Differential Neural Correlates Underlie Judgment of Learning and Subsequent Memory Performance

What guides the judgment of learning: Memory or heuristics? An event-related potential study

Memory monitoring ability is essential for the effectiveness of learning processes. Judgment of Learning (JOL), a metacognitive judgment, is commonly used to measure this ability. An ongoing debate questions whether JOL is an outcome of an inferential or recollective experience, as suggested by different hypotheses regarding the underlying cognitive mechanisms of this judgment. To address this question through a neuroscientific perspective, we aimed to investigate the temporal dynamic of JOL adopting event-related potential (ERP) methodology. Seventy-two young adults participated in an episodic memory task involving word-pairs as stimuli. Their JOLs were obtained through categorical choices in a delayed condition. Additionally, their memory performance was tested in the recognition phase. ERP components were compared for different JOL levels, as well as for the hit responses in the recognition test according to their JOL levels. The analyses showed that JOL processes are observable within an early time window after stimulus presentation, as evidenced by elicitation of the P100, N100, P200, N200, and P300 components across all JOL levels. However, only the amplitude of the N100 varied among these levels. A negative ERP component with 330-500 ms latency was also evident for all JOL levels in the central and parietal electrodes, which did not differ in amplitude. The analyses of the recognition phase ERPs showed that the hit responses did not exhibit a significant difference in the familiarity-related mid-frontal old/new effect (FN400) amplitude; however, those with high level of JOL elicited recollection-related parietal old-new effect with a smaller amplitude. These findings support both hypotheses suggesting that JOL is influenced by heuristics and the retrievability of information.

Elucidating the underlying components of metacognitive systematic bias in the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex

Metacognitive systematic bias impairs human learning efficiency, which is characterized by the inconsistency between predicted and actual memory performance. However, the underlying mechanism of metacognitive systematic bias remains unclear in existing studies. In this study, we utilized judgments of learning task in human participants to compare the neural mechanism difference in metacognitive systematic bias. Participants encoded words in fMRI sessions that would be tested later. Immediately after encoding each item, participants predicted how likely they would remember it. Multivariate analyses on fMRI data demonstrated that working memory and uncertainty decisions are represented in patterns of neural activity in metacognitive systematic bias. The available information participants used led to overestimated bias and underestimated bias. Effective connectivity analyses further indicate that information about the metacognitive systematic bias is represented in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex. Different neural patterns were found underlying overestimated bias and underestimated bias. Specifically, connectivity regions with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and supramarginal gyrus form overestimated bias, while less regional connectivity forms underestimated bias. These findings provide a mechanistic account for the construction of metacognitive systematic bias.

Judgments of Learning Reactively Improve Memory by Enhancing Learning Engagement and Inducing Elaborative Processing: Evidence from an EEG Study

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) can reactively alter memory itself, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect. The current study recorded electroencephalography (EEG) signals during the encoding phase of a word list learning task to explore the neurocognitive features associated with JOL reactivity. The behavioral results show that making JOLs reactively enhances recognition performance. The EEG results reveal that, compared with not making JOLs, making JOLs increases P200 and LPC amplitudes and decreases alpha and beta power. Additionally, the signals of event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related desynchronizations (ERDs) partially mediate the reactivity effect. These findings support the enhanced learning engagement theory and the elaborative processing explanation to account for the JOL reactivity effect.

Do Judgments of Learning Impair Recall When Uninformative Cues Are Salient?

Judgments of learning (JOL) are one of the most commonly used measures of metamemory. There is mixed evidence that eliciting JOLs while participants are studying word pairs influences their subsequent recall, a phenomenon known as reactivity. The majority of studies have found that positive reactivity occurs when word pairs are related. This finding suggests that when the final test is sensitive to the cues used to make a JOL (e.g., pair relatedness), a benefit to recall is observed. Here, in three experiments, JOL reactivity is examined in the presence of a salient, yet non-diagnostic cue-font size. The results show that when study time is limited and font size is made salient, eliciting JOLs impairs future recall. It is argued that JOLs prompt participants to evaluate salient cues in the learning environment to evaluate whether they will affect future recall. This increased processing of salient cues can impair recall if it comes at the expense of processing less salient but more informative cues. These findings suggest that the relevance to the test of the cues processed when JOLs are performed determines the direction of reactivity effects, with both positive and negative reactivity being possible depending on how diagnostic the salient metacognitive cues are for recall.

