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Angelopoulou E, Bougea A, Hatzimanolis A, Scarmeas N, Papageorgiou SG. Unraveling the Potential Underlying Mechanisms of Mild Behavioral Impairment: Focusing on Amyloid and Tau Pathology. Cells 2024; 13:1164. [PMID: 38995015 PMCID: PMC11240615 DOI: 10.3390/cells13131164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The emergence of sustained neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) among non-demented individuals in later life, defined as mild behavioral impairment (MBI), is linked to a higher risk of cognitive decline. However, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remain largely unexplored. A growing body of evidence has shown that MBI is associated with alterations in structural and functional neuroimaging studies, higher genetic predisposition to clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), as well as amyloid and tau pathology assessed in the blood, cerebrospinal fluid, positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging and neuropathological examination. These findings shed more light on the MBI-related potential neurobiological mechanisms, paving the way for the development of targeted pharmacological approaches. In this review, we aim to discuss the available clinical evidence on the role of amyloid and tau pathology in MBI and the potential underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, disruption of neurotrophic factors, such as the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), abnormal neuroinflammatory responses including the kynurenine pathway, dysregulation of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1), epigenetic alterations including micro-RNA (miR)-451a and miR-455-3p, synaptic dysfunction, imbalance in neurotransmitters including acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and norepinephrine, as well as altered locus coeruleus (LC) integrity are some of the potential mechanisms connecting MBI with amyloid and tau pathology. The elucidation of the underlying neurobiology of MBI would facilitate the design and efficacy of relative clinical trials, especially towards amyloid- or tau-related pathways. In addition, we provide insights for future research into our deeper understanding of its underlying pathophysiology of MBI, and discuss relative therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efthalia Angelopoulou
- 1st Department of Neurology, Aiginition University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Vasilissis Sofias Street 72-74, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasia Bougea
- 1st Department of Neurology, Aiginition University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Vasilissis Sofias Street 72-74, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Alexandros Hatzimanolis
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Aiginition University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Vasilissis Sofias Street 72-74, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Scarmeas
- 1st Department of Neurology, Aiginition University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Vasilissis Sofias Street 72-74, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Sokratis G Papageorgiou
- 1st Department of Neurology, Aiginition University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Vasilissis Sofias Street 72-74, 11528 Athens, Greece
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2
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Bougea A, Angelopoulou E, Vasilopoulos E, Gourzis P, Papageorgiou S. Emerging Therapeutic Potential of Fluoxetine on Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer's Disease: Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6542. [PMID: 38928248 PMCID: PMC11203451 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Fluoxetine, a commonly prescribed medication for depression, has been studied in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients for its effectiveness on cognitive symptoms. The aim of this systematic review is to investigate the therapeutic potential of fluoxetine in cognitive decline in AD, focusing on its anti-degenerative mechanisms of action and clinical implications. According to PRISMA, we searched MEDLINE, up to 1 April 2024, for animal and human studies examining the efficacy of fluoxetine with regard to the recovery of cognitive function in AD. Methodological quality was evaluated using the ARRIVE tool for animal AD studies and the Cochrane tool for clinical trials. In total, 22 studies were analyzed (19 animal AD studies and 3 clinical studies). Fluoxetine promoted neurogenesis and enhanced synaptic plasticity in preclinical models of AD, through a decrease in Aβ pathology and increase in BDNF, by activating diverse pathways (such as the DAF-16-mediated, TGF-beta1, ILK-AKT-GSK3beta, and CREB/p-CREB/BDNF). In addition, fluoxetine has anti-inflammatory properties/antioxidant effects via targeting antioxidant Nrf2/HO-1 and hindering TLR4/NLRP3 inflammasome. Only three clinical studies showed that fluoxetine ameliorated the cognitive performance of people with AD; however, several methodological issues limited the generalizability of these results. Overall, the high-quality preclinical evidence suggests that fluoxetine may have neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects in AD animal models. While more high-quality clinical research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying these effects, fluoxetine is a promising potential treatment for AD patients. If future clinical trials confirm its anti-degenerative and neuroprotective effects, fluoxetine could offer a new therapeutic approach for slowing down the progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Bougea
- 1st Department of Neurology, “Aiginition” Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (E.A.); (S.P.)
| | - Efthalia Angelopoulou
- 1st Department of Neurology, “Aiginition” Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (E.A.); (S.P.)
| | - Efthimios Vasilopoulos
- First Department of Psychiatry, “Aiginition” Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (E.V.); (P.G.)
| | - Philippos Gourzis
- First Department of Psychiatry, “Aiginition” Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (E.V.); (P.G.)
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Sokratis Papageorgiou
- 1st Department of Neurology, “Aiginition” Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (E.A.); (S.P.)
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3
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Fessel J. Special Issue "Pathophysiology and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease". Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6015. [PMID: 38892203 PMCID: PMC11173226 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The majority of clinical trials, whose primary aims were to moderate Alzheimer's dementia (AD), have been based upon the prevailing paradigm, i [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Fessel
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, 2069 Filbert Street, San Francisco, CA 94123, USA
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Fessel J. Personalized, Precision Medicine to Cure Alzheimer's Dementia: Approach #1. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3909. [PMID: 38612719 PMCID: PMC11012190 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The goal of the treatment for Alzheimer's dementia (AD) is the cure of dementia. A literature review revealed 18 major elements causing AD and 29 separate medications that address them. For any individual with AD, one is unlikely to discern which major causal elements produced dementia. Thus, for personalized, precision medicine, all causal elements must be treated so that each individual patient will have her or his causal elements addressed. Twenty-nine drugs cannot concomitantly be administered, so triple combinations of drugs taken from that list are suggested, and each triple combination can be administered sequentially, in any order. Ten combinations given over 13 weeks require 2.5 years, or if given over 26 weeks, they require 5.0 years. Such sequential treatment addresses all 18 elements and should cure dementia. In addition, any comorbid risk factors for AD whose first presence or worsening was within ±1 year of when AD first appeared should receive appropriate, standard treatment together with the sequential combinations. The article outlines a randomized clinical trial that is necessary to assess the safety and efficacy of the proposed treatments; it includes a triple-drug Rx for equipoise. Clinical trials should have durations of both 2.5 and 5.0 years unless the data safety monitoring board (DSMB) determines earlier success or futility since it is uncertain whether three or six months of treatment will be curative in humans, although studies in animals suggest that the briefer duration of treatment might be effective and restore defective neural tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Fessel
- Clinical Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, 2069 Filbert Street, San Francisco, CA 94123, USA
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5
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Grasso M, Fidilio A, L’Episcopo F, Recupero M, Barone C, Bacalini MG, Benatti C, Giambirtone MC, Caruso G, Greco D, Di Nuovo S, Romano C, Ferri R, Buono S, Cuello AC, Blom JMC, Tascedda F, Piazza PV, De La Torre R, Caraci F. Low TGF-β1 plasma levels are associated with cognitive decline in Down syndrome. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1379965. [PMID: 38576478 PMCID: PMC10991739 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1379965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Almost all individuals with Down's syndrome (DS) show the characteristic neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by the age of 40, yet not every individual with DS experiences symptoms of AD later in life. Similar to neurotypical developing subjects, AD in people with DS lasts for a long preclinical phase in which biomarkers follow a predictable order of changes. Hence, a prolonged asymptomatic period precedes the onset of dementia, underscoring the importance of identifying new biomarkers for the early detection and monitoring of cognitive decline in individuals with DS. Blood-based biomarkers may offer an alternative non-invasive strategy for the detection of peripheral biological alterations paralleling nervous system pathology in an early phase of the AD continuum. In the last few years, a strong neurobiological link has been demonstrated between the deficit of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) levels, an anti-inflammatory cytokine endowed with neuroprotective activity, and early pro-inflammatory processes in the AD brain. In this clinical prospective observational study, we found significant lower plasma TGF-β1 concentrations at the first neuropsychological evaluation (baseline = T0) both in young adult DS individuals (19-35 years) and older DS subjects without AD (35-60 years) compared to age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Interestingly, we found that the lower TGF-β1 plasma concentrations at T0 were strongly correlated with the following cognitive decline at 12 months. In addition, in young individuals with DS, we found, for the first time, a negative correlation between low TGF-β1 concentrations and high TNF-α plasma concentrations, a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is known to be associated with cognitive impairment in DS individuals with AD. Finally, adopting an ex vivo approach, we found that TGF-β1 concentrations were reduced in parallel both in the plasma and in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of DS subjects, and interestingly, therapeutic concentrations of fluoxetine (FLX) applied to cultured PBMCs (1 µM for 24 h) were able to rescue TGF-β1 concentrations in the culture media from DS PBMCs, suggesting that FLX, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) endowed with neuroprotective activity, might rescue TGF-β1 concentrations in DS subjects at higher risk to develop cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Santo Di Nuovo
