use of antibiotics in children with asthma might be better targeted with prior pathogen screening to inform appropriate treatment to minimize antibiotic resistance.

Influence of non-pharmaceutical interventions on epidemiological characteristics of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in children during and after the COVID-19 epidemic in Ningbo, China

Background

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, China has implemented a series of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), effectively containing the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as well as various respiratory pathogens. With the continuous relaxation of restrictions, China has entered a new phase of the post-pandemic era. However, the epidemiological differences of Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) between the two phases in Ningbo and even in China remain unclear.

Methods

Data of children aged 0-14 years who visited the Ningbo Medical Center LiHuiLi Hospital due to acute respiratory tract infections from January 2020 to December 2023 were collected. PCR was used to detect 13 respiratory pathogens and the macrolide-resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Results

Among 10,206 children, 2,360 were infected with MP (23.12%). Among the total, the MP positive rate during the NPI phase (6.35%) was significantly lower than that during the non-NPI phase (34.28%), while the macrolide resistance rate increased from 62.5% (NPI phase) to 81.1% (non-NPI phase). The rate of MP co-infection increased from 11.2% (NPI phase) to 30.3% (non-NPI phase). MP infection exhibited obvious seasonality, with the highest prevalence in autumn (30.0%) followed by summer (23.6%). There were differences in MP positivity rates among different age groups, with the highest among school-age children at 39.5%. During the NPI phase, all age groups were less susceptible to MP, while during the non-NPI phase, the susceptible age for MP was 4-12 years, with 8 years being the most susceptible. The susceptible age for MP co-infection was 0-6 years. MP exhibited antagonistic effects against numerous pathogens. Compared to MP single infection, the proportion of pneumonia was higher in MP co-infection cases.

Conclusion

The removal of NPIs significantly impacted the spread of MP, altering population characteristics including age, seasonality, macrolide resistance, and MP co-infection rates.

Macrolide-resistant mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in children observed during a period of high incidence in Henan, China

Objective

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Mp) is one of the major pathogens that causes respiratory tract infections, and macrolide resistance has increased rapidly in recent years due to the inappropriate use of macrolides in northeastern Asia. In the present study, we aimed to investigate Mp infection and macrolide resistance during a period of high incidence of Mp infection in Henan, China.

Methods

A total of 29473 suspected children with Mp infection were enrolled in the study from July to December 2023. Throat swab specimens were collected from all the study subjects, and real-time PCR was performed to detect the Mp-DNA and macrolide resistance-associated A2063G or A2064G mutations.

Results

The overall percentage of Mp-DNA-positive patients was 51.1 %, and the percentage of macrolide-resistant strains was 91 %. The rate of macrolide resistance remained stable from July to December. The Mp-DNA positivity rates among the different age groups from low to high were 0-1, 1-3, 3-6, 10-18 and 6-10 years. The macrolide resistance rate was the lowest in the 0-1 age group and highest in the 6-10 age group. No difference in the rate of macrolide resistance was observed between male and female children.

Conclusions

The macrolide resistance rate of Mp did not change during the investigated period of high incidence of infection, and no sex difference existed. The macrolide resistance rate of Mp was the lowest in children under 1 year old.

Observational retrospective clinical study on clinical features of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in Chinese pediatric cases

This study aimed to investigate differences in clinical characteristics and laboratory findings between children infected with Macrolide-Sensitive Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MSMP) and Macrolide-Resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MRMP). Additionally, the research sought to identify laboratory markers for rapidly distinguishing refractory Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (RMPP) from ordinary Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (OMPP). In total, 265 Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) patients were included, with MRMP identified by specific point mutations in domain V of the 23S rRNA gene. A retrospective analysis compared the clinical courses and laboratory data, revealing that MRMP patients experienced prolonged febrile days (P = 0.004), elevated CRP levels (P < 0.001), and higher MP DNA loads than MSMP patients (P = 0.037). Based on clinical symptoms, MRMP was divided into RMPP (n = 56) and OMPP (n = 70), with RMPP demonstrating significantly increased IL-18, community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) toxins in nasopharyngeal aspirate, and serum CRP levels (P < 0.001; P = 0.006; P < 0.001). In conclusion, timely recognition of RMPP is crucial for enhancing prognosis. The identification of MRMP, coupled with proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-18, CARDS toxins, and CRP, emerges as promising markers with the potential to contribute significantly to diagnostic accuracy and prognosis assessment.