Judgments of learning enhance recall for category-cued but not letter-cued items

Making immediate judgments of learning (JOLs) during study can influence later memory performance, with a common outcome being that JOLs improve cued-recall performance for related word pairs (i.e., positive reactivity) and do not impact memory for unrelated pairs (i.e., no reactivity). The cue-strengthening hypothesis proposes that JOL reactivity will be observed when a criterion test is sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Soderstrom et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41 (2), 553-558, 2015). Across four experiments, we evaluated this hypothesis with category pairs (e.g., A type of gem - Jade) and letter pairs (e.g., Ja - Jade). Participants studied a list comprised of both pair types, made (or did not make) JOLs, and completed a cued-recall test (Experiments 1a/b). The cue-strengthening hypothesis predicts greater positive reactivity for category pairs than for letter pairs, because making a JOL strengthens the relationship between the cue and target, which is more beneficial for material with an a priori semantic relationship. Outcomes were consistent with this hypothesis. We also evaluated and ruled out alternative explanations for this pattern of effects: (a) that they arose due to overall differences in recall performance for the two pair types (Experiment 2); (b) that they would also occur even when the criterion test is not sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Experiment 3); and (c) that JOLs only increased memory strength for the targets (Experiment 4). Thus, the current experiments rule out plausible accounts of reactivity effects and provide further, converging evidence for the cue-strengthening hypothesis.

Exploring the Role of Attentional Reorienting in the Reactive Effects of Judgments of Learning on Memory Performance

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying related word pairs can enhance performance on tests that rely on cue-target associations (e.g., cued recall) compared to studying alone. One possible explanation for this positive JOL reactivity effect is that the prompt to make JOLs, which typically occurs halfway through the presentation of each pair, may encourage learners to devote more attention to the pair during the second half of the encoding episode, which may contribute to enhanced recall performance. To investigate this idea, an online sample of participants (Experiment 1) and undergraduate students (Experiment 2) studied a set of moderately related word pairs (e.g., dairy-cow) in preparation for a cued recall test. Some participants made JOLs for each pair halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants did not. Also, some participants were presented with a fixation point halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants were not. The goal of this fixation point was to simulate the possible "reorienting" effect of a JOL prompt halfway through each encoding episode. In both an unsupervised online context and a supervised laboratory context, cued recall performance was higher for participants who made JOLs compared to those who did not make JOLs. However, presenting a fixation point halfway through the presentation of each pair did not lead to reactive effects on memory. Thus, JOLs are more effective than a manipulation that reoriented participants to the word pairs in another way (i.e., via a fixation point), which provides some initial evidence that positive reactivity for related pairs is not solely driven by attentional reorienting during encoding.

Does the reactivity effect of judgments of learning transfer to learning of new information?

ABSTRACTMaking judgments of learning (JOLs) can reactively change memory, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect. The current study was designed to explore whether the reactivity effect transfers to subsequent learning of new information. Participants studied two blocks of words (Experiment 1) or related word pairs (Experiments 2 & 3). In Block 1, participants in the experimental (JOL) group made a JOL while studying each item, whereas the control (no-JOL) group did not make item-by-item JOLs. Then both groups studied Block 2, in which they did not make JOLs, and finally, they took a test on Blocks 1 and 2. Across Experiments 1 -3, the results showed superior Block 1 test performance in the JOL than in the no-JOL group, demonstrating a positive reactivity effect. Critically, there was minimal difference in Block 2 test performance between the two groups, implying little transfer of the positive reactivity effect to subsequent learning of new information. Furthermore, Experiment 3 demonstrated that the reactivity effect still failed to transfer even when participants explicitly appreciated the benefits of making JOLs. Educational implications are discussed.

