The Chinese Experience of Rapid Modernization: Sociocultural Changes, Psychological Consequences?

Physical health problems, views on ageing, and emotional distress among older Chinese population: a moderated mediation model

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate the mediation effect of negative views on ageing (VoA) between physical health problems and emotional distress, and the moderation effect of urban/rural residence ('hukou').

METHODS

We adopted a sample of 936 older Chinese people aged 60 and above from the China General Social Survey (CGSS). A structural equation model (SEM) approach was adopted to test the measurement model of latent variables and the structural model examining the hypothesized pathway. The bootstrapping bias-corrected approach (5000 bootstrap samples) was adopted.

RESULTS

The SEM shows that negative VoA mediates physical health problems and emotional distress (β = 0.041, B = 0.063, 95% CI [0.029, 0.102], p = 0.001). The relationship between negative VoA and emotional distress is more pronounced among urban than rural older residents (β = 0.181, B = 0.168, 95% CI [0.004, 0.377], p = 0.076), which may suggest that being dependent on others is less desirable among urban older people.

CONCLUSION

This study underscores the importance of having positive VoA, especially for urban older residents. More studies on the formation and impacts of older people's expectations of their own ageing are warranted.

The WEIRD Trio: The Cultural Gap between Physicians, Learners, and Patients in Pluralistic Societies

Physicians are shaped by sociological and philosophical factors that often differ from those of their patients. This is of particular concern in pluralistic societies when navigating ethical disagreements because physicians often misunderstand or even dismiss patient perspectives as being irrational. This paper examines these factors and why many physicians approach ethics as they do while elucidating various patient perspectives and demonstrating how they make sense when considered from a different cultural worldview. Many physicians are trained in contexts that are WEIRD: Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. These sociological characteristics tend to go hand in hand with the trio of individualism, secularism, and existentialism. These then shape an approach to ethics that focuses on the individual patient, makes no reference to the divine, and focuses on a patient's personal desires. This contrasts significantly with many patients who are collectivistic or religious, and then make rational decisions based on other values. The social fact of pluralism implores physicians to temper confidence in their own cultures while considering others to promote mutual understanding and improved care. This paper concludes with a discussion of how bridges can be built across cultures without sliding into relativism, beginning with recognizing and communicating our shared moral intuitions.

Changes in gender disparities of depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older adults in China: an age-period-cohort analysis

PURPOSE

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders and substantially decreases socioemotional well-being and health-related quality of life. Analyzing temporal patterns in depressive symptoms can reveal emerging risks that require attention and have implications for mental health promotion. The present study disentangled age, period, and cohort (APC) effects on trends in depressive symptoms and their gender disparities among China's nationally representative samples of middle-aged and older adults.

METHODS

Using four-wave data (2011, 2013, 2015, and 2018) from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (N = 65455), APC effects were quantified based on the hierarchical APC model. The 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10) was used to measure depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms increased during late life and stabilized after reaching an advanced age. After further adjusting for individual characteristics, depressive symptoms exhibited a negative trend with advancing age. The mean levels of depressive symptoms remained stable during the study period. Depressive symptoms varied significantly across cohorts, with those born in 1949-1951 having the most severe depressive symptoms. Significant life-course and cohort variations existed in the gender gaps in depressive symptoms. Although women had higher mean scores on the CES-D-10 scale throughout the life course, the gender gaps in depressive symptoms gradually narrowed with age, as depressive symptoms decreased more rapidly among women. A widening trend in gender gaps in depressive symptoms was found among those born after the mid-1950s, mainly driven by a notable decline in depressive symptoms among men CONCLUSIONS: The convergence of living conditions between genders in late life, as a result of traditional Chinese culture, may have narrowed the gender gap in depressive symptoms. However, given the widening gender disparities in depressive symptoms among younger cohorts, more attention should be paid to women's mental health in the context of China's rapid socioeconomic development.

Intergenerational Transmission of Human Parenting Styles to Human-Dog Relationships

Parenting style and intergenerational transmission have been extensively studied in parent-child relationships. As dogs are increasingly recognized as integral members of the family system, there is a growing interest in understanding how parenting behaviors directed towards dogs can also influence a dog's behaviors. However, the reasons why people adopt certain parenting behaviors towards dogs remain relatively unknown. This study delved into the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles from one's upbringing to caregiving for dogs. Using a mixed methods approach with 391 dog caregivers and 10 interviews, this study employed multivariate linear regression and thematic analysis. Permissive parenting exhibited an intergenerational effect, with those experiencing it being more likely to replicate the style with their dogs. Orientation towards dogs emerged as a crucial mediator, with protectionistic attitudes reducing the likelihood of replicating authoritarian parenting. Humanistic and protectionistic orientation increased the likelihood of compensatory permissive behaviors. Insights from interviews underscored the impact of perceived childhood experiences on adopting specific parenting behaviors. Ultimately, this study provides valuable insights that can contribute to the promotion of appropriate caregiving behaviors toward dogs. By drawing on our understanding of child-parent relationships, addressing the underlying elements of human-dog dynamics may lead to positive outcomes both for dogs and their caregivers.