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Corrado Romano
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Johanna M. C. Blom
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | - Rafael De La Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neurosciences Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Research Institute /HMRI, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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Tuura RO, Buchmann A, Ritter C, Hase A, Haynes M, Noeske R, Hasler G. Prefrontal Glutathione Levels in Major Depressive Disorder Are Linked to a Lack of Positive Affect. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1475. [PMID: 37891842 PMCID: PMC10605149 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13101475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most common neuropsychiatric disorders, with symptoms including persistent sadness and loss of interest. MDD is associated with neurochemical alterations in GABA, glutamate, and glutamine levels but, to date, few studies have examined changes in glutathione (GSH) in MDD. This study investigated changes in GSH in an unmedicated group of young adults, including 46 participants with current (n = 12) or past MDD (n = 34) and 20 healthy controls. Glutathione levels were assessed from GSH-edited magnetic resonance (MR) spectra, acquired from a voxel in the left prefrontal cortex, and depressive symptoms were evaluated with validated questionnaires and clinical assessments. Cortisol levels were also assessed as a marker for acute stress. Participants with current MDD demonstrated elevated GSH in comparison to participants with past MDD and controls, although the results could be influenced by differences in tissue composition within the MRS voxel. In addition, participants with both current and past MDD showed elevated cortisol levels in comparison to controls. No significant association was observed between GSH and cortisol levels, but elevated GSH levels were associated with a decrease in positive affect. These results demonstrate for the first time that elevated GSH in current but not past depression may reflect a state rather than a trait neurobiological change, related to a loss of positive affect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth O’Gorman Tuura
- Center for MR Research, University Children’s Hospital, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Buchmann
- Center for MR Research, University Children’s Hospital, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland
- Psychiatry Research Unit, University of Fribourg, 1752 Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland
| | - Christopher Ritter
- Center for MR Research, University Children’s Hospital, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland
- Psychiatry Research Unit, University of Fribourg, 1752 Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Hase
- Center for MR Research, University Children’s Hospital, 8032 Zürich, Switzerland
- Psychiatry Research Unit, University of Fribourg, 1752 Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Haynes
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Gregor Hasler
- Psychiatry Research Unit, University of Fribourg, 1752 Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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7
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Fessel J. Analysis of Why Alzheimer's Dementia Never Spontaneously Reverses, Suggests the Basis for Curative Treatment. J Clin Med 2023; 12:4873. [PMID: 37510988 PMCID: PMC10381682 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12144873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
A paradox regarding Alzheimer's dementia (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is thats spontaneous cure of AD has never been reported, whereas spontaneous cure for MCI occurs fequently. This article analyzes what accounts for this difference. It holds that it is not merely because, for any condition, a stage is reached beyond which it cannot be reversed, since even widely metastatic cancer would be curable were there effective chemotherapy and rheumatoid arthritis became controllable when immune-suppressant treatment was introduced; thus, so could AD be reversible via effective therapy. The analysis presented leads to an explanation of the paradox that is in four categories: (1) levels of transforming growth factor-β are significantly reduced after the transition from MCI to AD; (2) levels of Wnt/β-catenin are significantly reduced after the transition; (3) there is altered epidermal-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in neurons after the transition; (4) there may be risk factors that are either newly operative or pre-existing but worsened at the time of transition, that are particular to individual patients. It is suggested that addressing and ameliorating all of those four categories might cure AD. Medications to address and ameliorate each of the four categories are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Fessel
- Department of Medicine, University of California, 2069 Filbert Street, San Francisco, CA 94123, USA
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8
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Romano GL, Gozzo L, Maurel OM, Di Martino S, Riolo V, Micale V, Drago F, Bucolo C. Fluoxetine Protects Retinal Ischemic Damage in Mice. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051370. [PMID: 37242611 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To evaluate the neuroprotective effect of the topical ocular administration of fluoxetine (FLX) in a mouse model of acute retinal damage. METHODS Ocular ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in C57BL/6J mice was used to elicit retinal damage. Mice were divided into three groups: control group, I/R group, and I/R group treated with topical FLX. A pattern electroretinogram (PERG) was used as a sensitive measure of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) function. Finally, we analyzed the retinal mRNA expression of inflammatory markers (IL-6, TNF-α, Iba-1, IL-1β, and S100β) through Digital Droplet PCR. RESULTS PERG amplitude values were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the I/R-FLX group compared to the I/R group, whereas PERG latency values were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in I/R-FLX-treated mice compared to the I/R group. Retinal inflammatory markers increased significantly (p < 0.05) after I/R injury. FLX treatment was able to significantly (p < 0.05) attenuate the expression of inflammatory markers after I/R damage. CONCLUSIONS Topical treatment with FLX was effective in counteracting the damage of RGCs and preserving retinal function. Moreover, FLX treatment attenuates the production of pro-inflammatory molecules elicited by retinal I/R damage. Further studies need to be performed to support the use of FLX as neuroprotective agent in retinal degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Luca Romano
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Lucia Gozzo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Oriana Maria Maurel
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Serena Di Martino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Valentina Riolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Micale
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95100 Catania, Italy
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Kapoor M, Chinnathambi S. TGF-β1 signalling in Alzheimer's pathology and cytoskeletal reorganization: a specialized Tau perspective. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:72. [PMID: 36915196 PMCID: PMC10012507 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02751-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubule-associated protein, Tau has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease for its detachment from microtubules and formation of insoluble intracellular aggregates within the neurons. Recent findings have suggested the expulsion of Tau seeds in the extracellular domain and their prion-like propagation between neurons. Transforming Growth Factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is a ubiquitously occurring cytokine reported to carry out immunomodulation and neuroprotection in the brain. TGF-β-mediated regulation occurs at the level of neuronal survival and differentiation, glial activation (astrocyte and microglia), amyloid production-distribution-clearance and neurofibrillary tangle formation, all of which contributes to Alzheimer's pathophysiology. Its role in the reorganization of cytoskeletal architecture and remodelling of extracellular matrix to facilitate cellular migration has been well-documented. Microglia are the resident immune sentinels of the brain responsible for surveying the local microenvironment, migrating towards the beacon of pertinent damage and phagocytosing the cellular debris or patho-protein deposits at the site of insult. Channelizing microglia to target extracellular Tau could be a good strategy to combat the prion-like transmission and seeding problem in Alzheimer's disease. The current review focuses on reaffirming the role of TGF-β1 signalling in Alzheimer's pathology and cytoskeletal reorganization and considers utilizing the approach of TGF-β-triggered microglia-mediated targeting of extracellular patho-protein, Tau, as a possible potential strategy to combat Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahima Kapoor
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, 411008, Pune, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Subashchandrabose Chinnathambi
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, 411008, Pune, India. .,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India. .,Department of Neurochemistry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Institute of National Importance, Hosur Road, Bangalore, 560029, Karnataka, India.