Does Interactive Imagery Influence the Reactive Effect of Judgments of Learning on Memory?

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying is a useful tool for students to evaluate the status of their learning. Additionally, in associative learning contexts, JOLs can directly benefit learning when the to-be-learned information is related. One explanation for this reactive effect is that making JOLs strengthens the associative relationship, leading to enhanced memory performance when a test relies on that relationship (e.g., cued-recall tests). In the present research, we evaluated whether having students make interactive mental images-another strategy that can increase the strength of a cue-target relationship-impacts the reactive effect of JOLs on learning. Students studied word pairs that were related and unrelated. Half of the students were instructed to form a mental image of the words interacting, whereas the other half were not. Additionally, in each group half of the students made a JOL for each pair, whereas half did not. Following a short delay, students completed a cued-recall test. Consistent with prior research, students who made JOLs remembered more related word pairs than did students who did not. By contrast, students who made JOLs recalled fewer unrelated word pairs than did students who did not. Moreover, although students who formed interactive images demonstrated enhanced memory relative to students who did not, interactive imagery did not impact the reactive effect of JOLs. These outcomes are informative for existing theory of JOL reactivity. Specifically, JOLs may only benefit learning of associative information when it has a pre-existing semantic relationship (e.g., related word pairs) and not when that that relationship is created by the learner (e.g., by forming interactive images).

Category-specific and category-general neural codes of recognition memory in the ventral visual pathway

Researchers have identified category-specific brain regions, such as the fusiform face area (FFA) and parahippocampal place area (PPA) in the ventral visual pathway, which respond preferentially to one particular category of visual objects. In addition to their category-specific role in visual object identification and categorization, regions in the ventral visual pathway play critical roles in recognition memory. Nevertheless, it is not clear whether the contributions of those brain regions to recognition memory are category-specific or category-general. To address this question, the present study adopted a subsequent memory paradigm and multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) to explore category-specific and category-general neural codes of recognition memory in the visual pathway. The results revealed that the right FFA and the bilateral PPA showed category-specific neural patterns supporting recognition memory of faces and scenes, respectively. In contrast, the lateral occipital cortex seemed to carry category-general neural codes of recognition memory. These results provide neuroimaging evidence for category-specific and category-general neural mechanisms of recognition memory in the ventral visual pathway.

Judgments of learning reveal conscious access to stimulus memorability

Despite the massive capacity of visual long-term memory, individuals do not successfully encode all visual information they wish to remember. This variability in encoding success has been traditionally ascribed to fluctuations in individuals' cognitive states (e.g., sustained attention) and differences in memory encoding processes (e.g., depth of encoding). However, recent work has shown that a considerable amount of variability in encoding success stems from intrinsic stimulus properties that determine the ease of encoding across individuals. While researchers have identified several perceptual and semantic properties that contribute to stimulus memorability, much remains unknown, including whether individuals are aware of the memorability of stimuli they encounter. In the present study, we investigated whether individuals have conscious access to the memorability of real-world stimuli while forming self-referential judgments of learning (JOL) during explicit memory encoding (Experiments 1A-B) and when asked about the perceived memorability of a stimulus in the absence of attempted encoding (Experiments 2A-B). We found that JOLs and perceived memorability estimates (PME) were consistent across individuals and predictive of memorability, confirming that individuals can access memorability with or without stimulus encoding. At the same time, access to memorability was not comprehensive. We found that individuals unexpectedly remembered and forgot consistent sets of stimuli as well. When we compared access to memorability between JOLs and PMEs, we found that individuals had more access during JOLs. Thus, our findings demonstrate that individuals have partial access to stimulus memorability and that explicit encoding increases the amount of access that is available.

