Does Emotional Intelligence have a "Dark" Side? A Review of the Literature

Positive affect and self-care mediate the relationship between trait emotional intelligence and academic engagement in Lebanese undergraduates: Lessons learned from an online setting

This study examined the impact of positive psychology variables, namely trait emotional intelligence (EI), positive affect and self-care, on academic engagement (AE) in an online learning environment during COVID-19. The study involved 717 undergraduates in Lebanon and utilised structural equation modelling for data analysis. The results demonstrated that positive affect and self-care mediated the relationship between trait EI and AE. In women, both self-care and positive affect were mediators, whereas in men, positive affect was the only mediator. For students who received a mix of synchronous and asynchronous lessons, both self-care and positive affect mediated the relationship between trait EI and AE. However, for those who received only synchronous lessons, positive affect was the sole mediator. Furthermore, AE significantly predicted academic performance (AP) in both models. These findings suggest the importance of interventions that enhance trait EI, positive emotions and self-care to improve AE and ultimately AP in online learning.

Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: An Introduction

Emotionally intelligent people are thought to be more skilled in recognizing, thinking about, using, and regulating emotions. This construct has garnered considerable interest, but initial enthusiasm has faded and it is time to take stock. There is consensus that ability-related measures of emotional intelligence (EI) can be favored to self-report tests, in part because the resulting scores cannot be equated with personality traits. However, there are questions surrounding measurement as well as predictive value. Experts in the field were encouraged to chart new directions, with the idea that these new directions could reinvigorate EI scholarship. Special Issue papers speak to theory, mechanism, measurement, and training. In addition, these papers seek to forge links with research traditions focused on interpersonal perception, emotional awareness, and emotion regulation. As a result of these efforts, new insights into what EI is and how it works can be anticipated in upcoming years.

From burnout to behavior: the dark side of emotional intelligence on optimal functioning across three managerial levels

Introduction

Burnout has been typically addressed as an outcome and indicator of employee malfunctioning due to its profound effects on the organization, its members, and its profitability. Our study assesses its potential as a predictor, delving into how different sources of motivation-autonomous and controlled-act as mediational mechanisms in the association between burnout and behavioral dimensions of functioning (namely, organizational citizenship behaviors and work misbehaviors). Furthermore, the buffering effects of emotional intelligence across three different managerial levels were also examined.

Methods

To this end, a total non-targeted sample of 840 Romanian managers (513 first-, 220 mid-, and 107 top-level managers) was obtained.

Results

Burnout predicted motivation, which predicted work behaviors in a moderated-mediation framework. Contrary to our initial prediction, emotional intelligence augmented the negative association between burnout and motivation, exhibiting a dark side to this intelligence type. These findings are nuanced by the three managerial positions and shed light on the subtle differences across supervisory levels.

Discussion

The current article suggests a relationship between multiple dimensions of optimal (mal)functioning and discusses valuable theoretical and practical insights, supporting future researchers and practitioners in designing burnout, motivation, and emotional intelligence interventions.

Emotional self-knowledge profiles and relationships with mental health indicators support value in 'knowing thyself'

"Know thyself" may be indicated by a balanced high pairing of two emotional self-knowledge indicators: attention to emotions and emotional clarity. Closely associated but often evaluated separately, emotional clarity is consistently, inversely associated with psychopathology, while evidence regarding attention to emotions is less consistent. Variables of high/low emotional clarity and attention to emotions yielded four emotional self-knowledge profiles which were analyzed for associations with mental health indicators (depression and anxiety symptoms, self-esteem, self-schema, resiliency, transcendence) in n = 264 adolescents. Here we report regression models which show that compared with neither, both high (attention + clarity) show higher positive self-schema (B = 2.83, p = 0.004), more resiliency (B = 2.76, p = 0.015) and higher transcendence (B = 82.4, p < 0.001), while high attention only is associated with lower self-esteem (B = - 3.38, p < 0.001) and more symptoms (B = 5.82, p < 0.001 for depression; B = 9.37, p < 0.001 for anxiety). High attention only is associated with most severe impairment all indicators excepting transcendence. Profiles including high clarity suggest protective effects, and 'implicit' versus 'explicit' emotional awareness are discussed. Balanced vs. imbalanced emotional self-awareness profiles dissimilarly affect mental health, which have implications for treatment and policy.