Prevalence and associated factors for depressive symptoms among the general population from 31 provinces in China: The utility of social determinants of health theory

BACKGROUND

Depression is one of the most common types of mental disorders. Guided by the theory of social determinants of health (SDH), the study aimed to assess the prevalence of depressive symptoms and to identify factors related to depressive symptoms in the general population of China.

METHODS

A cross-sectional, online survey was conducted among 101,392 residents from 31 provinces of mainland China from January to March 2019, and 97,126 survey responses were included in the final analysis. Multilevel linear regression models were used to identify SDH associated with depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

The prevalence of depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 scores ≥10) in Chinese residents was 15.81 %. The results of the multilevel analysis demonstrated that depressive symptoms were affected by various factors on five levels, including individual characteristics, behavioral lifestyle, community support network, social structural factors, and macro social factors.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional design of the study makes it difficult to establish causality between variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of depressive symptoms is high among general population in China. According to the theory of SDH, the study shows that the depressive symptoms are complex and involves all areas of social life. Therefore, adopting a multi-level, cross-sectoral intervention approach will be instrumental to improving the mental health of residents in China.

Secular trends of suicide risk for residents in mainland China (2004 to 2019): An updated age-period-cohort analysis

BACKGROUND

The overall suicide rate in China has dropped substantially since the 1990s, but a slowdown in the decrease and even a reversing trend was observed in specific groups in recent years. This study aims to investigate the latest suicide risk in mainland China by using the age-period-cohort (APC) analysis.

METHOD

This population-based multiyear cross-sectional study included Chinese ages 10 to 84 years using data from the China Health Statistical Yearbook (2005-2020). Data were analyzed by the APC analysis and intrinsic estimator (IE) technique.

RESULTS

The data satisfactorily fit the constructed APC models. The cohort effect indicated a high risk of suicide among people birth in 1920-1944 and a sharp decline in the 1945-1979 cohort. The lowest risk occurred in the 1980-1994 cohort before a sharp increase in generation Z (birth years in 1995-2009). The period effect showed a declining trend since 2004. The age effect indicated that the suicide risk increased over time, except for a gradual decline from age 35 to 49. The suicide risk increased greatly in adolescents and reached the highest among the elderly.

LIMITATIONS

The aggregated population-level data and the non-identifiability of the APC model could result in bias in the accuracy of results in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

This study successfully updated the Chinese suicide risk from the age, period and cohort perspective using the latest available data (2004-2019). The findings enhance the understanding of suicide epidemiology and provide evidence supporting policies and strategies at the macro-level for suicide prevention and management. Immediate action is needed to focus on a national suicide prevention strategy that targets generation Z, adolescents and the elderly which will require a collaborative effort by government officials, public/community health planners and health care agencies.

Comparing the role of social connectivity with friends and family in depression among older adults in China: evaluating the moderating effect of urban-rural status

Background

Social connectivity and support can reduce depressive symptoms. Few studies have examined urban-rural differences in the relationship between social support and depressive symptoms in the context of urbanization for Chinese older adults. The overall aim of this study is to examine urban-rural differences in the relationship between family support and social connectivity on depression among Chinese older adults.

Methods

This cross-sectional study used data from the 2010 Sample Survey on Aged Population in Urban/Rural China (SSAPUR). Depressive symptoms were measured using the Geriatric Depression Scale short-form (GDS-15). Family support was measured by structural, instrumental, and emotional support. Social connectivity was measured using the Lubben Social Network Scale-6 (LSNS-6). Descriptive analysis was conducted using chi-square and independent t-tests to examine urban-rural differences. Adjusted multiple linear regressions were conducted to examine the moderating effect of urban-rural status on the association between types of family support and social connectivity with depressive symptoms.

Results

In rural areas, respondents who felt their children exhibited filial piety (β = -1.512, p < 0.001) and had more social connectivity with family (β = -0.074, p < 0.001) were more likely to report fewer depression symptoms. In urban areas, respondents who received instrumental support from their children (β = -1.276, p < 0.01), who thought their children exhibited filial piety (β = -0.836, p < 0.01), and who had more social connectivity with friends (β = -0.040, p < 0.01) were more likely to report fewer depression symptoms. In the fully adjusted regression model, social connectivity with family was associated with decreased depressive symptoms, although to a lesser degree among urban-dwelling older adults (urban-rural interaction effect, β = 0.053, p < 0.05). Social connectivity with friends was similarly associated with decreased depressive symptoms, although this effect was greater among urban-dwelling older adults (urban-rural interaction effect, β = -0.053, p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The results of this study suggested that older adults both in rural and urban areas with family support and social connectivity were associated with fewer depression symptoms. Differences observed in the role of family and friend social connectivity by urban-rural status may provide practical information for developing targeted social support strategies for improving depressive symptoms among Chinese adults, and call for further mixed-methods research to disentangle mechanisms behind these differing associations.

