Hydrogen Sulfide Regulates Energy Production to Delay Leaf Senescence Induced by Drought Stress in Arabidopsis

Unraveling the potential of hydrogen sulfide as a signaling molecule for plant development and environmental stress responses: A state-of-the-art review

Over the past decade, a plethora of research has illuminated the multifaceted roles of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in plant physiology. This gaseous molecule, endowed with signaling properties, plays a pivotal role in mitigating metal-induced oxidative stress and strengthening the plant's ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions. It fulfils several functions in regulating plant development while ameliorating the adverse impacts of environmental stressors. The intricate connections among nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydrogen sulfide in plant signaling, along with their involvement in direct chemical processes, are contributory in facilitating post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins that target cysteine residues. Therefore, the present review offers a comprehensive overview of sulfur metabolic pathways regulated by hydrogen sulfide, alongside the advancements in understanding its biological activities in plant growth and development. Specifically, it centres on the physiological roles of H2S in responding to environmental stressors to explore the crucial significance of different exogenously administered hydrogen sulfide donors in mitigating the toxicity associated with heavy metals (HMs). These donors are of utmost importance in facilitating the plant development, stabilization of physiological and biochemical processes, and augmentation of anti-oxidative metabolic pathways. Furthermore, the review delves into the interaction between different growth regulators and endogenous hydrogen sulfide and their contributions to mitigating metal-induced phytotoxicity.

A Synthetic Microbiome Based on Dominant Microbes in Wild Rice Rhizosphere to Promote Sulfur Utilization

Sulfur (S) is one of the main components of important biomolecules, which has been paid more attention in the anaerobic environment of rice cultivation. In this study, 12 accessions of rice materials, belonging to two Asian rice domestication systems and one African rice domestication system, were used by shotgun metagenomics sequencing to compare the structure and function involved in S cycle of rhizosphere microbiome between wild and cultivated rice. The sulfur cycle functional genes abundances were significantly different between wild and cultivated rice rhizosphere in the processes of sulfate reduction and other sulfur compounds conversion, implicating that wild rice had a stronger mutually-beneficial relationship with rhizosphere microbiome, enhancing sulfur utilization. To assess the effects of sulfate reduction synthetic microbiomes, Comamonadaceae and Rhodospirillaceae, two families containing the genes of two key steps in the dissimilatory sulfate reduction, aprA and dsrA respectively, were isolated from wild rice rhizosphere. Compared with the control group, the dissimilatory sulfate reduction in cultivated rice rhizosphere was significantly improved in the inoculated with different proportions groups. It confirmed that the synthetic microbiome can promote the S-cycling in rice, and suggested that may be feasible to construct the synthetic microbiome step by step based on functional genes to achieve the target functional pathway. In summary, this study reveals the response of rice rhizosphere microbial community structure and function to domestication, and provides a new idea for the construction of synthetic microbiome.

Melatonin-regulated heat shock proteins and mitochondrial ATP synthase induce drought tolerance through sustaining ROS homeostasis in H2S-dependent manner

Drought is thought to be one of the major global hazards to crop production. Understanding the role of melatonin (Mel) during plant adaptive responses to drought stress (DS) was the aim of the current investigation. Involvement of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) was also explored in Mel-regulated mechanisms of plants' tolerance to DS. A perusal of the data shows that exposure of tomato plants to DS elevated the activity of mitochondrial enzymes viz. pyruvate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, and citrate synthase. Whereas the activity of ATP synthase and ATPase was downregulated under stress conditions. Under DS, an increase in the expression level of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and activation level of antioxidant defense system was observed as well. On the other hand, an increase in the activity of NADPH oxidase and glycolate oxidase was observed along with the commencement of oxidative stress and accompanying damage. Application of 30 μM Mel to drought-stressed plants enhanced H2S accumulation and further elevated the activity of mitochondrial enzymes, activation level of the defense system, and expression of HSP17.6 and HSP70. Positive effect of Mel on these attributes was reflected by reduced level of ROS and related damage. However, application of H2S biosynthesis inhibitor DL-propargylglycine reversed the effect of Mel on the said attributes and again the damaging effects of drought were observed even in presence of Mel. This observation led us to conclude that Mel-regulated defense mechanisms operate through endogenous H2S under DS conditions.

Foliar Application of Sulfur-Containing Compounds-Pros and Cons

Sulfate is taken up from the soil solution by the root system; and inside the plant, it is assimilated to hydrogen sulfide, which in turn is converted to cysteine. Sulfate is also taken up by the leaves, when foliage is sprayed with solutions containing sulfate fertilizers. Moreover, several other sulfur (S)-containing compounds are provided through foliar application, including the S metabolites hydrogen sulfide, glutathione, cysteine, methionine, S-methylmethionine, and lipoic acid. However, S compounds that are not metabolites, such as thiourea and lignosulfonates, along with dimethyl sulfoxide and S-containing adjuvants, are provided by foliar application-these are the S-containing agrochemicals. In this review, we elaborate on the fate of these compounds after spraying foliage and on the rationale and the efficiency of such foliar applications. The foliar application of S-compounds in various combinations is an emerging area of agricultural usefulness. In the agricultural practice, the S-containing compounds are not applied alone in spray solutions and the need for proper combinations is of prime importance.