An Event-Related Potential Study on Differences Between Higher and Lower Easy of Learning Judgments: Evidence for the Ease-of-Processing Hypothesis

Easy of learning (EOL) judgments occur before active learning begins, and it is a prediction of how difficult it will be to learn new material in future learning. This study compared the amplitude of event-related potential (ERP) components and brain activation regions between high and low EOL judgments by adopting ERPs with a classical EOL judgment paradigm, aiming to confirm the ease-of-processing hypothesis. The results showed that (1) the magnitudes of EOL judgments are affected by encoding fluency cues, and the judgment magnitude increases with encoding fluency; (2) low EOL judgments are associated with higher N400 amplitude at the left superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and left middle frontal gyrus (MFG). High EOL judgments showed enlarged slow-wave (600–1,000 ms) potentials than low EOL judgments at the left medial temporal lobe (MTL), right ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Our results support the ease-of-processing hypothesis, particularly, by affirming that EOL judgments are affected by encoding fluency in two processing stages. N400 reflects the process of acquiring encoding fluency cues, while slow-wave indicates that individuals use encoding fluency cues for metacognitive monitoring.

Soliciting judgments of forgetting reactively enhances memory as well as making judgments of learning: Empirical and meta-analytic tests

Recent studies found that making judgments of learning (JOLs) can reactively facilitate memory, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect of JOLs. The current study was designed to explore (1) whether making judgments of forgetting (JOFs) can also enhance memory and (2) whether there is any difference between the reactivity effects of JOFs and JOLs. Experiment 1 found that soliciting JOFs significantly enhanced retention of single words. Experiments 2 and 3 observed minimal difference in reactivity effects between JOFs and JOLs on learning of single words and word pairs. Finally, a meta-analysis was conducted to integrate results across studies to explore whether retention of items studied with JOLs differed from that of items studied with JOFs. The meta-analytic results showed minimal difference. Overall, the documented findings imply that (1) making JOFs reactively enhances memory, and (2) there is little difference in reactivity effects between JOFs and JOLs. These findings support the positive-reactivity theory to account for the reactivity effect.

Investigating memory reactivity with a within-participant manipulation of judgments of learning: support for the cue-strengthening hypothesis

When learners make judgments of learning (JOLs) for some word pairs but not others, how and why is recall performance affected? Participants studied related and unrelated word pairs and made JOLs for a randomly selected half of the pairs. We evaluated two hypotheses. The changed-goal hypothesis states that making JOLs leads learners to notice differences in pair difficulty and to change their learning goal. Because JOLs are manipulated within participants, such a goal change should influence how all (judged or non-judged) pairs are processed on the list, which should lead to no JOL reactivity. The cue-strengthening hypothesis predicts greater positive reactivity (i.e., higher recall for judged versus non-judged pairs) for related than unrelated pairs, because making a JOL strengthens the relationship between the two words in a pair, which would be more beneficial for pairs with an a priori relationship. Across experiments, we found positive reactivity for both related and unrelated pairs (albeit to a lesser degree for the latter). We also found no evidence that learners make qualitative changes in their reported strategy use when judging pairs. Making JOLs for some pairs on a list influenced memory performance and the pattern of reactivity provided support for the cue-strengthening hypothesis.

Requirements of Postnatal proBDNF in the Hippocampus for Spatial Memory Consolidation and Neural Function

Mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its downstream signaling pathways have been implicated in regulating postnatal development and functioning of rodent brain. However, the biological role of its precursor pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF) in the postnatal brain remains unknown. The expression of hippocampal proBDNF was blocked in postnatal weeks, and multiple behavioral tests, Western blot and morphological techniques, and neural recordings were employed to investigate how proBDNF played a role in spatial cognition in adults. The peak expression and its crucial effects were found in the fourth but not in the second or eighth postnatal week. Blocking proBDNF expression disrupted spatial memory consolidation rather than learning or memory retrieval. Structurally, blocking proBDNF led to the reduction in spine density and proportion of mature spines. Although blocking proBDNF did not affect N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NMDAR) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) subunits, the learning-induced phosphorylation of the GluN2B subunit level declined significantly. Functionally, paired-pulse facilitation, post-low-frequency stimulation (LFS) transiently enhanced depression, and GluN2B-dependent short-lasting long-term depression in the Schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway were weakened. The firing rate of pyramidal neurons was significantly suppressed around the target region during the memory test. Furthermore, the activation of GluN2B-mediated signaling could effectively facilitate neural function and mitigate memory impairment. The findings were consistent with the hypothesis that postnatal proBDNF played an essential role in synaptic and cognitive functions.