Interventions to reduce loneliness among Chinese older adults: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies

This meta-analytic study investigates the effectiveness of different interventions in alleviating loneliness among Chinese older adults aged 50 years and above. We searched eight English databases, four Chinese databases, and grey literature. Thirty-four studies, including four randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 30 quasi-experimental studies, were eventually included in the meta-analysis (n = 3843). Quality appraisal indicated risks of bias in the included studies. The pooled effect size was large and significant (Hedge's g = 0.84, 95% CI [0.54, 1.15]), indicating the effectiveness of interventions in reducing loneliness. However, the effect size may be overestimated due to publication bias. Moderation analyses showed significant differences in effect sizes by study designs and regions of studies. Network meta-analysis (NMA) indicated that hybrid and psychological interventions appeared to be advantageous over others. In addition, group-based delivery modes can add extra benefits to the interventions. This study adds to the knowledge of the effectiveness of current interventions in reducing Chinese older people's loneliness. However, the findings need to be interpreted with caution due to the relatively low study quality, considerable heterogeneity, and publication bias. Despite the limitations, this study offers valuable insights for future research, practice, and policy-making in reducing older people's loneliness.

Association between age and loneliness in different residential type and gender groups: evidence from China

BACKGROUND

Age has been identified as a prominent predictor of loneliness, although the findings about the relationship between age and loneliness are inconclusive. This study examines the relationship between age and loneliness in the context of China, with a focus on residential and gender differences.

METHODS

Data were from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of 2017. A total of 3899 respondents were included. Loneliness was measured using a three-item Short Loneliness Scale. Age, squared terms of age, residential type, gender, and other socio-demographic characteristics were included in the study. Regression analyses were conducted among the total sample and subgroups of different gender and residential type subgroups, to investigate the association between age and loneliness.

RESULTS

There is a reverse U-shaped tendency between age and loneliness that peaks at the age of 47. This tendency is true of the male subgroup, that peaks at the age of 55, while the female respondents do not share that tendency. The inverted U-shaped distribution holds true for urban but not for rural residents. The female respondents reported a higher level of loneliness than the male. The rural respondents reported higher loneliness than their counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that an inverted U-shaped tendency between age and loneliness existed for the entire group, and the male and urban subgroups. Implications for service and practice are proposed based on the empirical findings.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Strength-Based Parenting on Depression in Chinese High School Students: Mediation by Cognitive Reappraisal and Expression Suppression

PURPOSE

A growing amount of research has been dedicated to the protective role of strength-based parenting in psychological distress. Strength-based parenting is a style of parenting in which parents are conscious of their children's strengths, and encourage them to develop and make use of those strengths. However, the mechanisms linking strength-based parenting to depression are not well known. Drawing on the social-emotional learning model, this study examined the association between strength-based parenting and depression and the indirect role of emotion regulation (ie, cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 750 Chinese middle school students from two middle schools completed questionnaires comprising the Strength-based Parenting Scale, the Emotion Regulation Scale, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depressive Scale, and sociodemographic characteristics. A total of 695 students provided accurate responses to the two validity check questions, and were thus retained in the final study sample. Of the final sample, 348 (50.1%) were girls, and the respondents overall had an average age of 16.22 years. The direct and indirect paths from strength-based parenting to depression were analyzed using structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

The results showed that strength-based parenting negatively predicted depression and cognitive reappraisal, while strength-based parenting positively predicted depression. Strength-based parenting indirectly predicted depression through cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest an underlying process by which high strength-based parenting resists depression by increasing cognitive reappraisal and decreasing expression suppression. It is necessary to implement a comprehensive intervention strategy that focuses on strength-based parenting and emotion regulation (eg, cognitive reappraisal).

Unsociability and Psychological and School Adjustment in Chinese Children: The Moderating Effects of Peer Group Cultural Orientations

This study examined the moderating effects of cultural orientations of peer groups on the relations between unsociability and psychological and school adjustment in Chinese children. Participants included 1,092 students (527 boys, M age = 12.21 years) in the sixth grade in elementary schools. Data on individualistic and collectivistic cultural orientations, unsociability, and adjustment were obtained from multiple sources including peer nominations, teacher ratings, self-reports, and school records. Using the Social Cognitive Map method, 193 peer groups were identified. Among the results, unsociability was negatively associated with peer preference and academic achievement in groups low on individualistic orientation but not in groups high on individualistic orientation. Unsociability was also negatively associated with peer preference more strongly in groups with higher scores of collectivistic orientation. The results suggested that, in general, unsociable children performed better in social and academical areas in more individualistically oriented groups and less collectivistically oriented groups. The cultural context of peer groups may play a significant role in shaping social and school adjustment of unsociable children.