Sulfide promotes tolerance to drought through protein persulfidation in Arabidopsis

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a signaling molecule that regulates essential plant processes. In this study, the role of H2S during drought was analysed, focusing on the underlying mechanism. Pretreatments with H2S before imposing drought on plants substantially improved the characteristic stressed phenotypes under drought and decreased the levels of typical biochemical stress markers such as anthocyanin, proline, and hydrogen peroxide. H2S also regulated drought-responsive genes and amino acid metabolism, and repressed drought-induced bulk autophagy and protein ubiquitination, demonstrating the protective effects of H2S pretreatment. Quantitative proteomic analysis identified 887 significantly different persulfidated proteins between control and drought stress plants. Bioinformatic analyses of the proteins more persulfidated in drought revealed that the most enriched biological processes were cellular response to oxidative stress and hydrogen peroxide catabolism. Protein degradation, abiotic stress responses, and the phenylpropanoid pathway were also highlighted, suggesting the importance of persulfidation in coping with drought-induced stress. Our findings emphasize the role of H2S as a promoter of enhanced tolerance to drought, enabling plants to respond more rapidly and efficiently. Furthermore, the main role of protein persulfidation in alleviating reactive oxygen species accumulation and balancing redox homeostasis under drought stress is highlighted.

Integrated bioinformatic and physiological analyses reveal the pivotal role of hydrogen sulfide in enhancing low-temperature tolerance in alfalfa

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂ S) is an important gaseous signal molecule that regulates plant growth and stress resistance. However, research on the H₂ S synthase (HSase) genes is still limited in the model legume plant Medicago truncatula Gaertn. In the present study, a total of 40 HSase family members were first identified and analyzed in the M. truncatula genome, and these genes distributed across eight chromosomes and were clustered into five groups (I-V) based on their conserved gene structures and protein motifs. Expression analysis revealed that the MtHSase genes were expressed in all the tested abiotic stresses, albeit with expression level differences. This study also showed that H₂ S improves low temperature tolerance of alfalfa seedlings by regulating the antioxidant defense system and enhancing photosynthetic capacity. Thus, the study provides new insights into how the H₂ S signal regulates tolerance to low-temperature stress and provides the basis for further gene function and detection.

Free Radicals Mediated Redox Signaling in Plant Stress Tolerance

Abiotic and biotic stresses negatively affect plant cellular and biological processes, limiting their growth and productivity. Plants respond to these environmental cues and biotrophic attackers by activating intricate metabolic-molecular signaling networks precisely and coordinately. One of the initial signaling networks activated is involved in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species (RSS). Recent research has exemplified that ROS below the threshold level can stimulate plant survival by modulating redox homeostasis and regulating various genes of the stress defense pathway. In contrast, RNS regulates the stress tolerance potential of crop plants by modulating post-translation modification processes, such as S-nitrosation and tyrosine nitration, improving the stability of protein and DNA and activating the expression of downstream stress-responsive genes. RSS has recently emerged as a new warrior in combating plant stress-induced oxidative damage by modulating various physiological and stress-related processes. Several recent findings have corroborated the existence of intertwined signaling of ROS/RNS/RSS, playing a substantial role in crop stress management. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying their remarkable effect are still unknown. This review comprehensively describes recent ROS/RNS/RSS biology advancements and how they can modulate cell signaling and gene regulation for abiotic stress management in crop plants. Further, the review summarizes the latest information on how these ROS/RNS/RSS signaling interacts with other plant growth regulators and modulates essential plant functions, particularly photosynthesis, cell growth, and apoptosis.

Biological Functions of Hydrogen Sulfide in Plants

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), which is a gasotransmitter, can be biosynthesized and participates in various physiological and biochemical processes in plants. H₂S also positively affects plants' adaptation to abiotic stresses. Here, we summarize the specific ways in which H₂S is endogenously synthesized and metabolized in plants, along with the agents and methods used for H₂S research, and outline the progress of research on the regulation of H₂S on plant metabolism and morphogenesis, abiotic stress tolerance, and the series of different post-translational modifications (PTMs) in which H₂S is involved, to provide a reference for future research on the mechanism of H₂S action.

Sustained Release of Hydrogen Sulfide from Di(t-butanol)dithiophosphate Phenethylamine Salt Encapsulated into Poly(lactic acid) Microparticles to Enhance the Growth of Radish Plants

The slow release of hydrogen sulfide has been shown to be beneficial to plants by protecting them from environmental stressors, increasing germination, and extending the lifetime of harvested fruits. A major challenge in this field is controlling the amount and location of release of hydrogen sulfide so that it is available for use by plants at optimal amounts. This article reports a dual method to release hydrogen sulfide near the roots of plants by controlling its release using the hydrolysis of a dithiophosphate and the degradation of poly(lactic acid) [PLA]. Di(t-butanol)dithiophosphate phenylethylamine (tBDPA) was dissolved in a solution of PLA, and the solvent was allowed to evaporate. The resulting solid was crushed in a blender and separated into microparticles with two different size distributions of 250-500 or 500-2000 μm. The microparticles were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction to measure the presence of microcrystals of tBDPA within PLA, and images obtained using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis confirmed the presence of these crystals. Microparticles of tBDPA loaded within PLA were characterized for their release of phosphorus and hydrogen sulfide, which both showed a burst release within 3 days, followed by a steady release. Radish plants grown with microparticles of PLA loaded with tBDPA had up to a 141% increase in harvest yield compared to plants grown in the presence of free tBDPA not loaded into PLA, PLA microparticles without tBDPA, and control plants grown without PLA or tBDPA. These experiments showed that loading hydrogen sulfide-releasing chemicals into PLA is a promising method to improve the effect of hydrogen sulfide on plants.