Making judgments of learning enhances memory by inducing item-specific processing

A judgment of leaning (JOL) has been investigated to understand self-regulated learning. However, asking participants to make JOLs may increase memory by creating a reactivity effect. In two experiments, we examined whether making JOLs would enhance memory by inducing item-specific processing. We compared a JOL task with two other tasks that are known to induce item-specific processing: pleasantness rating (Experiment 1) and single imagery (Experiment 2; creating vivid mental images). Participants learned a categorized or uncategorized list of words. Memory should be enhanced when the list promotes relational processing and the task induces item-specific processing. As expected, when the list was categorized, recall was higher in the JOL and item-specific processing conditions (pleasantness rating and single imagery) than in the control condition. Furthermore, recall was similar between the JOL and item-specific processing conditions. When the list was uncategorized, there was no difference in recall among the JOL, item-specific processing, and control conditions. Making JOLs enhances memory by inducing item-specific processing. We concluded that researchers need to carefully consider how making a JOL influences memory when investigating self-regulated study behaviors.

Delayed Judgments of Learning Are Associated With Activation of Information From Past Experiences: A Neurobiological Examination

Research in metacognition suggests that the information people use to predict their memory performance can vary depending on the contexts in which they make their predictions. For example, if people judge their memories after a delay from initial encoding, they may be more likely to use retrieved information about the past encoding experience than if they judged memories immediately after encoding. Although this seems intuitive, past behavioral and neuroimaging work has not tested whether delayed memory judgments are more strongly coupled with information about past experiences than immediate memory judgments. We scanned participants using functional MRI while they encoded paired associates and made predictions about their future memory performance either immediately after encoding or after a delay. Consistent with the hypothesis that people use retrieved information about past experiences to inform delayed memory judgments, our results showed that activation patterns associated with past experience were more strongly coupled with delayed memory judgments than with immediate ones.

Reactivity of Judgments of Learning in a Levels-of-Processing Paradigm

Abstract. Recent studies have shown that judgments of learning (JOLs) are reactive measures in paired-associate learning paradigms. However, evidence is scarce concerning whether JOLs are reactive in other paradigms. In old/new recognition experiments, we investigated the reactivity effects of JOLs in a levels-of-processing (LOP) paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2, for each word, subjects saw a yes/no orienting question followed by the target word and a response. Then, they either did or did not make a JOL. The yes/no questions were about target words’ appearances, rhyming properties, or category memberships. In Experiment 3, for each word, subjects gave a pleasantness rating or counted the letter “e ”. Our results revealed that JOLs enhanced recognition across all orienting tasks in Experiments 1 and 2, and for the e-counting task in Experiment 3. This reactive effect was salient for shallow tasks, attenuating – but not eliminating – the LOP effect after making JOLs. We conclude that JOLs are reactive in LOP paradigms and subjects encode words more effectively when providing JOLs.

Functional and Pathological Correlates of Judgments of Learning in Cognitively Unimpaired Older Adults

Judgments of learning (JOL) pertain to introspective metamemory processes evaluating how well information is learned. Using a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task, we investigated the neural substrates of JOL predictions in a group of 105 cognitively unimpaired older adults from the Harvard Aging Brain Study. Associations of JOL performance and its neural correlates with amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau pathology, two proteinopathies associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and aging, were also examined. We found that trials judged as learned well relative to trials judged as learned less well (high JOL > low JOL) engaged the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and precuneus, among other midline regions, in addition to bilateral hippocampi. In this cohort of older adults, greater levels of entorhinal tau deposition were associated with overestimation of memory performance and with lower fMRI signal in midline regions during predicted memory success. No associations with Aβ were found. The findings suggest that tau pathology in unimpaired older adults may play a role in altered metamemory processes. We discuss our findings in light of the hypothesis that JOLs are partially dependent on a process involving attempts to retrieve a correct answer from memory, as well as implications for clinical research investigating unawareness of memory performance (i.e., anosognosia) in patients with AD dementia.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation over the Prefrontal Cortex Alters Encoding and Judgments of Learning Based on Fluency