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Russo M, De Rosa MA, Calisi D, Consoli S, Evangelista G, Dono F, Santilli M, Granzotto A, Onofrj M, Sensi SL. Migraine Pharmacological Treatment and Cognitive Impairment: Risks and Benefits. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911418. [PMID: 36232720 PMCID: PMC9569564 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Migraine is a common neurological disorder impairing the quality of life of patients. The condition requires, as an acute or prophylactic line of intervention, the frequent use of drugs acting on the central nervous system (CNS). The long-term impact of these medications on cognition and neurodegeneration has never been consistently assessed. The paper reviews pharmacological migraine treatments and discusses their biological and clinical effects on the CNS. The different anti-migraine drugs show distinct profiles concerning neurodegeneration and the risk of cognitive deficits. These features should be carefully evaluated when prescribing a pharmacological treatment as many migraineurs are of scholar or working age and their performances may be affected by drug misuse. Thus, a reconsideration of therapy guidelines is warranted. Furthermore, since conflicting results have emerged in the relationship between migraine and dementia, future studies must consider present and past pharmacological regimens as potential confounding factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirella Russo
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- CAST—Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Matteo A. De Rosa
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Dario Calisi
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Stefano Consoli
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Giacomo Evangelista
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Fedele Dono
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- CAST—Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Matteo Santilli
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Alberto Granzotto
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- CAST—Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Marco Onofrj
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- CAST—Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Stefano L. Sensi
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- CAST—Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- Institute for Mind Impairments and Neurological Disorders-iMIND, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- ITAB—Institute of Advanced Biomedical Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Zhang C, Wang L, Xu Y, Huang Y, Huang J, Zhu J, Wang W, Li W, Sun A, Li X, Zhang H, Li J. Discovery of novel dual RAGE/SERT inhibitors for the potential treatment of the comorbidity of Alzheimer's disease and depression. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 236:114347. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Alhakamy NA, Caruso G, Privitera A, Ahmed OAA, Fahmy UA, Md S, Mohamed GA, Ibrahim SRM, Eid BG, Abdel-Naim AB, Caraci F. Fluoxetine Ecofriendly Nanoemulsion Enhances Wound Healing in Diabetic Rats: In Vivo Efficacy Assessment. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:1133. [PMID: 35745706 PMCID: PMC9227110 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14061133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Impaired diabetic wound healing is a major concern for health care professionals worldwide, imposing an intense financial burden and reducing the quality of life of patients. A dysregulation of this process can be responsible for the development of intractable ulcers and the formation of excessive scars. Therefore, the identification of novel pharmacological strategies able to promote wound healing and restore the mechanical integrity of injured tissue becomes essential. In the present study, fluoxetine ecofriendly nanoemulsion (FLX-EFNE) was prepared and its potential efficacy in enhancing wound healing was tested in diabetic rats. The Box-Behnken response surface design was used to select the optimized formulation that was prepared by the high-shear homogenization-based technique. A Zetasizer was used for the characterization of the optimized formulation, providing a FLX-EFNE with a globule size of 199 nm. For the in vivo study, a wound was induced by surgical methods, and diabetic rats (streptozotocin-induced) were divided into five groups: untreated control, vehicle-treated, FLX, FLX-EFNE, and positive control receiving a commercially available formula. The treatment continued from the day of wound induction to day 21. Then, the animals were sacrificed and skin tissues were collected at the site of wounding and used for biochemical, histopathological, immunohistochemical, and mRNA expression assessments. In the FLX-EFNE treated group, the rate of wound contraction and signs of healing were significantly higher compared to all other groups. In addition, angiogenesis, proliferation, and collagen deposition were enhanced, while oxidative stress and inflammation decreased. The present data highlight the enhanced wound healing activity of the optimized FLX-EFNE formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabil A. Alhakamy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.A.); (O.A.A.A.); (U.A.F.); (S.M.)
- Advanced Drug Delivery Research Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Center of Excellence for Drug Research and Pharmaceutical Industries, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Mohamed Saeed Tamer Chair for Pharmaceutical Industries, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.P.); (F.C.)
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Anna Privitera
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Osama A. A. Ahmed
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.A.); (O.A.A.A.); (U.A.F.); (S.M.)
- Center of Excellence for Drug Research and Pharmaceutical Industries, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Mohamed Saeed Tamer Chair for Pharmaceutical Industries, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Usama A. Fahmy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.A.); (O.A.A.A.); (U.A.F.); (S.M.)
| | - Shadab Md
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (N.A.A.); (O.A.A.A.); (U.A.F.); (S.M.)
| | - Gamal A. Mohamed
- Department of Natural Products and Alternative Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Sabrin R. M. Ibrahim
- Preparatory Year Program, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia;
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Basma G. Eid
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (B.G.E.); (A.B.A.-N.)
| | - Ashraf B. Abdel-Naim
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (B.G.E.); (A.B.A.-N.)
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.P.); (F.C.)
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
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13
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Distefano A, Caruso G, Oliveri V, Bellia F, Sbardella D, Zingale GA, Caraci F, Grasso G. Neuroprotective Effect of Carnosine Is Mediated by Insulin-Degrading Enzyme. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:1588-1593. [PMID: 35471926 PMCID: PMC9121383 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
![]()
l-Carnosine
is an endogenous dipeptide that has high potential
for therapeutic purposes, being an antioxidant with metal chelating,
anti-aggregating, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties.
Despite its potential therapeutic values, the biomolecular mechanisms
involved in neuroprotection are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate,
at chemical and biochemical levels, that insulin-degrading enzyme
plays a pivotal role in carnosine neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Distefano
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, Troina 94018, Italy
| | - Valentina Oliveri
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Francesco Bellia
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, Via Paolo Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
| | | | - Gabriele Antonio Zingale
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Via Conte Ruggero 73, Troina 94018, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Grasso
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
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14
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Caruso G, Grasso M, Fidilio A, Torrisi SA, Musso N, Geraci F, Tropea MR, Privitera A, Tascedda F, Puzzo D, Salomone S, Drago F, Leggio GM, Caraci F. Antioxidant Activity of Fluoxetine and Vortioxetine in a Non-Transgenic Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:809541. [PMID: 35002742 PMCID: PMC8740153 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.809541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A neurobiological and clinical continuum exists between AD and depression, with neuroinflammation and oxidative stress being involved in both diseases. Second-generation antidepressants, in particular selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are currently investigated as neuroprotective drugs in AD. By employing a non-transgenic AD model, obtained by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers in 2-month-old C57BL/6 mice, we recently demonstrated that the SSRI fluoxetine (FLX) and the multimodal antidepressant vortioxetine (VTX) reversed the depressive-like phenotype and memory deficits induced by Aβ oligomers rescuing the levels of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1). Aim of our study was to test FLX and VTX for their ability to prevent oxidative stress in the hippocampus of Aβ-injected mice, a brain area strongly affected in both depression and AD. The long-term intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of FLX (10 mg/kg) or VTX (5 and 10 mg/kg) for 24 days, starting 7 days before Aβ injection, was able to prevent the over-expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) induced by Aβ oligomers. Antidepressant pre-treatment was also able to rescue the mRNA expression of glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1) antioxidant enzyme. FLX and VTX also prevented Aβ-induced neurodegeneration in mixed neuronal cultures treated with Aβ oligomers. Our data represent the first evidence that the long-term treatment with the antidepressants FLX or VTX can prevent the oxidative stress phenomena related to the cognitive deficits and depressive-like phenotype observed in a non-transgenic animal model of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Tropea
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Anna Privitera
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Daniela Puzzo
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
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15
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Correia AS, Vale N. Antidepressants in Alzheimer's Disease: A Focus on the Role of Mirtazapine. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14090930. [PMID: 34577630 PMCID: PMC8467729 DOI: 10.3390/ph14090930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mirtazapine belongs to the category of antidepressants clinically used mainly in major depressive disorder but also used in obsessive-compulsive disorders, generalized anxiety, and sleep disturbances. This drug acts mainly by antagonizing the adrenergic α2, and the serotonergic 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors. Neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as depression and agitation, are strongly associated with Alzheimer’s disease, reducing the life quality of these patients. Thus, it is crucial to control depression in Alzheimer’s patients. For this purpose, drugs such as mirtazapine are important in the control of anxiety, agitation, and other depressive symptoms in these patients. Indeed, despite some contradictory studies, evidence supports the role of mirtazapine in this regard. In this review, we will focus on depression in Alzheimer’s disease, highlighting the role of mirtazapine in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Salomé Correia
- OncoPharma Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Doutor Plácido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal;
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Vale
- OncoPharma Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Doutor Plácido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal;
- Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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16
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Fluoxetine increases brain MeCP2 immuno-positive cells in a female Mecp2 heterozygous mouse model of Rett syndrome through endogenous serotonin. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14690. [PMID: 34282222 PMCID: PMC8290043 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94156-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor skill deficit is a common and invalidating symptom of Rett syndrome (RTT), a rare disease almost exclusively affecting girls during the first/second year of life. Loss-of-function mutations of the methyl-CpG-binding protein2 (MECP2; Mecp2 in rodents) gene is the cause in most patients. We recently found that fluoxetine, a selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor and antidepressant drug, fully rescued motor coordination deficits in Mecp2 heterozygous (Mecp2 HET) mice acting through brain 5-HT. Here, we asked whether fluoxetine could increase MeCP2 expression in the brain of Mecp2 HET mice, under the same schedule of treatment improving motor coordination. Fluoxetine increased the number of MeCP2 immuno-positive (MeCP2+) cells in the prefrontal cortex, M1 and M2 motor cortices, and in dorsal, ventral and lateral striatum. Fluoxetine had no effect in the CA3 region of the hippocampus or in any of the brain regions of WT mice. Inhibition of 5-HT synthesis abolished the fluoxetine-induced rise of MeCP2+ cells. These findings suggest that boosting 5-HT transmission is sufficient to enhance the expression of MeCP2 in several brain regions of Mecp2 HET mice. Fluoxetine-induced rise of MeCP2 could potentially rescue motor coordination and other deficits of RTT.