Two Different Mismatches: Integrating the Developmental and the Evolutionary-Mismatch Hypothesis

Evolutionary psychology aims to understand the origins of the human mind, including disease. Several theories about the origins of disease have been proposed. One concerns a developmental mismatch—a mismatch might occur at the individual level between the environment experienced during childhood and the environment the adult finds herself in, possibly resulting in disease. A second theory concerns the idea of an evolutionary mismatch—humans are adapted to ancestral conditions so they might now experience a mismatch with their modern environment, possibly resulting in disease. A third theory—differential susceptibility—outlines how genetic and epigenetic differences influence the extent to which humans are susceptible to rearing, including positive and negative experiences. Because of these differences, some individuals are more prone to develop disease than others. We review empirical studies that substantiate these theories and argue that an overarching theory that integrates these three lines into one provides a more accurate understanding of disease from an evolutionary perspective.

Depressive symptoms in the context of Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the longitudinal association of depressive symptoms with grandchild care intensity and whether the association varies by household structure, residential area, and gender for Chinese grandparents.

METHODS

Using data from three waves of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS, 2011-2015), we applied multilevel mixed effects models to examine changes in depressive symptoms and the associations with caregiving intensity and to test the moderation effects of residence, living arrangement, and gender.

RESULTS

After controlling for sociodemographic and health covariates, we found that providing a medium level of grandchild care was associated with fewer baseline depressive symptoms compared with non-caregivers. Providing low-level care among those living with spouse/partner and among those living with child(ren)/others was associated with fewer depressive symptoms relative to non-caregivers with similar living arrangements.

CONCLUSION

Findings indicate that a medium level of involvement in childcare was associated with better mental wellness and low levels of caregiving may benefit nonresidential caregivers. More prospective longitudinal studies are needed to improve the operationalization of grandparent caregiving, validate the associated health outcomes, and apply a contextual approach to examine socioeconomic, cultural, and policy-related contexts of caregiving in the changing world of China.

Adolescents’ Filial Piety Attitudes in Relation to Their Perceived Parenting Styles: An Urban–Rural Comparative Longitudinal Study in China

The Dual Filial Piety Model (i.e., the model of reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety) offers a universally applicable framework for understanding essential aspects of intergenerational relations across diverse cultural contexts. The current research aimed to examine two important issues concerning this model that have lacked investigation: the roles of parental socialization (i.e., authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles) and social ecologies (i.e., urban vs. rural settings that differ in levels of economic development and modernization) in the development of reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety attitudes. To this end, a two-wave short-term longitudinal survey study was conducted among 850 early adolescents residing in urban (N = 314, 49.4% females, mean age = 13.31 years) and rural China (N = 536, 45.3% females, mean age = 13.72 years), who completed questionnaires twice, 6 months apart, in the spring semester of grade 7 and the fall semester of grade 8. Multigroup path analyses revealed bidirectional associations over time between perceived parenting styles and adolescents’ filial piety attitudes, with both similarities and differences in these associations between urban and rural China. In both settings, perceived authoritative parenting predicted increased reciprocal filial piety 6 months later, whereas perceived authoritarian parenting predicted reduced reciprocal filial piety among urban (but not rural) adolescents over time. Moreover, in both settings, reciprocal filial piety predicted higher levels of perceived authoritative parenting and lower levels of perceived authoritarian parenting 6 months later, with the latter effect being stronger among urban (vs. rural) adolescents. Adolescents’ perceived parenting styles did not predict their authoritarian filial piety over time; however, authoritarian filial piety predicted higher levels of perceived authoritative parenting (but not perceived authoritarian parenting) 6 months later in both settings. The findings highlight the roles of transactional socialization processes between parents and youth as well as social ecologies in the development of filial piety, thus advancing the understanding of how the universal human motivations underlying filial piety may function developmentally across different socioeconomic and sociocultural settings.

Socio-economic determinants of suicide rates in transforming China: A spatial-temporal analysis from 1990 to 2015

Background

China has experienced dramatic social changes in the last three decades. This study aimed to investigate socio-economic factors related to suicide rates in China from 1990 to 2015, and examine how the impacts of these factors on suicide rates changed over time.

Methods

Suicide rates in 31 provinces in mainland China between 1990 and 2015 were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2019. Temporal-spatial modelling was applied to assess the effects of GDP per capita, urbanization, migration, employment, divorce, proportions of children and older adults on provincial overall, male and female suicide rates.

Findings

The overall suicide rate in China declined from 18·1 /100,000 in 1990 to 8·6 /100,000 in 2015, with considerable spatial variation in the magnitude of decline across provinces. The protective effects of increasing in GDP per capita, and urbanization, on provincial suicide rate were strong in 1990 (log GDP: -3·56 [95% CI: -6·15, -0·96], urbanisation: -0·07 [-0·14, -0·01]), however these effects were negligible by 2015. The association between employment and suicide rates has shifted from positive to negative over the study period, while migration remained a constant risk factor for high suicide rates (0·04 [0.00, 0·09]).