Global research trends of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in children: a bibliometric analysis

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (MPP), attributable to Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP), represents a predominant form of community-acquired pneumonia in pediatric populations, thereby posing a significant threat to pediatric health. Given the burgeoning volume of research literature associated with pediatric MPP in recent years, it becomes imperative to undertake a bibliometric analysis aimed at delineating the current research landscape and emerging trends, thereby furnishing a framework for subsequent investigations.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search targeting pediatric MPP was conducted in the Web of Science Core Collection. After the removal of duplicate entries through Endnote software, the remaining articles were subject to scientometric analysis via Citespace software, VOSviewer software and R language, focusing on variables such as publication volume, contributing nations, institutions and authors, references and keywords.

RESULTS

A total of 1,729 articles pertinent to pediatric MPP were included in the analysis. China and the United States emerged as the nations with the highest publication output. Italian scholar Susanna Esposito and Japanese scholar Kazunobu Ouchi were the most influential authors in the domain of pediatric MPP. Highly-cited articles primarily focused on the epidemiological investigation of pediatric MPP, the clinical characteristics and treatment of macrolide-resistant MPP, and biomarkers for refractory Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (RMPP). From the corpus of 1,729 articles, 636 keywords were extracted and categorized into ten clusters: Cluster #0 centered on molecular-level typing of macrolide-resistant strains; Cluster #1 focused on lower respiratory tract co-infections; Clusters #2 and #6 emphasized other respiratory ailments caused by MP; Cluster #3 involved biomarkers and treatment of RMPP; Clusters #4 and #9 pertained to extrapulmonary complications of MPP, Clusters #5 and #7 addressed etiological diagnosis of MPP, and Cluster #8 explored pathogenic mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

The past few years have witnessed extensive attention directed towards pediatric MPP. Research in pediatric MPP principally revolves around diagnostic techniques for MP, macrolide resistance, complications of MPP, treatment and diagnosis of RMPP, and elucidation of pathogenic mechanisms. The present study provides pediatric clinicians and researchers with the research status and focal points in this field, thereby guiding the orientation of future research endeavors.

Clinical, Laboratory, and Radiographic Features Can Help Predict Mycoplasma pneumoniae Lower Respiratory Tract Infection in Children

Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Mp) is a common cause of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in children that is difficult to distinguish from LRTI of other etiologies. We aimed to determine if a combination of clinical, laboratory, and chest radiographic features can help identify patients at higher risk of Mp LRTI. We reviewed medical charts of children referred to our tertiary hospital with suspected acute mycoplasmal LRTI. Pharyngeal swabs obtained from patients were tested by Mp PCR. We compared epidemiological and clinical data of children with positive and negative Mp PCR results. In addition, a multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to predict Mp LRTI based on the patient's age, duration of symptoms, presence of extrapulmonary manifestations, laboratory findings, and chest radiographic findings. We included 65 children with Mp PCR-negative and 49 with Mp PCR-positive LRTI and no viral co-detection. Children with Mp LRTI were older (median age 5.8 vs. 2.2 years, p < 0.001), had a longer duration of symptoms on referral (median 7 vs. 4 days, p < 0.001), and lower median WBC (9.9 vs. 12.7 × 10⁹/L, p < 0.001). On chest radiograph, unilateral infiltrates were more frequently observed in the Mp PCR-positive group (57.5% vs. 24.1%, p = 0.001). Age, duration of symptoms, and chest radiographic findings had the highest predictive value for Mp LRTI in a multivariable logistic regression model. Our analysis suggests that a combination of clinical, laboratory, and chest radiographic features can be used to assess the likelihood of Mp LRTI and assist in decision-making for which children need further tests or macrolide antibiotic treatment.