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17
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Grasso M, Caruso G, Godos J, Bonaccorso A, Carbone C, Castellano S, Currenti W, Grosso G, Musumeci T, Caraci F. Improving Cognition with Nutraceuticals Targeting TGF-β1 Signaling. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10071075. [PMID: 34356309 PMCID: PMC8301008 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10071075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rescue of cognitive function represents an unmet need in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Nutraceuticals deliver a concentrated form of a presumed bioactive(s) agent(s) that can improve cognitive function alone or in combination with current approved drugs for the treatment of cognitive disorders. Nutraceuticals include different natural compounds such as flavonoids and their subclasses (flavan-3-ols, catechins, anthocyanins, and flavonols), omega-3, and carnosine that can improve synaptic plasticity and rescue cognitive deficits through multiple molecular mechanisms. A deficit of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) pathway is an early event in the pathophysiology of cognitive impairment in different neuropsychiatric disorders, from depression to AD. In the present review, we provide evidence that different nutraceuticals, such as Hypericum perforatum (hypericin and hyperforin), flavonoids such as hesperidin, omega-3, and carnosine, can target TGF-β1 signaling and increase TGF-β1 production in the central nervous system as well as cognitive function. The bioavailability of these nutraceuticals, in particular carnosine, can be significantly improved with novel formulations (nanoparticulate systems, nanoliposomes) that increase the efficacy and stability of this peptide. Overall, these studies suggest that the synergism between nutraceuticals targeting the TGF-β1 pathway and current approved drugs might represent a novel pharmacological approach for reverting cognitive deficits in AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
| | - Justyna Godos
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (J.G.); (W.C.)
| | - Angela Bonaccorso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
| | - Claudia Carbone
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
| | - Sabrina Castellano
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Catania, 95124 Catania, Italy;
| | - Walter Currenti
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (J.G.); (W.C.)
| | - Giuseppe Grosso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (J.G.); (W.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-09-5478-1187
| | - Teresa Musumeci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (G.C.); (A.B.); (C.C.); (T.M.); (F.C.)
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
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18
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Caruso G, Benatti C, Musso N, Fresta CG, Fidilio A, Spampinato G, Brunello N, Bucolo C, Drago F, Lunte SM, Peterson BR, Tascedda F, Caraci F. Carnosine Protects Macrophages against the Toxicity of Aβ1-42 Oligomers by Decreasing Oxidative Stress. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050477. [PMID: 33926064 PMCID: PMC8146816 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) is a naturally occurring endogenous peptide widely distributed in excitable tissues such as the brain. This dipeptide has well-known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aggregation activities, and it may be useful for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In this disease, peripheral infiltrating macrophages play a substantial role in the clearance of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides from the brain. Correspondingly, in patients suffering from AD, defects in the capacity of peripheral macrophages to engulf Aβ have been reported. The effects of carnosine on macrophages and oxidative stress associated with AD are consequently of substantial interest for drug discovery in this field. In the present work, a model of stress induced by Aβ1-42 oligomers was investigated using a combination of methods including trypan blue exclusion, microchip electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence, flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, and high-throughput quantitative real-time PCR. These assays were used to assess the ability of carnosine to protect macrophage cells, modulate oxidative stress, and profile the expression of genes related to inflammation and pro- and antioxidant systems. We found that pre-treatment of RAW 264.7 macrophages with carnosine counteracted cell death and apoptosis induced by Aβ1-42 oligomers by decreasing oxidative stress as measured by levels of intracellular nitric oxide (NO)/reactive oxygen species (ROS) and production of peroxynitrite. This protective activity of carnosine was not mediated by modulation of the canonical inflammatory pathway but instead can be explained by the well-known antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities of carnosine, enhanced macrophage phagocytic activity, and the rescue of fractalkine receptor CX3CR1. These new findings obtained with macrophages challenged with Aβ1-42 oligomers, along with the well-known multimodal mechanism of action of carnosine in vitro and in vivo, substantiate the therapeutic potential of this dipeptide in the context of AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-095-7384265
| | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Claudia G. Fresta
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
| | - Giorgia Spampinato
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Nicoletta Brunello
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Susan M. Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Blake R. Peterson
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
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19
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Optimisation of a PC12 cell-based in vitro stroke model for screening neuroprotective agents. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8096. [PMID: 33854099 PMCID: PMC8046774 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87431-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke causes death and disability globally but no neuroprotectant is approved for post-stroke neuronal injury. Neuroprotective compounds can be identified using oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) of neuronal cells as an in vitro stroke model. Nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated PC12 pheochromocytoma cells are frequently used. However, investigators often find their clonal variant undifferentiable and are uncertain of optimal culture conditions. Hence we studied 3 commonly used PC12 variants: PC12 Adh, PC12 from Riken Cell Bank (PC12 Riken) and Neuroscreen-1 (NS-1) cells. We found DMEM the optimal media for PC12 Riken and NS-1 cells. Using a novel serum-free media approach, we identified collagen IV as the preferred adhesive substrate for both cell lines. We found PC12 Adh cells cannot attach without serum and is unable to differentiate using NGF. NS-1 cells differentiated to a maximal 72.7 ± 5.2% %, with substantial basal differentiation. We optimised differentiated NS-1 cells for an in vitro stroke model using 3 h of OGD resulting in ~ 70% viable cells. We screened 5 reported neuroprotectants and provide the first report that serotonin is antiapoptotic in a stroke model and the 5-HT1A agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) is neuroprotective in PC12 cells. Thus we demonstrate the optimisation and validation for a PC12 cell-based in vitro stroke model.
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20
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Walton CC, Begelman D, Nguyen W, Andersen JK. Senescence as an Amyloid Cascade: The Amyloid Senescence Hypothesis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:129. [PMID: 32508595 PMCID: PMC7248249 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their postmitotic status, the potential for neurons to undergo senescence has historically received little attention. This lack of attention has extended to some non-postmitotic cells as well. Recently, the study of senescence within the central nervous system (CNS) has begun to emerge as a new etiological framework for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). The presence of senescent cells is known to be deleterious to non-senescent neighboring cells via development of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) which includes the release of inflammatory, oxidative, mitogenic, and matrix-degrading factors. Senescence and the SASP have recently been hailed as an alternative to the amyloid cascade hypothesis and the selective killing of senescence cells by senolytic drugs as a substitute for amyloid beta (Aß) targeting antibodies. Here we call for caution in rejecting the amyloid cascade hypothesis and to the dismissal of Aß antibody intervention at least in early disease stages, as Aß oligomers (AßO), and cellular senescence may be inextricably linked. We will review literature that portrays AßO as a stressor capable of inducing senescence. We will discuss research on the potential role of secondary senescence, a process by which senescent cells induce senescence in neighboring cells, in disease progression. Once this seed of senescent cells is present, the elimination of senescence-inducing stressors like Aß would likely be ineffective in abrogating the spread of senescence. This has potential implications for when and why AßO clearance may or may not be effective as a therapeutic for AD. The selective killing of senescent cells by the immune system via immune surveillance naturally curtails the SASP and secondary senescence outside the CNS. Immune privilege restricts the access of peripheral immune cells to the brain parenchyma, making the brain a safe harbor for the spread of senescence and the SASP. However, an increasingly leaky blood brain barrier (BBB) compromises immune privilege in aging AD patients, potentially enabling immune infiltration that could have detrimental consequences in later AD stages. Rather than an alternative etiology, senescence itself may constitute an essential component of the cascade in the amyloid cascade hypothesis.