Interpretation

This study highlighted the dynamic effects of economic and social factors on suicide rates in the context of transforming China. To maintain further reductions in suicide rates cannot rely simply on improving people's materialistic and economic conditions. A more holistic approach to improve overall population well-being is needed.

Funding

Humanities and Social Sciences Prestigious Fellowship (37000320) and the General Research Fund (17611619) at the University of Hong Kong.

Mothers' Experience of Social Change and Individualistic Parenting Goals Over Two Generations in Urban China

During the past four decades, China has gone through rapid urbanization and modernization. As people adapt to dramatic sociodemographic shifts from rural communities to urban centers and as economic level rises, individualistic cultural values in China have increased. Meanwhile, parent and child behavior in early childhood has also evolved accordingly to match a more individualistic society. This mixed-method study investigated how social change in China may have impacted parenting goals and child development in middle childhood, as seen through the eyes of the current generation of mothers. Thirty mothers of fifth-grade elementary school students from Shenzhen, China were recruited and took part in semi-structured interviews. Participants answered questions and provided examples about their children's life, their own childhood, and the perceived differences between the two generations. Participating mothers were also asked to rate which generation, themselves or their parents, cared more about the childrearing goals of academic competitiveness and socioemotional well-being. Using both qualitative and quantitative analysis, we expected and found an intergenerational increase in the perceived value mothers placed on individualistic traits: current mothers care more about their children's academic competitiveness, personal happiness, and social adjustment, compared to their experience of their own mothers' attitudes during their childhood a generation earlier. They also experience conflict between their children's academic competitiveness and socioemotional well-being. As a function of both urbanization and increased economic means, children's collectivistic family responsibilities for essential household chores have declined as the importance of schoolwork has increased.

Trends in depression incidence in China, 1990-2019

BACKGROUND

Depression is one of the most widespread health burdens for the general population in China. This study aims to assess the long-term trends of depression incidence in China between 1990 and 2019.

METHODS

The incidence data were drawn from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, and an age-period-cohort model was used in the analysis.

RESULTS

The net drift was -0.66% (95% CI: -0.79% to -0.53%) per year for both genders. For males, the local drift was lower than 0 (P<0.05) in those aged 10-54 years, and higher than 0 (P<0.05) in those aged 60-69 years. For females, the local drift was lower than 0 (P<0.05) in those aged 10-49 years and higher than 0 (P<0.05) in those aged 55-84 years. Females had a higher risk of depression incidence than males. Compared with the 1990-1994 period, the relative risk (RR) of depression incidence in 2015-2019 decreased by 12.2% in males and 12.3% in females, and compared to the 1903-1907 birth cohort, the cohort RRs in the 2008-2012 birth cohort decreased by 42.1% in males and 34.5% in females. Period and cohort RRs all showed an increased tendency in recent periods and birth cohorts.

LIMITATIONS

These data are macrolevel estimates at the national level, may have ecological fallacies.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the age-standard incidence of depression has declined in China as a whole in the last three decades, the incidence of depression among older individuals has increased. More efforts are needed to promote the mental health of elderly individuals in China.

The influence of friendship and merit on children's resource allocation in three societies

Recent work has suggested that principles of fairness that seem like natural laws to the Western mind, such as sharing more of the spoils with those who contributed more, can in fact vary significantly across populations. To build a better understanding of the developmental roots of population differences with respect to fairness, we investigated whether 7-year-old children (N = 432) from three cultural backgrounds-Kenya, China, and Germany-consider friendship and merit in their distribution of resources and how they resolve conflicts between the two. We found that friendship had considerable and consistent influence as a cross-culturally recurrent motivation: children in all three cultures preferentially shared with a friend rather than with a neutral familiar peer. On the other hand, the role of merit in distribution seemed to differ cross-culturally: children in China and Germany, but not in Kenya, selectively distributed resources to individuals who worked more. When we pitted friendship against merit, there was an approximately even split in all three cultures between children who favored the undeserving friend and children who shared with the hard-working neutral individual. These results demonstrate commonalities and variability in fairness perceptions across distinct cultures and speak to the importance of cross-cultural research in understanding the development of the human mind.

Frequency and Correlates of Weight-Based Discrimination among Adolescents in China

BACKGROUND

Unfair treatment on the basis of body weight is common in the West and associated with lower well-being, starting at least as early as adolescence. We examine whether the frequency and predictors and correlates of weight discrimination seen in the West extend to adolescents in China.

METHODS

Participants (N = 1539) were adolescents in China who took part in a longitudinal study of mental health and academic burnout in high school. At Wave 1, participants reported on their personality and well-being and completed a school health check that included measured height and weight. At Wave 2 approximately 6 months later, participants reported on experiences with unfair treatment and completed the same measures of well-being.