The secret of H2 S to keep plants young and fresh and its products

Recently, accumulating evidence has shown that hydrogen sulphide (H₂ S), a newly determined gasotransmitter, plays important roles in senescence, which is an essential biological process for plant fitness and an important agricultural trait that is critical for the yield and quality of farm produce. Here, in this review, we summarize the roles of H₂ S in senescence, both before and after the harvesting of agricultural products, and the underlying mechanism is also discussed. During the plant growth process, the function of H₂ S in the leaf senescence process has been studied extensively, and H₂ S plays roles during the whole process, including the initiation, reorganization and terminal stages. While during the postharvest stage, H₂ S can prevents farm products from deterioration resulting from over-ripening, pathogen attack and incorrect storage. The underlying H₂ S-related mechanisms during different stages of the senescence process are summarized and compared. The most prominent interaction occurs between H₂ S and reactive oxygen species, and the molecular mechanism is explored. Additionally, the conserved action mode of H₂ S in different life processes and different species is also discussed. In the future, multi-omics analyses over time will be needed to investigate the detailed mechanisms of H₂ S, and a safety attribute analysis of H₂ S is also required before it can be used in agricultural production.

Hydrogen sulphide signalling in plant response to abiotic stress

Throughout their whole life cycle, higher plants are often exposed to diverse environmental stresses, such as drought, salinity, heavy metals and extreme temperatures. In response to such stress, plant cells initiate signalling transduction, resulting in downstream responses, such as specific gene transcription and protein expression. Accumulating evidence has revealed that hydrogen sulphide (H₂ S) serves as a signalling molecule in plant acclimation to stressful conditions. More important, H₂ S interacts with other signalling molecules and phytohormones, contributing to transcriptional regulation and post-translational modification. Overall, the H₂ S-mediated signalling pathway and its interaction with other signals remains elusive. Here, we describe the role of the H₂ S signalling network in regulating physiological and molecular processes under various abiotic stresses.

Active O-acetylserine-(thiol) lyase A and B confer improved selenium resistance and degrade l-Cys and l-SeCys in Arabidopsis

The roles of cytosolic O-acetylserine-(thiol)-lyase A (OASTLA), chloroplastic OASTLB, and mitochondrial OASTLC in plant selenate resistance were studied in Arabidopsis. Impairment in OASTLA and OASTLB resulted in reduced biomass, chlorophyll and soluble protein content compared with selenate-treated OASTLC-impaired and wild-type plants. The generally lower total selenium (Se), protein-Se, organic-sulfur and protein-sulfur (S) content in oastlA and oastlB compared with wild-type and oastlC leaves indicated that Se accumulation was not the main cause for the stress symptoms in these mutants. Notably, the application of selenate positively induced S-starvation markers and the OASTLs, followed by increased sulfite reductase, sulfite oxidase activities, and increased sulfite and sulfide concentrations. Taken together, our results indicate a futile anabolic S-starvation response that resulted in lower glutathione and increased oxidative stress symptoms in oastlA and oastlB mutants. In-gel assays of l-cysteine and l-seleno-cysteine, desulfhydrase activities revealed that two of the three OASTL activity bands in each of the oastl single mutants were enhanced in response to selenate, whereas the impaired proteins exhibited a missing activity band. The absence of differently migrated activity bands in each of the three oastl mutants indicates that these OASTLs are major components of desulfhydrase activity, degrading l-cysteine and l-seleno-cysteine in Arabidopsis.

Hydrogen sulfide improves tall fescue photosynthesis response to low-light stress by regulating chlorophyll and carotenoid metabolisms

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), as a gaseous messenger molecule, plays critical roles in signal transduction and biological modulation. In the present study, the roles of H₂S in regulating chlorophyll (Chl) and carotenoid (Car) contents to improve photosynthesis in tall fescue were investigated under low-light (LL) stress. Compared to control conditions, LL stress significantly reduced total biomass, net photosynthetic rate (P_n), maximal quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry (F_v/F_m), and the contents of Chl and Car. Under exogenous sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS, H₂S donor) application, these parameters were enhanced, ultimately increasing photosynthesis. Moreover, exogenous H₂S up-regulated the expression of chlorophyll biosynthesis genes while down-regulated chlorophyll degradation genes, resulting in increases in chlorophyll precursors. Components of carotenoids and expression of genes encoding biosynthesis and degradation enzymes varied similarly. Additionally, application exogenous H₂S up-regulated expression of FaDES1 and FaDCD. Thus, it enhanced L-cysteine desulfhydrase 1 (DES1, EC 4.4.1.1) and D-cysteine desulfhydrase (DCD, EC 4.4.1.15) activities leading to elevated endogenous H₂S. However, these responses were reversed by treatment with hypotaurine (HT, H₂S scavenger). These results suggested that H₂S is involved in regulating photosynthesis to improve LL tolerance via modulating Chl and Car metabolisms in tall fescue.