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21
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Tang SW, Tang WH, Leonard BE. Herbal medicine for psychiatric disorders: Psychopharmacology and neuroscience-based nomenclature. World J Biol Psychiatry 2019. [PMID: 28649903 DOI: 10.1080/15622975.2017.1346279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Objectives: Herbs are frequently and concurrently used with prescribed drugs by patients worldwide. While clinical trials have found some herbs to be as useful as standard psychiatric drugs, most clinicians are unaware of their pharmacological mechanisms.Methods: We searched English language and other language literature with English abstracts listed in PubMed website, supplemented by additional through Google Scholar's free academic paper abstract website for publications on herbs, focussing on their clinical use in mental disorders, their neurobiology and their pharmacology.Results: A major reason for herbs remaining outside of mainstream psychiatry is that the terminology and concepts in herbal medicine are not familiar to psychiatrists in general. Many publications regarding the use of herbal medicine for psychiatric disorders are deficient in details regarding diagnosis, criteria for response and the neurobiology details compared with publications on standard psychotropic drugs. Nomenclature for herbal medicine is usually confusing and is not conducive to an easy understanding of their mode of action in psychiatric disorders.Conclusions: The recent neuroscience-based nomenclature (NbN) for psychotropics methodology would be a logical application to herbal medicine in facilitating a better understanding of the use of herbal medicine in psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siu W Tang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Institute of Brain Medicine, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wayne H Tang
- Institute of Brain Medicine, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Brian E Leonard
- Institute of Brain Medicine, Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Department of Pharmacology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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22
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Major Depressive Disorder and Oxidative Stress: In Silico Investigation of Fluoxetine Activity against ROS. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9173631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is a psychiatric disease having approximately a 20% lifetime prevalence in adults in the United States (U.S.), as reported by Hasin et al. in JAMA Psichiatry 2018 75, 336–346. Symptoms include low mood, anhedonia, decreased energy, alteration in appetite and weight, irritability, sleep disturbances, and cognitive deficits. Comorbidity is frequent, and patients show decreased social functioning and a high mortality rate. Environmental and genetic factors favor the development of depression, but the mechanisms by which stress negatively impacts on the brain are still not fully understood. Several recent works, mainly published during the last five years, aim at investigating the correlation between treatment with fluoxetine, a non-tricyclic antidepressant drug, and the amelioration of oxidative stress. In this work, the antioxidant activity of fluoxetine was investigated using a computational protocol based on the density functional theory approach. Particularly, the scavenging of five radicals (HO•, HOO•, CH3OO•, CH2=CHOO•, and CH3O•) was considered, focusing on hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and radical adduct formation (RAF) mechanisms. Thermodynamic as well as kinetic aspects are discussed, and, for completeness, two metabolites of fluoxetine and serotonin, whose extracellular concentration is enhanced by fluoxetine, are included in our analysis. Indeed, fluoxetine may act as a radical scavenger, and exhibits selectivity for HO• and CH3O•, but is inefficient toward peroxyl radicals. In contrast, the radical scavenging efficiency of serotonin, which has been demonstrated in vitro, is significant, and this supports the idea of an indirect antioxidant efficiency of fluoxetine.
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23
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Torrisi SA, Geraci F, Tropea MR, Grasso M, Caruso G, Fidilio A, Musso N, Sanfilippo G, Tascedda F, Palmeri A, Salomone S, Drago F, Puzzo D, Leggio GM, Caraci F. Fluoxetine and Vortioxetine Reverse Depressive-Like Phenotype and Memory Deficits Induced by Aβ 1-42 Oligomers in Mice: A Key Role of Transforming Growth Factor-β1. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:693. [PMID: 31293421 PMCID: PMC6598642 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and the presence of depressive symptoms significantly increases the conversion of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) into AD. A long-term treatment with antidepressants reduces the risk to develop AD, and different second-generation antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are currently being studied for their neuroprotective properties in AD. In the present work, the SSRI fluoxetine and the new multimodal antidepressant vortioxetine were tested for their ability to prevent memory deficits and depressive-like phenotype induced by intracerebroventricular injection of amyloid-β (1-42) (Aβ1-42) oligomers in 2-month-old C57BL/6 mice. Starting from 7 days before Aβ injection, fluoxetine (10 mg/kg) and vortioxetine (5 and 10 mg/kg) were intraperitoneally injected daily for 24 days. Chronic treatment with fluoxetine and vortioxetine (both at the dose of 10 mg/kg) was able to rescue the loss of memory assessed 14 days after Aβ injection by the passive avoidance task and the object recognition test. Both antidepressants reversed the increase in immobility time detected 19 days after Aβ injection by forced swim test. Vortioxetine exerted significant antidepressant effects also at the dose of 5 mg/kg. A significant deficit of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), paralleling memory deficits and depressive-like phenotype, was found in the hippocampus of Aβ-injected mice in combination with a significant reduction of the synaptic proteins synaptophysin and PSD-95. Fluoxetine and vortioxetine completely rescued hippocampal TGF-β1 levels in Aβ-injected mice as well as synaptophysin and PSD-95 levels. This is the first evidence that a chronic treatment with fluoxetine or vortioxetine can prevent both cognitive deficits and depressive-like phenotype in a non-transgenic animal model of AD with a key contribution of TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Tropea
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | | | | | - Nicolò Musso
- Bio-nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giulia Sanfilippo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Agostino Palmeri
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Daniela Puzzo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
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24
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Villas Boas GR, Boerngen de Lacerda R, Paes MM, Gubert P, Almeida WLDC, Rescia VC, de Carvalho PMG, de Carvalho AAV, Oesterreich SA. Molecular aspects of depression: A review from neurobiology to treatment. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 851:99-121. [PMID: 30776369 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known as unipolar depression, is one of the leading causes of disability and disease worldwide. The signs and symptoms are low self‑esteem, anhedonia, feeling of worthlessness, sense of rejection and guilt, suicidal thoughts, among others. This review focuses on studies with molecular-based approaches involving MDD to obtain an integrated, more detailed and comprehensive view of the brain changes produced by this disorder and its treatment and how the Central Nervous System (CNS) produces neuroplasticity to orchestrate adaptive defensive behaviors. This article integrates affective neuroscience, psychopharmacology, neuroanatomy and molecular biology data. In addition, there are two problems with current MDD treatments, namely: 1) Low rates of responsiveness to antidepressants and too slow onset of therapeutic effect; 2) Increased stress vulnerability and autonomy, which reduces the responses of currently available treatments. In the present review, we encourage the prospection of new bioactive agents for the development of treatments with post-transduction mechanisms, neurogenesis and pharmacogenetics inducers that bring greater benefits, with reduced risks and maximized access to patients, stimulating the field of research on mood disorders in order to use the potential of preclinical studies. For this purpose, improved animal models that incorporate the molecular and anatomical tools currently available can be applied. Besides, we encourage the study of drugs that do not present "classical application" as antidepressants, (e.g., the dissociative anesthetic ketamine and dextromethorphan) and drugs that have dual action mechanisms since they represent potential targets for novel drug development more useful for the treatment of MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Roberto Villas Boas
- Research Group on Development of Pharmaceutical Products (P&DProFar), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil; Faculty of Health Sciences, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados Rodovia Dourados, Itahum Km 12, Cidade Universitaria, Caixa. postal 364, CEP 79804-970, Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Roseli Boerngen de Lacerda
- Department of Pharmacology of the Biological Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraná, Jardim das Américas, Caixa. postal 19031, CEP 81531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Marina Meirelles Paes
- Research Group on Development of Pharmaceutical Products (P&DProFar), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Priscila Gubert
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Wagner Luis da Cruz Almeida
- Research Group on Development of Pharmaceutical Products (P&DProFar), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Vanessa Cristina Rescia
- Research Group on Development of Pharmaceutical Products (P&DProFar), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Pablinny Moreira Galdino de Carvalho
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Adryano Augustto Valladao de Carvalho
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Silvia Aparecida Oesterreich
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados Rodovia Dourados, Itahum Km 12, Cidade Universitaria, Caixa. postal 364, CEP 79804-970, Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
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25
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Caruso G, Fresta CG, Musso N, Giambirtone M, Grasso M, Spampinato SF, Merlo S, Drago F, Lazzarino G, Sortino MA, Lunte SM, Caraci F. Carnosine Prevents Aβ-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Microglial Cells: A Key Role of TGF-β1. Cells 2019; 8:E64. [PMID: 30658430 PMCID: PMC6356400 DOI: 10.3390/cells8010064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine), a dipeptide, is an endogenous antioxidant widely distributed in excitable tissues like muscles and the brain. Carnosine is involved in cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress, including the inhibition of amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation and the scavenging of reactive species. Microglia play a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, promoting neuroinflammation through the secretion of inflammatory mediators and free radicals. However, the effects of carnosine on microglial cells and neuroinflammation are not well understood. In the present work, carnosine was tested for its ability to protect BV-2 microglial cells against oligomeric Aβ1-42-induced oxidative stress and inflammation. Carnosine prevented cell death in BV-2 cells challenged with Aβ oligomers through multiple mechanisms. Specifically, carnosine lowered the oxidative stress by decreasing NO and O₂-• intracellular levels as well as the expression of iNOS and Nox enzymes. Carnosine also decreased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, simultaneously rescuing IL-10 levels and increasing the expression and the release of TGF-β1. Carnosine also prevented Aβ-induced neurodegeneration in mixed neuronal cultures challenged with Aβ oligomers, and these neuroprotective effects were completely abolished by SB431542, a selective inhibitor of the type-1 TGF-β receptor. Our data suggest a multimodal mechanism of action of carnosine underlying its protective effects on microglial cells against Aβ toxicity with a key role of TGF-β1 in mediating these protective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia G Fresta
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA.