RESULTS

Of 10 attributions for unfair treatment, weight was most common at 18%. Female gender and body mass index were associated with greater risk of reporting weight discrimination. Emotional stability, conscientiousness, and state happiness measured at Wave 1 were associated with lower risk of weight discrimination at Wave 2. Concurrently, weight discrimination was associated with lower happiness, less life satisfaction, and more distress.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents in China report weight discrimination, and the patterns of association between weight discrimination and psychological function are similar to what is seen in the West.

An Integrated Ecological Approach to Mapping Variations in Collectivism Within China: Introducing the Triple-Line Framework

Measurable regional variations in collectivism have been found across the Chinese mainland, challenging the simple classification of China as a “collectivistic society” in cross-national studies. In previous studies, a small number of distal or proximal ecological factors have been used to explain these regional variations of collectivism. However, there has been little consensus on which ecological factors best predict regional collectivism. In this article, the authors propose the “triple-line framework,” an integrated perspective on regional variations in collectivism. This framework divides China into four regions using three lines—the Hu Huanyong Line, the Great Wall Line, and the Qinling–Huaihe Line—according to their ecological, historical, and social characteristics. A growing body of empirical research is largely consistent with this framework. The authors conclude by discussing the potential for this framework to generate new, testable hypotheses and consider some ways in which this approach to intranational variation could be used by cultural psychologists working in other parts of the world.

Culturally shared and unique meanings and expressions of maternal control across four cultures

Maternal control is a major dimension of parenting and has different meanings, practices, and potential consequences across cultures. The present study aimed to identify and compare mothers' conceptualizations of parenting control across four cultures to reveal a more nuanced understanding regarding the meaning and practices of control: European American, Chinese immigrant, Korean immigrant, and Turkish. Using a semistructured open-ended interview, 100 European American, 102 U.S. Chinese immigrant, 103 U.S. Korean immigrant, and 109 Turkish mothers of preschool-aged children reported the ratings of importance, specific reasons, and strategies for exerting control over their children in daily life. Results revealed both shared and unique conceptualizations of maternal control across four cultures. Specifically, all mothers reported that it is important to express maternal control over their children in order to set behavioral norms/standards, maintain child safety, support social relations and respect for others, provide guidance, and guide moral development. Moreover, mothers discussed utilizing nonphysical punishment, setting and maintaining rules, reasoning/negotiating, consistency, physical punishment and verbal control, showing parents' serious/stern attitude, correction, and psychological control forms of control. However, the levels at which mothers emphasize the different reasons and strategies varied across cultures, reflecting culturally emphasized values. The findings of the present study further enrich our understanding of the complexities of maternal control across cultures. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Let Nature Take Its Course: Cultural Adaptation and Pilot Test of Taoist Cognitive Therapy for Chinese American Immigrants With Generalized Anxiety Disorder

This report describes initial results from a multi-stage project to manualize and adapt an indigenous therapy, Chinese Taoist Cognitive Psychotherapy (CTCP), for dissemination in the United States context. Study aims were to (a) integrate cultural adaptation and implementation science frameworks to manualize and adapt the original intervention and (b) explore the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of the modified intervention, renamed Taoist Cognitive Therapy (TCT), in a sample of Chinese immigrants with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Incorporating bottom-up and top-down adaptation approaches, we involved Chinese American clinician stakeholders and experts in Taoist philosophy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and GAD to help identify cultural and contextual barriers and solutions to enhance treatment acceptability and implementation. Five treatment-seeking Chinese American immigrants (average age = 43.2 years) with a primary diagnosis of GAD completed 14–16 sessions of TCT. Two participants also had secondary diagnoses of major depressive disorder. Changes on primary measures of worry and anxiety were assessed for statistical and clinical significance using reliable change indices (RCIs; Jacobson and Truax, 1991) and comparisons to normative data. In this sample of patients with limited prior exposure to Taoism, results found evidence of feasibility and acceptability of the modified intervention, with strong endorsement of Taoist principles at termination. Statistically and clinically significant improvements in anxiety, worry, psychological inflexibility, and emotional avoidance were found only for the participants without comorbid depression. Results suggest that Taoist principles of acceptance and flexible adaptation to natural laws may be helpful to Chinese immigrants coping with anxiety. However, additional treatment modifications may be required to address the low self-efficacy and fatalism expressed among those with comorbid depression.