Roles of a Cysteine Desulfhydrase LCD1 in Regulating Leaf Senescence in Tomato

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a novel gasotransmitter in both mammals and plants, plays important roles in plant development and stress responses. Leaf senescence represents the final stage of leaf development. The role of H2S-producing enzyme L-cysteine desulfhydrase in regulating tomato leaf senescence is still unknown. In the present study, the effect of an L-cysteine desulfhydrase LCD1 on leaf senescence in tomato was explored by physiological analysis. LCD1 mutation caused earlier leaf senescence, whereas LCD1 overexpression significantly delayed leaf senescence compared with the wild type in 10-week tomato seedlings. Moreover, LCD1 overexpression was found to delay dark-induced senescence in detached tomato leaves, and the lcd1 mutant showed accelerated senescence. An increasing trend of H2S production was observed in leaves during storage in darkness, while LCD1 deletion reduced H2S production and LCD1 overexpression produced more H2S compared with the wild-type control. Further investigations showed that LCD1 overexpression delayed dark-triggered chlorophyll degradation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in detached tomato leaves, and the increase in the expression of chlorophyll degradation genes NYC1, PAO, PPH, SGR1, and senescence-associated genes (SAGs) during senescence was attenuated by LCD1 overexpression, whereas lcd1 mutants showed enhanced senescence-related parameters. Moreover, a correlation analysis indicated that chlorophyll content was negatively correlated with H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and also negatively correlated with the expression of chlorophyll degradation-related genes and SAGs. Therefore, these findings increase our understanding of the physiological functions of the H2S-generating enzyme LCD1 in regulating leaf senescence in tomato.

The Modus Operandi of Hydrogen Sulfide(H2S)-Dependent Protein Persulfidation in Higher Plants

Protein persulfidation is a post-translational modification (PTM) mediated by hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), which affects the thiol group of cysteine residues from target proteins and can have a positive, negative or zero impact on protein function. Due to advances in proteomic techniques, the number of potential protein targets identified in higher plants, which are affected by this PTM, has increased considerably. However, its precise impact on biological function needs to be evaluated at the experimental level in purified proteins in order to identify the specific cysteine(s) residue(s) affected. It also needs to be evaluated at the cellular redox level given the potential interactions among different oxidative post-translational modifications (oxiPTMs), such as S-nitrosation, glutathionylation, sulfenylation, S-cyanylation and S-acylation, which also affect thiol groups. This review aims to provide an updated and comprehensive overview of the important physiological role exerted by persulfidation in higher plants, which acts as a cellular mechanism of protein protection against irreversible oxidation.

Protein Persulfidation in Plants: Function and Mechanism

As an endogenous gaseous transmitter, the function of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been extensively studied in plants. Once synthesized, H2S may be involved in almost all life processes of plants. Among them, a key route for H2S bioactivity occurs via protein persulfidation, in which process oxidizes cysteine thiol (R-SH) groups into persulfide (R-SSH) groups. This process is thought to underpin a myriad of cellular processes in plants linked to growth, development, stress responses, and phytohormone signaling. Multiple lines of emerging evidence suggest that this redox-based reversible post-translational modification can not only serve as a protective mechanism for H2S in oxidative stress, but also control a variety of biochemical processes through the allosteric effect of proteins. Here, we collate emerging evidence showing that H2S-mediated persulfidation modification involves some important biochemical processes such as growth and development, oxidative stress, phytohormone and autophagy. Additionally, the interaction between persulfidation and S-nitrosylation is also discussed. In this work, we provide beneficial clues for further exploration of the molecular mechanism and function of protein persulfidation in plants in the future.

Molecular responses of legumes to abiotic stress: post-translational modifications of proteins and redox signaling

Legumes include several major crops that can fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic root nodules, thus reducing the demand for nitrogen fertilizers and contributing to sustainable agriculture. Global change models predict increases in temperature and extreme weather conditions. This scenario might increase plant exposure to abiotic stresses and negatively affect crop production. Regulation of whole plant physiology and nitrogen fixation in legumes during abiotic stress is complex, and only a few mechanisms have been elucidated. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species (RSS) are key players in the acclimation and stress tolerance mechanisms of plants. However, the specific redox-dependent signaling pathways are far from understood. One mechanism by which ROS, RNS, and RSS fulfil their signaling role is the post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins. Redox-based PTMs occur in the cysteine thiol group (oxidation, S-nitrosylation, S-glutathionylation, persulfidation), and also in methionine (oxidation), tyrosine (nitration), and lysine and arginine (carbonylation/glycation) residues. Unraveling PTM patterns under different types of stress and establishing the functional implications may give insight into the underlying mechanisms by which the plant and nodule respond to adverse conditions. Here, we review current knowledge on redox-based PTMs and their possible consequences in legume and nodule biology.