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Bio-nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | | | - Margherita Grasso
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy.
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Simona F Spampinato
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Sara Merlo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Lazzarino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Maria A Sortino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Susan M Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA.
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy.
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
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26
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Tin G, Mohamed T, Shakeri A, Pham AT, Rao PPN. Interactions of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors with β-Amyloid. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:226-234. [PMID: 30157623 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major challenge at the moment with no new drugs available to cure this devastating neurodegenerative disorder. In this regard, drug repurposing, which aims to determine novel therapeutic usage for drugs already approved by the regulatory agencies, is a pragmatic approach to discover novel treatment strategies. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a known class of United States Food and Drug Administration approved drugs used in the treatment of depression. We investigated the ability of SSRIs fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, and escitalopram on Aβ42 aggregation and fibrillogenesis. Remarkably, the aggregation kinetic experiments carried out demonstrate the anti-Aβ42 aggregation activity of SSRIs fluoxetine, paroxetine, and sertraline at all the tested concentrations (1, 10, 50, and 100 μM). Both fluoxetine and paroxetine were identified as the most promising SSRIs, showing 74.8 and 76% inhibition of Aβ42 aggregation at 100 μM. The transmission electron microscopy experiments and dot-blot study also demonstrate the ability of fluoxetine and paroxetine to prevent Aβ42 aggregation and fibrillogenesis, providing further evidence. Investigating the binding interactions of fluoxetine and paroxetine in the Aβ42 oligomer and fibril models derived from the solid-state NMR structure suggests that these SSRIs interact at a region close to the N-terminal (Lys16-Glu22) in the S-shaped cross-β-strand assembly and reduce Aβ42 fibrillogenesis. On the basis of this study, a pharmacophore model is proposed which shows that the minimum structural requirements to design novel Aβ42 aggregation inhibitors include the presence of one ionizable group, one hydrophobic group, two aromatic rings, and two hydrogen bond donor groups. These studies demonstrate that SSRIs have the potential to prevent Aβ42 aggregation by direct binding and could be beneficial to AD patients on SSRIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Tin
- School of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Campus, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Tarek Mohamed
- School of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Campus, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Arash Shakeri
- School of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Campus, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Amy Trinh Pham
- School of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Campus, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Praveen P. N. Rao
- School of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Campus, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
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27
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Lanni C, Fagiani F, Racchi M, Preda S, Pascale A, Grilli M, Allegri N, Govoni S. Beta-amyloid short- and long-term synaptic entanglement. Pharmacol Res 2019; 139:243-260. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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28
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Pivotal role of carnosine in the modulation of brain cells activity: Multimodal mechanism of action and therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative disorders. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 175:35-53. [PMID: 30593839 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Carnosine (β-alanyl-l-histidine), a dipeptide, is an endogenous antioxidant widely distributed in excitable tissues like muscles and the brain. Although discovered more than a hundred years ago and having been extensively studied in the periphery, the role of carnosine in the brain remains mysterious. Carnosinemia, a rare metabolic disorder with increased levels of carnosine in urine and low levels or absence of carnosinase in the blood, is associated with severe neurological symptoms in humans. This review deals with the role of carnosine in the brain in both physiological and pathological conditions, with a focus on preclinical evidence suggesting a high therapeutic potential of carnosine in neurodegenerative disorders. We review carnosine and carnosinemia's discoveries and the extensive research on the role and benefits of carnosine in the periphery. We then turn to carnosine's biochemistry and distribution in the brain. Using an array of recent observations as a foundation, we draw a parallel with the role of carnosine in muscles and speculate on the role of carnosine in promoting the metabolic support of neurons by glial cells. Finally, carnosine has been shown to exert a multimodal activity including inhibition of protein cross-linking and aggregation of amyloid-β and related proteins, free radical generation, nitric oxide detoxification, and an anti-inflammatory activity. It could thus play an important role in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. We discuss the potential of carnosine in this context and speculate on new preclinical research directions.
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29
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Hu Y, Chen W, Wu L, Jiang L, Liang N, Tan L, Liang M, Tang N. TGF-β1 Restores Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity and Memory in Alzheimer Model via the PI3K/Akt/Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 67:142-149. [PMID: 30539409 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1219-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disturbances. Dysfunction of synaptic plasticity and decline in cognitive functions are the most prominent features of AD, but the mechanisms of pathogenesis have not been well elucidated. In this paper, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) was found to be reduced in the hippocampus of AD mouse which was accompanied by impaired pine density, synaptic plasticity, and memory function. Hippocampal injection of TGF-β1 rescued the AD-induced memory function impairment. In addition, TGF-β1 ameliorated synaptic plasticity and increased synaptic plasticity-associated protein expression including Arc, NR2B, and PSD-95 in mouse model of AD. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Akt/Wnt/β-catenin pathway protein expression in the hippocampus was suppressed in a mouse model of AD and TGF-β1 significantly enhanced the phosphorylation Akt, GSK3β, and increased the nuclear β-catenin. These results indicate that TGF-β1activates PI3K/Akt/Wnt/β-catenin signaling in mouse model of AD, which is important for promoting synaptic plasticity related to memory function. More importantly, suppression of PI3K/Akt/Wnt/β-catenin pathway compromised the beneficial effects of TGFβ1 in Alzheimer's model. Hence, TGF-β1 shows protective effect on neurons, which might be through the PI3K/Akt/Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, serving as a potential target in AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueqiang Hu
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China.,Key Laboratory of Guangxi Basic Chinese, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China.,Key Laboratory of Guangxi Basic Chinese, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Lin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Guangxi Basic Chinese, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China.,Scientific Laboratorial Centre Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Lingfei Jiang
- Graduate College of Guangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Ni Liang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Lulu Tan
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Minghui Liang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China
| | - Nong Tang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China. .,Key Laboratory of Guangxi Basic Chinese, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China. .,Scientific Laboratorial Centre Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, No. 89-9 Dongge Road, Nanning, 530023, Guangxi, China.
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30
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Caraci F, Calabrese F, Molteni R, Bartova L, Dold M, Leggio GM, Fabbri C, Mendlewicz J, Racagni G, Kasper S, Riva MA, Drago F. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CIV: The Neurobiology of Treatment-resistant Depression: From Antidepressant Classifications to Novel Pharmacological Targets. Pharmacol Rev 2018; 70:475-504. [PMID: 29884653 DOI: 10.1124/pr.117.014977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is one of the most prevalent and life-threatening forms of mental illnesses and a major cause of morbidity worldwide. Currently available antidepressants are effective for most patients, although around 30% are considered treatment resistant (TRD), a condition that is associated with a significant impairment of cognitive function and poor quality of life. In this respect, the identification of the molecular mechanisms contributing to TRD represents an essential step for the design of novel and more efficacious drugs able to modify the clinical course of this disorder and increase remission rates in clinical practice. New insights into the neurobiology of TRD have shed light on the role of a number of different mechanisms, including the glutamatergic system, immune/inflammatory systems, neurotrophin function, and epigenetics. Advances in drug discovery processes in TRD have also influenced the classification of antidepressant drugs and novel classifications are available, such as the neuroscience-based nomenclature that can incorporate such advances in drug development for TRD. This review aims to provide an up-to-date description of key mechanisms in TRD and describe current therapeutic strategies for TRD before examining novel approaches that may ultimately address important neurobiological mechanisms not targeted by currently available antidepressants. All in all, we suggest that drug targeting different neurobiological systems should be able to restore normal function but must also promote resilience to reduce the long-term vulnerability to recurrent depressive episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Caraci
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - F Calabrese
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - R Molteni
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - L Bartova
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - M Dold
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - G M Leggio
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - C Fabbri
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - J Mendlewicz
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - G Racagni
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - S Kasper
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - M A Riva
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
| | - F Drago
- Departments of Drug Sciences (F.Car.) and Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine (G.M.L., F.D.), University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Oasi-Research-Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy (F.Car.); Departments of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (F.Cal., G.R., M.A.R.) and Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (R.M.), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria (L.B., M.D., S.K.); Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy (C.F.); and School of Medicine, Universite' Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium (J.M.)