Differential associations between subjective age and depressive symptoms among urban and rural Chinese older adults

Objectives: Little research has investigated the prospective association between subjective-aging-perception and depressive symptoms in Chinese older adults. The aim of this study is to evaluate the differential associations of feeling old with depressive symptoms among urban and rural community-dwelling Chinese older adults using panel data drawn from two waves of nationally representative surveys.Method: We conducted secondary data analysis and utilized the data of 5,685 urban and 5,612 rural community-dwelling older adults aged 60 years and above who participated in both the 2006 and the 2010 Sample Survey on the Aged Population in Urban/Rural China (SSAPUR). A single-item measure of subjective age was used to distinguish between feeling old and feeling not old.Results: Ordinary least regression analyses indicated that the longitudinal effect of subjective age on depressive symptoms existed only in the urban sample (p<.001) but not in the rural sample and that feeling not old was related to less depressive symptoms in the urban sample, after controlling for baseline measures of depressive symptoms and sociodemographic and health factors.Conclusion: This study provides new longitudinal evidence of the impact of subjective age on depression among Chinese older individuals. The findings provide useful information for depression interventions among urban older Chinese individuals.

Burden of depression in China, 1990-2017: Findings from the global burden of disease study 2017

BACKGROUND

Depression in China has risen from the 15th leading cause of all-cause disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in 1990 to the 10th in 2017. However, the burden of depression and the epidemiological trend in Chinese provinces remain unclear. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and burden of depression among different sexes, ages, disease types and provincial administrative units in China.

METHODS

Based on a general analysis of the Global Burden of Disease study (GBD) in 2017, we analyzed the age- sex- and province-specific prevalence and DALYs of depression in China from 1990 to 2017.

RESULTS

From 1990 to 2017, the all-age prevalence rate of depression per 100,000 rose from 3224.6 (95% UI:2976.6-3509.1) to 3990.5 (95% UI: 3667.8-4353.0), and the DALY rate per 100,000 rose from 525.1 (95% UI: 373.5-719.0) to 607.4 (95% UI: 427.7-820.2). The prevalence rate decreased in the population aged 5-54 years, and increased in the population aged over 55 years. In 2017, the prevalence rate of females (5039.6, 95% UI: 4630.0-5502.8) was significantly higher than that of males (2984.9, 95% UI: 2736.0-3265.3). The prevalence and DALY rate increased in all provinces. However, the age-standardized prevalence and DALYs rate decreased in 31 provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

Depression has gradually become a major public health issue in China. The government should take measures to prevent the development of depression immediately. Women and the elderly are at high risk for depression.

Testing the Reliability and Construct Validity of a Chinese Translation of BASC-3-SRP for 12- to 18-Year-Old Youth

We tested the reliability and construct validity of a Chinese translation of one of the forms of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (3rd Edition)–Self-Report of Personality for adolescent 11- to 21-year olds (BASC-3-SRP-A). The BASC-3-SRP-A yields 16 subscales that form four composite scales. Data were obtained from 444 12- to 14-year olds (Group 1; girls: 59.0%) and 759 15- to 18-year olds (Group 2; girls: 69.2%). For both groups, Cronbach’s alphas for most of the 16 subscales were higher than .70 and were higher than .83 for the four composite scales. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using Mplus 8 on the combined sample yielded support for the construct validity of the Chinese translation of the BASC-3-SRP-A. Findings support the use of BASC-3-SRP-A among Chinese youth.

The Psychology of Cultural Dynamics: What Is It, What Do We Know, and What Is Yet to Be Known?

The psychology of cultural dynamics is the psychological investigation of the formation, maintenance, and transformation of culture over time. This article maps out the terrain, reviews the existing literature, and points out potential future directions of this research. It is divided into three parts. The first part focuses on micro-cultural dynamics, which refers to the social and psychological processes that contribute to the dissemination and retention of cultural information. The second part, on micro-macro dynamics, investigates how micro-level processes give rise to macro-cultural dynamics. The third part focuses on macro-cultural dynamics, referring to the distribution and long-term trends involving cultural information in a population, which in turn enable and constrain the micro-level processes. We conclude the review with a consideration of future directions, suggesting behavior change research as translational research on cultural dynamics.

Trends in Health-Risk Behaviors among Chinese Adolescents

Adolescent health-risk behaviors can have long lasting negative effects throughout an individual's life, and cause a major economic and social burden to society. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of the health-risk behaviors among Chinese adolescents and to test the trends in health-risk behaviors without and with adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics. Data were drawn from the School-based Chinese Adolescents Health Survey, which is an ongoing school-based study about the health-risk behaviors among Chinese adolescents (7th to 12th grade). During the first wave through the third wave, the prevalence of lifetime, past 12-month, and past 30-day use of opioid decreased by 4.19%, 0.63%, and 0.56%, respectively. Moreover, the prevalence of lifetime, past 12-month, and past 30-day sedative use decreased by 3.03%, 0.65%, and 0.35%, respectively. During the three waves, most trends in the prevalence of health-risk behaviors were downward, with a few exceptions: The prevalence of lifetime smoking, drinking, methamphetamine use, and sleep disturbance increased by 7.15%, 13.08%, 0.48%, and 9.06%, respectively. The prevalence of lifetime 3,4-methylene dioxy methamphetamine use (from 0.49% to 0.48%), lifetime mephedrone use (from 0.30% to 0.24%), or suicide attempts (from 2.41% to 2.46%) remained stable.