Increased expression of ANAC017 primes for accelerated senescence

Recent studies in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) have reported conflicting roles for NAC DOMAIN CONTAINING PROTEIN 17 (ANAC017), a transcription factor regulating mitochondria-to-nuclear signaling, and its closest paralog NAC DOMAIN CONTAINING PROTEIN 16 (ANAC016), in leaf senescence. By synchronizing senescence in individually darkened leaves of knockout and overexpressing mutants from these contrasting studies, we demonstrate that elevated ANAC017 expression consistently causes accelerated senescence and cell death. A time-resolved transcriptome analysis revealed that senescence-associated pathways such as autophagy are not constitutively activated in ANAC017 overexpression lines, but require a senescence-stimulus to trigger accelerated induction. ANAC017 transcript and ANAC017-target genes are constitutively upregulated in ANAC017 overexpression lines, but surprisingly show a transient "super-induction" 1 d after senescence induction. This induction of ANAC017 and its target genes is observed during the later stages of age-related and dark-induced senescence, indicating the ANAC017 pathway is also activated in natural senescence. In contrast, knockout mutants of ANAC017 showed lowered senescence-induced induction of ANAC017 target genes during the late stages of dark-induced senescence. Finally, promoter binding analyses show that the ANAC016 promoter sequence is directly bound by ANAC017, so ANAC016 likely acts downstream of ANAC017 and is directly transcriptionally controlled by ANAC017 in a feed-forward loop during late senescence.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and potassium (K+) synergistically induce drought stress tolerance through regulation of H+-ATPase activity, sugar metabolism, and antioxidative defense in tomato seedlings

Exogenous potassium (K⁺) and endogenous hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) synergistically alleviate drought stress through regulating H⁺-ATPase activity, sugar metabolism and redox homoeostasis in tomato seedlings. Present work evaluates the role of K⁺ in the regulation of endogenous H₂S signaling in modulating the tolerance of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. Mill.) seedlings to drought stress. The findings reveal that exposure of seedlings to 15% (w/v) polyethylene glycol 8000 (PEG) led to a substantial decrease in leaf K⁺ content which was associated with reduced H⁺-ATPase activity. Treatment with sodium orthovanadate (SOV, PM H⁺-ATPase inhibitor) and tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA, K⁺ channel blocker) suggests that exogenous K⁺ stimulated H⁺-ATPase activity that further regulated endogenous K⁺ content in tomato seedlings subjected to drought stress. Moreover, reduction in H⁺-ATPase activity by hypotaurine (HT; H₂S scavenger) substantiates the role of endogenous H₂S in the regulation of H⁺-ATPase activity. Elevation in endogenous K⁺ content enhanced the biosynthesis of H₂S through enhancing the synthesis of cysteine, the H₂S precursor. Synergistic action of H₂S and K⁺ effectively neutralized drought stress by regulating sugar metabolism and redox homoeostasis that resulted in osmotic adjustment, as witnessed by reduced water loss, and improved hydration level of the stressed seedlings. The integrative role of endogenous H₂S in K⁺ homeostasis was validated using HT and TEA which weakened the protection against drought stress induced impairments. In conclusion, exogenous K⁺ and endogenous H₂S regulate H⁺-ATPase activity which plays a decisive role in the maintenance of endogenous K⁺ homeostasis. Thus, present work reveals that K⁺ and H₂S crosstalk is essential for modulation of drought stress tolerance in tomato seedlings.

Hydrogen sulfide: An emerging signaling molecule regulating drought stress response in plants

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂ S) is a small, reactive signaling molecule that is produced within chloroplasts of plant cells as an intermediate in the assimilatory sulfate reduction pathway by the enzyme sulfite reductase. In addition, H₂ S is also produced in cytosol and mitochondria by desulfhydration of l-cysteine catalyzed by l-cysteine desulfhydrase (DES1) in the cytosol and from β-cyanoalanine in mitochondria, in a reaction catalyzed by β-cyano-Ala synthase C1 (CAS-C1). H₂ S exerts its numerous biological functions by post-translational modification involving oxidation of cysteine residues (RSH) to persulfides (RSSH). At lower concentrations (10-1000 μmol L^-1 ), H₂ S shows huge agricultural potential as it increases the germination rate, the size, fresh weight, and ultimately the crop yield. It is also involved in abiotic stress response against drought, salinity, high temperature, and heavy metals. H₂ S donor, for example, sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS), has been exogenously applied on plants by various researchers to provide drought stress tolerance. Exogenous application results in the accumulation of polyamines, sugars, glycine betaine, and enhancement of the antioxidant enzyme activities in response to drought-induced osmotic and oxidative stress, thus, providing stress adaptation to plants. At the biochemical level, administration of H₂ S donors reduces malondialdehyde content and lipoxygenase activity to maintain the cell integrity, causes abscisic acid-mediated stomatal closure to prevent water loss through transpiration, and accelerates the photosystem II repair cycle. Here, we review the crosstalk of H₂ S with secondary messengers and phytohormones towards the regulation of drought stress response and emphasize various approaches that can be addressed to strengthen research in this area.