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Sub-Toxic Human Amylin Fragment Concentrations Promote the Survival and Proliferation of SH-SY5Y Cells via the Release of VEGF and HspB5 from Endothelial RBE4 Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113659. [PMID: 30463298 PMCID: PMC6274958 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human amylin is a 37-residue peptide hormone (hA1-37) secreted by β-cells of the pancreas and, along with insulin, is directly associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Amyloid deposits within the islets of the pancreas represent a hallmark of T2DM. Additionally, amylin aggregates have been found in blood vessels and/or brain of patients with Alzheimer’s disease, alone or co-deposited with β-amyloid. The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective potential of human amylin in the context of endothelial-neuronal “cross-talk”. We initially performed dose-response experiments to examine cellular toxicity (quantified by the [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] MTT assay) of different hA17–29 concentrations in endothelial cells (RBE4). In the culture medium of these cells, we also measured heat shock protein B5 (HspB5) levels by ELISA, finding that even a sub-toxic concentration of hA17–29 (3 µM) produced an increase of HspB5. Using a cell medium of untreated and RBE4 challenged for 48 h with a sub-toxic concentration of hA17–29, we determined the potential beneficial effect of their addition to the medium of neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. These cells were subsequently incubated for 48 h with a toxic concentration of hA17–29 (20 µM). We found a complete inhibition of hA17–29 toxicity, potentially related to the presence in the conditioned medium not only of HspB5, but also of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Pre-treating SH-SY5Y cells with the anti-Flk1 antibody, blocking the VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), significantly decreased the protective effects of the conditioned RBE4 medium. These data, obtained by indirectly measuring VEGF activity, were strongly corroborated by the direct measurement of VEGF levels in conditioned RBE4 media as detected by ELISA. Altogether, these findings highlighted a novel role of sub-toxic concentrations of human amylin in promoting the secretion of proteic factors by endothelial cells (HspB5 and VEGF) that support the survival and proliferation of neuron-like cells.
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Astrocytes and the TGF-β1 Pathway in the Healthy and Diseased Brain: a Double-Edged Sword. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:4653-4679. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1396-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Quetiapine prevents Aβ25-35-induced cell death in cultured neuron by enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor release from astrocyte. Neuroreport 2018; 29:92-98. [PMID: 29120942 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
β-Amyloid (Aβ)-induced neuronal toxicity is an early event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Quetiapine (QTP) is an atypical antipsychotic drug that has neuroprotectant properties, but little is known about its direct protective effects on neurons against the Aβ-induced cell toxicity. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of QTP on Aβ25-35-induced cell death and the possible underlying mechanisms in primary cultures of neurons. Exposure of cortical neurons to 10 μM or more Aβ25-35 caused significant viability loss in a MTT assay, and the toxic effects were not significantly prevented by the simultaneous coadministration of QTP. However, pretreated astrocyte conditioned medium (ACM) with QTP (ACMQTP) for 24 h markedly protected the neurons against the amyloid-induced cell loss. Furthermore, we revealed that QTP increased both the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor from cultured astrocytes and the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase after 24 h of treatment, which might be responsible for its protective effects on neurons. Consistent with the aforementioned findings, the protective effects of ACM on neurons could potentially be abolished by the extracellular signal-regulated kinase inhibitor and tropomyosin receptor kinase B receptor blocker. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that QTP exerted its neuroprotective effects against amyloid toxicity by enhancing the brain-derived neurotrophic factor release from astrocytes.
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Lozupone M, La Montagna M, D'Urso F, Piccininni C, Sardone R, Dibello V, Giannelli G, Solfrizzi V, Greco A, Daniele A, Quaranta N, Seripa D, Bellomo A, Logroscino G, Panza F. Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of depression in patients with alzheimer's disease: a treatment-resistant depressive disorder. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2018; 19:823-842. [PMID: 29726758 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2018.1471136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of depressive disorders in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) represents a clinical challenge. pharmacological options are often attempted after a period of watchful waiting (8-12 weeks). monoaminergic antidepressant drugs have shown only modest or null clinical benefits, maybe because the etiology of depressive symptoms in ad patients is fundamentally different from that of nondemented subjects. AREAS COVERED The following article looks at the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor sertraline, which is one of the most frequently studied antidepressant medications in randomized controlled trials (RCTs). It also discusses many other pharmacological approaches that have proven to be inadequate (antipsychotics, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, anticonvulsants, hormone replacement therapy) and new drug classes (mainly affecting glutamate transmission) that are being studied for treating depression in AD. It also gives discussion to the phase II RCT on the alternative drug S47445 and the potential effect on cognition of the multimodal antidepressant vortioxetine in older depressed patients. Finally, it discusses the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist ketamine. EXPERT OPINION The present RCT methodologies are too disparate to draw firm conclusions. Future studies are required to identify effective and multimodal pharmacological treatments that efficiently treat depression in AD. Genotyping may boost antidepressant treatment success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madia Lozupone
- a Neurodegenerative Disease Unit, Department of Basic Medicine, Neuroscience, and Sense Organs , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy
| | - Maddalena La Montagna
- b Psychiatric Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Foggia , Foggia , Italy
| | - Francesca D'Urso
- b Psychiatric Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Foggia , Foggia , Italy
| | - Carla Piccininni
- b Psychiatric Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Foggia , Foggia , Italy
| | - Rodolfo Sardone
- c Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics , National Institute of Gastroenterology "S. de Bellis" Research Hospital , Castellana Grotte, Bari , Italy
| | - Vittorio Dibello
- d Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine (DIM), Section of Dentistry , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy
| | - Gianluigi Giannelli
- c Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics , National Institute of Gastroenterology "S. de Bellis" Research Hospital , Castellana Grotte, Bari , Italy
| | - Vincenzo Solfrizzi
- e Geriatric Medicine-Memory Unit and Rare Disease Centre , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy
| | - Antonio Greco
- f Geriatric Unit & Laboratory of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Medical Sciences , IRCCS "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza" , San Giovanni Rotondo, Foggia , Italy
| | - Antonio Daniele
- g Institute of Neurology , Catholic University of Sacred Heart , Rome , Italy
| | - Nicola Quaranta
- h Otolaryngology Unit , University of Bari "Aldo Moro" , Bari , Italy
| | - Davide Seripa
- f Geriatric Unit & Laboratory of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Medical Sciences , IRCCS "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza" , San Giovanni Rotondo, Foggia , Italy
| | - Antonello Bellomo
- b Psychiatric Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Foggia , Foggia , Italy
| | - Giancarlo Logroscino
- a Neurodegenerative Disease Unit, Department of Basic Medicine, Neuroscience, and Sense Organs , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy.,i Department of Clinical Research in Neurology , University of Bari Aldo Moro, "Pia Fondazione Cardinale G. Panico" , Tricase, Lecce , Italy
| | - Francesco Panza
- a Neurodegenerative Disease Unit, Department of Basic Medicine, Neuroscience, and Sense Organs , University of Bari Aldo Moro , Bari , Italy.,f Geriatric Unit & Laboratory of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Medical Sciences , IRCCS "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza" , San Giovanni Rotondo, Foggia , Italy.,i Department of Clinical Research in Neurology , University of Bari Aldo Moro, "Pia Fondazione Cardinale G. Panico" , Tricase, Lecce , Italy
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35
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Neurobiological links between depression and AD: The role of TGF-β1 signaling as a new pharmacological target. Pharmacol Res 2018; 130:374-384. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Emerging role of amyloid beta in stress response: Implication for depression and diabetes. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 817:22-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Caraci F, Iulita MF, Pentz R, Flores Aguilar L, Orciani C, Barone C, Romano C, Drago F, Cuello AC. Searching for new pharmacological targets for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease in Down syndrome. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 817:7-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Blom JMC, Ottaviani E. Immune-Neuroendocrine Interactions: Evolution, Ecology, and Susceptibility to Illness. Med Sci Monit Basic Res 2017; 23:362-367. [PMID: 29142191 PMCID: PMC5701458 DOI: 10.12659/msmbr.907637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The integration between immune and neuroendocrine systems is crucial for maintaining homeostasis from invertebrates to humans. In the first, the phagocytic cell, i.e., the immunocyte, is the main actor, while in the latter, the principle player is the lymphocyte. Immunocytes are characterized by the presence of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) peptides, CRH, and other molecules that display a significant similarity to their mammalian counterparts regarding their functions, as both are mainly involved in fundamental functions such as immune (chemotaxis, phagocytosis, cytotoxicity, etc.) and neuroendocrine (stress) responses. Furthermore, the immune-neuroendocrine system provides vital answers to ecological and immunological demands in terms of economy and efficiency. Finally, susceptibility to disease emerges as the result of a continuous dynamic interaction between the world within and the world outside. New fields such as ecological immunology study the susceptibility to pathogens in an evolutionary perspective while the field of neuro-endocrine-immunology studies the susceptibility from a more immediate perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M C Blom
- Department of Education and Human Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Enzo Ottaviani
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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Abstract
A significant number of patients with major depression do not respond optimally to current antidepressant drugs. As depression is likely to be a heterogeneous disorder, it is possible that existing neurotransmitter-based antidepressant drugs do not fully address other pathologies that may exist in certain cases. Biological pathologies related to depression that have been proposed and studied extensively include inflammation and immunology, hypercortisolemia, oxidative stress, and impaired angiogenesis. Such pathologies may induce neurodegeneration, which in turn causes cognitive impairment, a symptom increasingly being recognized in depression. A neurotoxic brain hypothesis unifying all these factors may explain the heterogeneity of depression as well as cognitive decline and antidepressant drug resistance in some patients. Compared with neurotransmitter-based antidepressant drugs, many botanical compounds in traditional medicine used for the treatment of depression and its related symptoms have been discovered to be anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, anti-infection, antioxidative, and proangiogenic. Some botanical compounds also exert actions on neurotransmission. This multitarget nature of botanical medicine may act through the amelioration of the neurotoxic brain environment in some patients resistant to neurotransmitter-based antidepressant drugs. A multitarget multidimensional approach may be a reasonable solution for patients resistant to neurotransmitter-based antidepressant drugs.