With Great Sensitivity Comes Great Management: How Emotional Hypersensitivity Can Be the Superpower of Emotional Intelligence

With the goal of furthering the understanding and investigation of emotional intelligence (EI), the present paper aims to address some of the characteristics that make EI a useful skill and, ultimately, a predictor of important life outcomes. Recently, the construct of hypersensitivity has been presented as one such necessary function, suggesting that high-EI individuals are more sensitive to emotions and emotional information than low-EI individuals. In this contribution, we aim to shift the perception of hypersensitivity, which is mostly seen with a negative connotation in the literature, to the perspective that hypersensitivity has the capacity to result in both negative and positive outcomes. We advance this possibility by discussing the characteristics that distinguish hypersensitive individuals who are also emotionally intelligent from those who are not. Based on an emotion information processing approach, we posit that emotional intelligence stems from the ability to manage one's level of hypersensitivity: high-EI individuals are those who are better able to use hypersensitivity as an adaptive rather than a disabling feature. Ultimately, we propose that hypersensitivity can represent a sort of "superpower" that, when paired with regulatory processes that balance this hypersensitivity, characterizes the functioning of high-EI individuals and accounts for the positive outcomes reported in the literature.

Resilience as the Ability to Maintain Well-Being: An Allostatic Active Inference Model

Resilience is often characterized as the outcome of well-being maintenance despite threats to that well-being. We suggest that resilience can also be characterized as an emotional-intelligence-related ability to obtain this outcome. We formulate an allostatic active inference model that outlines the primary tools of this resilience ability as monitoring well-being, maintaining stable well-being beliefs while updating situational beliefs and flexibly prioritizing actions that are expected to lead to well-being maintenance or gathering the information needed to discern what those actions could be. This model helps to explain the role of positive emotions in resilience as well as how people high in resilience ability use regulatory flexibility in the service of maintaining well-being and provides a starting point for assessing resilience as an ability.

Enjoyment, boredom, and perceived effectiveness of learners in language MOOCs: the mediating effect of self-regulated learning

Self-regulated learning in technology-supported environments has attracted much scholarly attention in recent years. With the rapid expansion of online education, students' emotions have also been studied extensively in second language acquisition. However, few empirical studies have examined the interrelationship between students' self-regulated learning and emotions in the emerging field of language MOOCs (LMOOCs). This study bridged this gap by exploring the relationship between foreign language enjoyment (FLE), boredom (FLB), self-regulated learning (SRL), and perceived effectiveness in LMOOC learning. Data were collected among 356 successful learners of a language MOOC in mainland China through a cross-sectional study. The results showed that LMOOC learners had a high level of enjoyment and a moderate level of boredom. A significantly positive relationship was noted between FLE and SRL while a negative relationship was found between FLB and SRL. SRL was confirmed to be the mediator between FLE, FLB, and PE, which partially mediated the effects of FLE on PE and fully mediated the effects of FLB on PE. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by all SRL strategies and time management significantly predicted perceived effectiveness. The results provided pedagogical implications for students to develop positive emotions and effective SRL strategies to achieve better learning outcomes in LMOOC learning.

Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence: Do They Contribute to the Explanation of Prosocial Behaviour?

Previous research on ability emotional intelligence (EI) has shown that EI positively contributes to different positive life outcomes. However, the role of EI abilities in prosocial behaviour (PSB) has not been sufficiently investigated. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationships between EI abilities measured by tests and self-reports, empathy and PSB in the student population. A total of N = 331 university students completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, two EI tests, and self-report measures of EI, cognitive empathy, emotional reactivity and PSB. Of all EI measures, only self-reports correlated with PSB. Cognitive and emotional empathy were also related to PSB. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that self-assessed EI, cognitive empathy and emotional reactivity were predictors of PSB. Cognitive empathy and emotional reactivity also mediated the relationship between self-assessed EI and PSB. The results showed that for the prediction of PSB, it is important how a person evaluates his emotional abilities, and not what the actual level of these abilities is. Furthermore, people with higher self-estimated EI behave prosocially more often because they experience empathy to a greater extent, both cognitively and emotionally.

Emotional intelligence subdimensions as moderators in the association between body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating disorders among female Mexican adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Strong empirical research has shown a relationship between body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating disorders (ED) and the direct and combined influence of emotional factors and dimensions of emotional intelligence (EI) on ED symptoms. However, whether these emotional variables and competencies moderate the well-established relationship between body dissatisfaction and ED symptomatology has not yet been tested. Neither have studies of this nature been performed among high at-risk populations such as Mexican female adolescents. Thus, this research aimed to explore the moderator role of EI subdimensions in the relationship between body dissatisfaction and ED symptoms among female adolescents from Sinaloa, Mexico.

METHODS

A total of 485 female adolescents aged 14-19 years old (M = 16.81, SD = 1.33) who were students in middle school, high school, and college completed questionnaires about body dissatisfaction, ED symptomatology, and EI. We conducted moderating analyses.

RESULTS

Subdimensions of EI significantly moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and symptoms of ED. For participants high in body dissatisfaction, lower levels in stress management ability and higher levels in the interpersonal EI and Adaptability EI dimensions were associated with higher levels of ED symptomatology.