Interplay between hydrogen sulfide and other signaling molecules in the regulation of guard cell signaling and abiotic/biotic stress response

Stomatal aperture controls the balance between transpirational water loss and photosynthetic carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake. Stomata are surrounded by pairs of guard cells that sense and transduce environmental or stress signals to induce diverse endogenous responses for adaptation to environmental changes. In a recent decade, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been recognized as a signaling molecule that regulates stomatal movement. In this review, we summarize recent progress in research on the regulatory role of H2S in stomatal movement, including the dynamic regulation of phytohormones, ion homeostasis, and cell structural components. We focus especially on the cross talk among H2S, nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in guard cells, as well as on H2S-mediated post-translational protein modification (cysteine thiol persulfidation). Finally, we summarize the mechanisms by which H2S interacts with other signaling molecules in plants under abiotic or biotic stress. Based on evidence and clues from existing research, we propose some issues that need to be addressed in the future.

Delaying Broccoli Floret Yellowing by Phytosulfokine α Application During Cold Storage

During postharvest life, broccoli suffers from floret yellowing confining its economic and nutritional value. The objective of the present study was to explore the mechanisms employed by phytosulfokine α (PSKα) at 150 nM for delaying floret yellowing in broccoli during storage at 4°C for 28 days. Our results showed that the higher endogenous accumulation of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) resulting from the higher gene expression and activities of l-cysteine desulfhydrase (LCD) and d-cysteine desulfhydrase (DCD) in broccoli floret treated with 150 nM PSKα may serve as an endogenous signaling molecule for delaying senescence. Moreover, the suppressed ethylene biosynthesis in broccoli floret treated with 150 nM PSKα might be ascribed to lower gene expression and activities of ACC synthase (ACS) and ACC oxidase (ACO). Furthermore, lower gene expression and activities of Mg²⁺ dechelatase (MDC), pheophytinase (PPH), and pheophorbide a oxygenase (PaO) might be the reasons for the higher accumulation of chlorophyll in broccoli floret treated with 150 nM PSKα. Based on our findings, exogenous PSKα application could be employed as signaling bioactive hormone for retarding floret yellowing of broccoli during storage at 4°C for 28 days.

Sulfur dioxide enhance drought tolerance of wheat seedlings through H2S signaling

Drought is one of the most common factors that limit plant growth and productivity. Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) has recently been found to play a benefical role in protection of plants against environmental stress. In this study, we investigated the effect of SO₂ on the physiological and molecular response of wheat seedlings to drought stress. Pretreatment with 10 mg/m³ SO₂ significantly increased the survival rate and relative water content (RWC) of wheat seedlings under drought stress, indicating that pre-exposure to appropriate level of SO₂ could enhance drought tolerance of plants. These responses were related to the enhanced proline accumulation in the drought-treated wheat seedlings that induced by SO₂ pretreatment. Meanwhile, SO₂ pretreatment increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), and effectively reduced the content of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in drought-treated wheat seedlings, suggesting SO₂ could alleviate drought-induced oxidative damage by enhancing antioxidant defense system in plants. Expression analysis of transcription factor genes also showed that SO₂ pretreatment decreased the expression of TaNAC69, but the expression of TaERF1 and TaMYB30 changed slightly and maintained at higher levels in wheat seedlings in response to drought stress. Furthermore, SO₂ pretreatment triggered marked accumulation of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in wheat seedlings under drought stress. When scavenged H₂S by spraying Hypotaurine (HT), the activities of antioxidant enzymes and the expression of transcription factor genes were decreased, and the content of H₂O₂ and MDA increased to the level of drought treatment alone, suggesting a regulatory role of SO₂-induced H₂S in plant adaptation to drought stress. Together, this study indicated that SO₂ enhanced drought tolerance of wheat seedlings through H₂S signaling, and provided new strategy for enhancing plant tolerance to drought stress.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) signaling in plant development and stress responses

ABSTRACT

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) was initially recognized as a toxic gas and its biological functions in mammalian cells have been gradually discovered during the past decades. In the latest decade, numerous studies have revealed that H₂S has versatile functions in plants as well. In this review, we summarize H₂S-mediated sulfur metabolic pathways, as well as the progress in the recognition of its biological functions in plant growth and development, particularly its physiological functions in biotic and abiotic stress responses. Besides direct chemical reactions, nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) have complex relationships with H₂S in plant signaling, both of which mediate protein post-translational modification (PTM) to attack the cysteine residues. We also discuss recent progress in the research on the three types of PTMs and their biological functions in plants. Finally, we propose the relevant issues that need to be addressed in the future research.

GRAPHIC ABSTRACT

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42994-021-00035-4.