Culture and social hierarchy: Self- and other-oriented correlates of socioeconomic status across cultures

Current theorizing on socioeconomic status (SES) focuses on the availability of resources and the freedom they afford as a key determinant of the association between high SES and stronger orientation toward the self and, by implication, weaker orientation toward others. However, this work relies nearly exclusively on data from Western countries where self-orientation is strongly sanctioned. In the present work, we predicted and found that especially in East Asian countries, where other-orientation is strongly sanctioned, high SES is associated with stronger other-orientation as well as with self-orientation. We first examined both psychological attributes (Study 1, N = 2,832) and socialization values (Study 2a, N = 4,675) in Japan and the United States. In line with the existent evidence, SES was associated with greater self-oriented psychological attributes and socialization values in both the U.S. and Japan. Importantly, however, higher SES was associated with greater other orientation in Japan, whereas this association was weaker or even reversed in the United States. Study 2b (N = 85,296) indicated that the positive association between SES and self-orientation is found, overall, across 60 nations. Further, Study 2b showed that the positive association between SES and other-orientation in Japan can be generalized to other Confucian cultures, whereas the negative association between SES and other-orientation in the U.S. can be generalized to other Frontier cultures. Implications of the current findings for modernization and globalization are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Culture and social class

A large body of research in Western cultures has demonstrated the psychological and health effects of social class. This review outlines a cultural psychological approach to social stratification by comparing psychological and health manifestations of social class across Western and East Asian cultures. These comparisons suggest that cultural meaning systems shape how people make meaning and respond to material/structural conditions associated with social class, thereby leading to culturally divergent manifestations of social class. Specifically, unlike their counterparts in Western cultures, individuals of high social class in East Asian cultures tend to show high conformity and other-orientated psychological attributes. In addition, cultures differ in how social class impacts health (i.e. on which bases, through which pathways, and to what extent).

Not all cultural values are created equal: Cultural change in China reexamined through Google books

Given its major transformations in recent decades, China has figured prominently in research on cultural change. Previous research converges in showing a general trend towards individualism in contemporary China while noting that rising individualism tends to coexist with enduring collectivism. To further understand this, we tested whether perceived traditional importance of cultural values would modulate the trajectory of cultural change reflected in word usage frequencies in published books. We re-analysed Google's Chinese corpus since 1980 based on a broad sample of words associated with individualism-collectivism. We replicated the pattern of rising individualism and declining collectivism among words of modest and low perceived traditional importance. Most important, however, collectivistic words of high perceived traditional importance increased in usage frequencies with time, thus departing from the general trend towards individualism. Overall, our research underscores the role of core culture in cultural maintenance during times of rapid cultural change.

Temporal Changes in Individualism and Their Ramification in Japan: Rising Individualism and Conflicts with Persisting Collectivism

Many studies have shown that American culture has become more individualistic over time. However, it was unclear whether other cultures, especially East Asian cultures, have also shifted toward greater individualism. Therefore, this article reviewed studies investigating temporal changes in individualism in Japan and their ramifications on psychology and behavior. Japan has experienced rapid and dramatic economic growth and urbanization and has adopted more social systems based on individualistic concepts in various contexts (e.g., workplace, school). Recent studies have suggested that, along with these socioeconomic changes, Japanese culture has become more individualistic over time. Specifically, the divorce rate increased and household size decreased. Moreover, people give more unique names to their children and dogs, and individualistic words such as "individual" and "uniqueness" appear more frequently in newspapers. Furthermore, social values became more individualistic. Yet, it has also been shown that some collectivistic values still remain. As a result, people have difficulty in adapting to this coexistence, which injures interpersonal relationships and well-being. This paper discussed how Japanese culture changed over time and how such changes affected Japanese psychology and behavior.

Toward a Psychology of Social Change: A Typology of Social Change

Millions of people worldwide are affected by dramatic social change (DSC). While sociological theory aims to understand its precipitants, the psychological consequences remain poorly understood. A large-scale literature review pointed to the desperate need for a typology of social change that might guide theory and research toward a better understanding of the psychology of social change. Over 5,000 abstracts from peer-reviewed articles were assessed from sociological and psychological publications. Based on stringent inclusion criteria, a final 325 articles were used to construct a novel, multi-level typology designed to conceptualize and categorize social change in terms of its psychological threat to psychological well-being. The typology of social change includes four social contexts: Stability, Inertia, Incremental Social Change and, finally, DSC. Four characteristics of DSC were further identified: the pace of social change, rupture to the social structure, rupture to the normative structure, and the level of threat to one's cultural identity. A theoretical model that links the characteristics of social change together and with the social contexts is also suggested. The typology of social change as well as our theoretical proposition may serve as a foundation for future investigations and increase our understanding of the psychologically adaptive mechanisms used in the wake of DSC.