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Di Menna L, Joffe ME, Iacovelli L, Orlando R, Lindsley CW, Mairesse J, Gressèns P, Cannella M, Caraci F, Copani A, Bruno V, Battaglia G, Conn PJ, Nicoletti F. Functional partnership between mGlu3 and mGlu5 metabotropic glutamate receptors in the central nervous system. Neuropharmacology 2017; 128:301-313. [PMID: 29079293 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
mGlu5 receptors are involved in mechanisms of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, and are targeted by drugs developed for the treatment of CNS disorders. We report that mGlu3 receptors, which are traditionally linked to the control of neurotransmitter release, support mGlu5 receptor signaling in neurons and largely contribute to the robust mGlu5 receptor-mediated polyphosphoinositide hydrolysis in the early postnatal life. In cortical pyramidal neurons, mGlu3 receptor activation potentiated mGlu5 receptor-mediated somatic Ca2+ mobilization, and mGlu3 receptor-mediated long-term depression in the prefrontal cortex required the endogenous activation of mGlu5 receptors. The interaction between mGlu3 and mGlu5 receptors was also relevant to mechanisms of neuronal toxicity, with mGlu3 receptors shaping the influence of mGlu5 receptors on excitotoxic neuronal death. These findings shed new light into the complex role played by mGlu receptors in physiology and pathology, and suggest reconsideration of some of the current dogmas in the mGlu receptor field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Max E Joffe
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232-0697, USA
| | - Luisa Iacovelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University Sapienza of Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Rosamaria Orlando
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University Sapienza of Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232-0697, USA
| | - Jèrome Mairesse
- PROTECT, INSERM, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 1141 Paris, France
| | - Pierre Gressèns
- PROTECT, INSERM, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 1141 Paris, France; Centre for the Developing Brain, Department of Perinatal Health and Imaging, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St. Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; I.R.C.C.S. Oasi Maria SS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Agata Copani
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; Institute of Biostructure and Bioimaging, National Research Council, 95126 Catania, Italy
| | - Valeria Bruno
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University Sapienza of Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | | | - P Jeffrey Conn
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232-0697, USA
| | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University Sapienza of Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy.
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Schiavone S, Tucci P, Mhillaj E, Bove M, Trabace L, Morgese MG. Antidepressant drugs for beta amyloid-induced depression: A new standpoint? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2017; 78:114-122. [PMID: 28499898 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that depression represents a risk factor and an early manifestation of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neuropsychiatric symptoms may derive from neurobiological changes in specific brain areas and may be considered prodromal of dementia. We have previously reported the depressive-like profile in rats receiving a single intracerebroventricular injection of soluble amyloid beta protein (ßA). Here, we verified the effect of different classes of antidepressants on the ßA-induced depressive behavior and on cortical monoamine levels. To these purposes, the forced swimming test was performed and cortical levels of serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We found that acute fluoxetine (20mg/kg, s.c.), reboxetine (10mg/kg, s.c.), and ketamine (15mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the immobility in ßA-treated rats compared to controls. Fluoxetine and reboxetine reversed 5-HT reduction, while βA-induced NA increase was further enhanced by all treatments. Treatments with fluoxetine, reboxetine and ketamine were able to revert soluble ßA-induced decrease of cortical BDNF levels, while only fluoxetine and ketamine, but not reboxetine, had the same effects on cortical NGF expression. Moreover, plasma soluble ßA-levels were lowered by fluoxetine, but not reboxetine and ketamine, treatments. Our data suggest that different classes of antidepressants yield a short-acting effect on rat soluble ßA-induced depressive profile. Thus, we hypothesize a novel common mechanism of action of these drugs also based upon a "ßA lowering" effect. Although further investigations are still needed, our study might open a new scenario for unravelling the molecular antidepressant mechanisms of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Schiavone
- Dept. of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Paolo Tucci
- Dept. of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Emanuela Mhillaj
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Bove
- Dept. of Physiology and Pharmacology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Luigia Trabace
- Dept. of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy.
| | - Maria Grazia Morgese
- Dept. of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
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42
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D'Aniello A, Luongo L, Romano R, Iannotta M, Marabese I, Boccella S, Belardo C, de Novellis V, Arra C, Barbieri A, D'Aniello B, Scandurra A, Magliozzi L, Fisher G, Guida F, Maione S. d-Aspartic acid ameliorates painful and neuropsychiatric changes and reduces β-amyloid Aβ 1-42 peptide in a long lasting model of neuropathic pain. Neurosci Lett 2017; 651:151-158. [PMID: 28487079 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Depressive symptoms and other neuropsychiatric dysfunctions are common in neurodegenerative disorders, including chronic pain and dementia. A correlation between the β-amyloid protein accumulation and the development of depression has been suggested, however the underlying mechanisms are unknown. d-Aspartate (d-Asp) is a free d-amino acid found in the mammalian brain and involved in neurological and psychiatric processes, such as cognition and affective disorders. In this study we have investigated the effects of a repeated treatment with d-Asp in a long-lasting (12 months) model of neuropathic pain, the spared nerve injury (SNI), in mice. Specifically, we evaluated i) the pain sensitivity and related emotional/cognitive dysfunctions induced by SNI, ii) possible changes in the β-amyloid protein accumulation in specific brain regions involved in pain mechanisms ii) possible changes in steroids level in neuropathic animals with or without d-Asp in the same brain areas. SNI mice showed an increase of the insoluble form of Aβ1-42 at hippocampal level and displayed cognitive impairments, stereotypical and depressive-like behaviours. d-Asp treatment reduced abnormal behaviours and normalized the β-amyloid protein expression. Moreover, d-Asp dramatically increased steroids level measured in the prefrontal cortex and in the hippocampus. Our findings provide new insights into pain mechanisms and suggest a possible role of β-amyloid protein in neuropsychiatric dysfunctions associated with chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antimo D'Aniello
- Department of Neurobiology and Comparative Physiology, Zoological Station "A. Dohrn", Napoli, Italy; Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy.
| | - Livio Luongo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Rosaria Romano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Monica Iannotta
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Ida Marabese
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Serena Boccella
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Carmela Belardo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Vito de Novellis
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudio Arra
- Animal Facility Unit Traslational Research Department, Istituto Nazionale Tumori -IRCCS-Fondazione G. Pascale, Napoli, Italia
| | - Antonio Barbieri
- Animal Facility Unit Traslational Research Department, Istituto Nazionale Tumori -IRCCS-Fondazione G. Pascale, Napoli, Italia
| | - Biagio D'Aniello
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Anna Scandurra
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Laura Magliozzi
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, CoNISMa, Lecce, Italy
| | - George Fisher
- Department of Physical Sciences, Barry University, Miami Schores , USA
| | - Francesca Guida
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy
| | - Sabatino Maione
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, Università della Campania, Naples, Italy.
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