Osmotic stress-triggered stomatal closure requires Phospholipase Dδ and hydrogen sulfide in Arabidopsis thaliana

Osmotic stress is one of the main stresses seriously affects the growth and development of plants. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) emerges as the third gaseous signal molecule to involve in the complex network of signaling events. Phospholipase Dδ (PLDδ), as signal enzyme, responds to many biotic or abiotic stress responses. In this study, the functions and the relationship of PLDδ and H₂S in stomatal closure induced by osmotic stress were explored. Using the seedlings of ecotype (WT), PLDδ deficient mutant (pldδ), L-cysteine desulfhydrase (LCD) deficient mutant (lcd) and pldδlcd double mutant as materials, the Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and the stomatal aperture were analyzed. Osmotic stress induced the expressions of PLDδ and LCD. The H₂S content and the activities of PLD and LCD ascended in WT under osmotic stress. The phenotypes of pldδ, lcd and pldδlcd were more sensitive to osmotic stress than WT. Compared with pldδ, the stomatal of lcd showed lower sensitivity to osmotic stress, and the stomatal aperture of pldδlcd was similar to that of lcd. Simultaneous application of PA and NaHS resulted in tighter closure of stomatal than application of either PA or NaHS alone. These results suggested that osmotic stress-triggered stomatal closure requires PLDδ and H₂S in A. thaliana. LCD acted downstream of PLDδ to regulate the stomatal closure induced by osmotic stress.

Appraisal of H2S metabolism in Arabidopsis thaliana: In silico analysis at the subcellular level

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has become a new signal molecule in higher plants which seems to be involved in almost all physiological processes from seed germination, root and plant growth until flowering and fruit ripening. Moreover, H₂S also participates in the mechanism of response against adverse environmental stresses. However, its basic biochemistry in plant cells can be considered in a nascent stage. Using the available information of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the goal of the present study is to provide a broad overview of H₂S metabolism and to display an in silico analysis of the 26 enzymatic components involved in the metabolism of H₂S and their subcellular compartmentation (cytosol, chloroplast and mitochondrion) thus providing a wide picture of the cross-talk inside the organelles and amongst them and, consequently, to get a better understanding of the cellular and tissue implications of H₂S. This information will be also relevant for other crop species, especially those whose whole genome is not yet available.

Phenotyping in Arabidopsis and Crops-Are We Addressing the Same Traits? A Case Study in Tomato

The convenient model Arabidopsis thaliana has allowed tremendous advances in plant genetics and physiology, in spite of only being a weed. It has also unveiled the main molecular networks governing, among others, abiotic stress responses. Through the use of the latest genomic tools, Arabidopsis research is nowadays being translated to agronomically interesting crop models such as tomato, but at a lagging pace. Knowledge transfer has been hindered by invariable differences in plant architecture and behaviour, as well as the divergent direct objectives of research in Arabidopsis versus crops compromise transferability. In this sense, phenotype translation is still a very complex matter. Here, we point out the challenges of "translational phenotyping" in the case study of drought stress phenotyping in Arabidopsis and tomato. After briefly defining and describing drought stress and survival strategies, we compare drought stress protocols and phenotyping techniques most commonly used in the two species, and discuss their potential to gain insights, which are truly transferable between species. This review is intended to be a starting point for discussion about translational phenotyping approaches among plant scientists, and provides a useful compendium of methods and techniques used in modern phenotyping for this specific plant pair as a case study.

Hydrogen Sulfide: From a Toxic Molecule to a Key Molecule of Cell Life

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has always been considered toxic, but a huge number of articles published more recently showed the beneficial biochemical properties of its endogenous production throughout all regna. In this review, the participation of H2S in many physiological and pathological processes in animals is described, and its importance as a signaling molecule in plant systems is underlined from an evolutionary point of view. H2S quantification methods are summarized and persulfidation is described as the underlying mechanism of action in plants, animals and bacteria. This review aims to highlight the importance of its crosstalk with other signaling molecules and its fine regulation for the proper function of the cell and its survival.

Hydrogen sulfide and rhizobia synergistically regulate nitrogen (N) assimilation and remobilization during N deficiency-induced senescence in soybean

Hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is emerging as an important signalling molecule that regulates plant growth and abiotic stress responses. However, the roles of H2 S in symbiotic nitrogen (N) assimilation and remobilization have not been characterized. Therefore, we examined how H2 S influences the soybean (Glycine max)/rhizobia interaction in terms of symbiotic N fixation and mobilization during N deficiency-induced senescence. H2 S enhanced biomass accumulation and delayed leaf senescence through effects on nodule numbers, leaf chlorophyll contents, leaf N resorption efficiency, and the N contents in different tissues. Moreover, grain numbers and yield were regulated by H2 S and rhizobia, together with N accumulation in the organs, and N use efficiency. The synergistic effects of H2 S and rhizobia were also demonstrated by effects on the enzyme activities, protein abundances, and gene expressions associated with N metabolism, and senescence-associated genes (SAGs) expression in soybeans grown under conditions of N deficiency. Taken together, these results show that H2 S and rhizobia accelerate N assimilation and remobilization by regulation of the expression of SAGs during N deficiency-induced senescence. Thus, H2 S enhances the vegetative and reproductive growth of soybean, presumably through interactions with rhizobia under conditions of N deficiency.