Past research has shown that judgments of learning (JOLs), subjective confidence judgments made at study about later memorability, are inferential in nature and based on cues available during encoding. Participants tend to use fluency as a cue and give higher JOLs to more fluently encoded items, despite having better recognition memory for disfluently encoded items, which leads to poor JOL accuracy. Research has implicated the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and anterior prefrontal cortex (aPFC) in JOL and encoding processes, but no studies to date have tested how the roles of these regions vary with the information on which JOLs are based. We used high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation to test the causal roles of DLPFC and aPFC in encoding success, JOL ratings, and JOL accuracy. Participants studied and made JOLs about words that varied in fluency (i.e., frequency and orientation). High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation over the DLPFC impaired encoding, as evidenced by an increase in subsequent false alarms. For words that were less fluently encoded, aPFC stimulation improved JOL accuracy, perhaps making participants more aware of encoding failures under conditions of disfluency. Conversely, DLPFC and aPFC stimulation decreased JOL accuracy for high-frequency words, suggesting the roles of these regions in JOLs vary with the cognitive bases of the judgments. These results contribute to our understanding of the causal roles of prefrontal regions in objective and subjective memory processes and how their contributions to metamemory accuracy vary with information on which subjective assessments are based.

A meta-analysis and systematic review of reactivity to judgements of learning

Judgements of learning (JoL) are often used in memory research as a means for assessing an individual's metacognitive beliefs about their learning. JoL have been shown to reliably predict performance as well as learning behaviours and decisions . Participants may, however, modify their behaviour in response to performing JoL. There has, however, been little consensus as to the reliability and direction of the effect. We report on a meta-analyses that assesses the evidence that memory performance is reactive to JoL. The results indicate that overall providing JoL does not have a significant effect on memory performance (g = 0.054, 95% CI -0.027 to 0.135). However, sub-groups analysis showed that this effect depends on the nature of the stimuli to be recalled, with moderate positive reactivity observed for related word pairs (g = 0.323, 95% CI 0.083 to 0.563) and word lists (g = 0.384, 95% CI 0.146 to 0.622) but no reactivity when pairs were unrelated or a mixture of related and unrelated pairs. These results indicate that researchers should be aware that eliciting JoL may well influence participants' underlying encoding processes, especially when using related word pairs or word lists.

Individual Differences in the Accuracy of Judgments of Learning Are Related to the Gray Matter Volume and Functional Connectivity of the Left Mid-Insula

The judgment of learning (JOL) is an important form of prospective metamemory judgment, and the biological basis of the JOL process is an important topic in metamemory research. Although previous task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have examined the brain regions underlying the JOL process, the neural correlates of individual differences in JOL accuracy require further investigation. This study used structural and resting-state functional MRI to investigate whether individual differences in JOL accuracy are related to the gray matter (GM) volume and functional connectivity of the bilateral insula and medial Brodmann area (BA) 11, which are assumed to be related to JOL accuracy. We found that individual differences in JOL accuracy were related to the GM volume of the left mid-insula and to the functional connectivity between the left mid-insula and various other regions, including the left superior parietal lobule/precuneus, bilateral inferior parietal lobule/intraparietal sulcus, right frontal pole and left parahippocampal gyrus/fusiform gyrus/cerebellum. Further analyses indicated that the functional connectivity related to individual differences in JOL accuracy could be divided into two factors and might support information integration and selective attention processes underlying accurate JOLs. In addition, individual differences in JOL accuracy were not related to the GM volume or functional connectivity of the medial BA 11. Our findings provide novel evidence for the role of the left mid-insula and its functional connectivity in the JOL process.