Negative Roles of Strigolactone-Related SMXL6, 7 and 8 Proteins in Drought Resistance in Arabidopsis

Previous investigations have shown that the SUPPRESSORS OF MAX2 1-LIKE6, 7 and 8 (SMXL6, 7 and 8) proteins redundantly repress strigolactone (SL) signaling in plant growth and development. Recently, a growing body of evidence indicated that SLs positively regulate plant drought resistance through functional analyses of genes involved in SL biosynthesis and positive regulation of SL signaling. However, the functions of the SL-signaling negative regulators SMXL6, 7 and 8 in drought resistance and the associated mechanisms remain elusive. To reveal the functions of these SMXL proteins, we analyzed the drought-resistant phenotype of the triple smxl6,7,8 mutant plants and studied several drought resistance-related traits. Our results showed that the smxl6,7,8 mutant plants were more resistant to drought than wild-type plants. Physiological investigations indicated that the smxl6,7,8 mutant plants exhibited higher leaf surface temperature, reduced cuticle permeability, as well as decreases in drought-induced water loss and cell membrane damage in comparison with wild-type plants. Additionally, smxl6,7,8 mutant plants displayed an increase in anthocyanin biosynthesis during drought, enhanced detoxification capacity and increased sensitivity to abscisic acid in cotyledon opening and growth inhibition assays. A good correlation between the expression levels of some relevant genes and the examined physiological and biochemical traits was observed. Our findings together indicate that the SMXL6, 7 and 8 act as negative regulators of drought resistance, and that disruption of these SMXL genes in crops may provide a novel way to improve their drought resistance.

Improving Photosynthetic Capacity, Alleviating Photosynthetic Inhibition and Oxidative Stress Under Low Temperature Stress With Exogenous Hydrogen Sulfide in Blueberry Seedlings

In this study, we investigated the mechanism of photosynthesis and physiological function of blueberry leaves under low temperature stress (4-6°C) by exogenous hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) by spraying leaves with 0.5 mmol·L^-1 NaHS (H₂S donor) and 200 μmol·L^-1 hypotaurine (Hypotaurine, H₂S scavenger). The results showed that chlorophyll and carotenoid content in blueberry leaves decreased under low temperature stress, and the photochemical activities of photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI) were also inhibited. Low temperature stress can reduce photosynthetic carbon assimilation capacity by inhibiting stomatal conductance (G _s) of blueberry leaves, and non-stomatal factors also play a limiting role at the 5^th day of low temperature stress. Low temperature stress leads to the accumulation of Pro and H₂O₂ in blueberry leaves and increases membrane peroxidation. Spraying leaves with NaHS, a donor of exogenous H₂S, could alleviate the degradation of chlorophyll and carotenoids in blueberry leaves caused by low temperature and reduce the photoinhibition of PSII and PSI. The main reason for the enhancement of photochemical activity of PSII was that exogenous H₂S promoted the electron transfer from Q _A to Q _B on PSII acceptor side under low temperature stress. In addition, it promoted the accumulation of osmotic regulator proline under low temperature stress and significantly alleviated membrane peroxidation. H₂S scavengers (Hypotaurine) aggravated photoinhibition and the degree of oxidative damage under low temperature stress. Improving photosynthetic capacity as well as alleviating photosynthetic inhibition and oxidative stress with exogenous H₂S is possible in blueberry seedlings under low temperature stress.

From Elemental Sulfur to Hydrogen Sulfide in Agricultural Soils and Plants

Sulfur is an essential element in determining the productivity and quality of agricultural products. It is also an element associated with tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress in plants. In agricultural practice, sulfur has broad use in the form of sulfate fertilizers and, to a lesser extent, as sulfite biostimulants. When used in the form of bulk elemental sulfur, or micro- or nano-sulfur, applied both to the soil and to the canopy, the element undergoes a series of changes in its oxidation state, produced by various intermediaries that apparently act as biostimulants and promoters of stress tolerance. The final result is sulfate S⁺⁶, which is the source of sulfur that all soil organisms assimilate and that plants absorb by their root cells. The changes in the oxidation states of sulfur S⁰ to S⁺⁶ depend on the action of specific groups of edaphic bacteria. In plant cells, S⁺⁶ sulfate is reduced to S⁻² and incorporated into biological molecules. S⁻² is also absorbed by stomata from H₂S, COS, and other atmospheric sources. S⁻² is the precursor of inorganic polysulfides, organic polysulfanes, and H₂S, the action of which has been described in cell signaling and biostimulation in plants. S⁻² is also the basis of essential biological molecules in signaling, metabolism, and stress tolerance, such as reactive sulfur species (RSS), SAM, glutathione, and phytochelatins. The present review describes the dynamics of sulfur in soil and plants, considering elemental sulfur as the starting point, and, as a final point, the sulfur accumulated as S⁻² in biological structures. The factors that modify the behavior of the different components of the sulfur cycle in the soil–plant–atmosphere system, and how these influences the productivity, quality, and stress tolerance of crops, are described. The internal and external factors that influence the cellular production of S⁻² and polysulfides vs. other S species are also described. The impact of elemental sulfur is compared with that of sulfates, in the context of proper soil management. The conclusion is that the use of elemental sulfur is recommended over that of sulfates, since it is beneficial for the soil microbiome, for productivity and nutritional quality of crops, and also allows the increased tolerance of plants to environmental stresses.