DISCUSSION

Subdimensions of EI have an important role in moderating the association between body dissatisfaction and symptoms of ED. The findings of this study contribute to improving the knowledge about the role of emotional competencies in ED. Proposals for future research and to improve preventative approaches are discussed.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study shows the moderating role of EI dimensions in the well-established relationship between body dissatisfaction and ED symptomatology. The research was conducted with a population at high risk of ED: female adolescents in the northwest of Mexico. Results showed that low Stress management EI, high Adaptability EI, and high Interpersonal EI were associated with higher levels of ED symptomatology among participants with high (but not low) body dissatisfaction. These insightful results have theoretical and practical implications.

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Emotional Intelligence Test (EMI-T) for social care and healthcare student selection

AIM

To develop an emotional intelligence (EI) test and evaluate its psychometrics for social and healthcare student selection.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional methodological design.

METHODS

The test was developed based on a systematic review and focus group interviews. Content validity was evaluated with expert panels, and preliminary psychometrics with two pilot studies. Descriptive statistics, correlations and item response theory were used.

DATA SOURCES

Search was conducted in six databases 2018. Focus group interviews were conducted with educators and professionals in 2019. Expert panels with doctoral students, researchers and educators were conducted in 2020. Pilot tests with students were conducted 2020-2021. The developed test was administered to 4808 applicants 2021.

RESULTS

The test included four subscales. Correlations support the test's theoretical structure. The items were mainly easy.

CONCLUSION

The test assesses EI objectively and comprehensively. The item-level distractor analysis can be used for further test development.

IMPACTS

Social care and healthcare students engage in clinical practice early in their studies, and these environments can be emotionally challenging. Assessing EI in student selection with adequate test can help the institutions of higher education to select the students with required abilities to succeed in the studies. The assessment of EI during student selection also provides information higher education institutions could use to develop and provide support interventions. The results may also encourage practice placements to include EI elements as learning objective. The results of this study and especially the use of IRT and detailed distractor analysis to evaluate the psychometric properties of EMI-T can benefit researchers and educators that develop or evaluate objective assessment tools with multiple choice questions.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION AND/OR PATIENT CARE

Emotional intelligence is important for students to enable professional interaction.

How a Despotic Project Manager Jeopardizes Project Success: The Role of Project Team Members’ Emotional Exhaustion and Emotional Intelligence

Drawing on conservation of resources theory, our study investigates whether a project manager’s despotic leadership style influences project success directly and indirectly through the underlying mechanism of project team members’ emotional exhaustion. Additionally, the moderating role of project team members’ emotional intelligence (EI) between despotic leadership and emotional exhaustion is also examined. Data were collected from the project-based employees working in telecommunications organizations (n = 250) using a time-lagged survey in three waves. The result indicates that despotic leadership has a significant negative influence on project success, and emotional exhaustion partially mediates this relationship. Moreover, conforming to a rare line of inquiry that there is a dark side to being emotionally intelligent, our findings show that the effect of despotic leadership style on emotional exhaustion is stronger when a project team member is highly emotionally intelligent. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

Introducing an attitude-based approach to emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) was originally conceived as an ability, followed soon after by mixed, competency and trait theoretical models, broadly described as emotional efficacies (EE). Several models have attempted to integrate both approaches, with different views on whether EI and EE operate in sequence or parallel. One reason for this may be that EE constructs are given the same ontological status whether they represent underlying attitudes, such as self-regard, or behavioral competencies, such as assertiveness. In this paper, it is proposed that attitudes may predominantly act as underlying antecedents of ability-EI and behavioral-EE. Five benefits of this approach are drawn out that help to address some key concerns with current models and measures of EI and EE. First, the inclusion of implicit and explicit attitudes within integrated models of EI/EE would support the dual-processing of conscious and automated processes. From this, an attitude-based dual-processing framework for EI/EE is recommended. Second, the concept of Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR) for self and others, is identified as a potential attitude that may underpin the two core pillars of intrapersonal and interpersonal EI/EE. Third, UPR attitudes would provide an ethical basis for EI/EE that may support ethical and prosocial behavior. Fourth, UPR attitudes may differentiate between the optimal and sub-optimal elements of EI/EE. Fifth, an attitude-based approach to EI/EE may be more aligned with EI/EE being developmental than are the more static ability or trait-based models of EI/EE.

Validity and reliability of Spanish version of the EQ-i: YV[S] in Colombian children and youth

Introduction

Validity and reliability evaluations of the Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i: YV[S]) with children and adolescents from different countries have shown variations in the structural model proposed by Bar-On.

Objective

To examine the psychometric properties of EQ-i: YV[S] with a Colombian' sample.

Method

We randomly selected a sample of 1355 children and adolescents between 8 and 14 years old (Mage = 10.80; SD = 1.41). We conducted exploratory (n1 = 416) and confirmatory (n2 = 939) factor analyses (EFA, CFA), reliability, internal consistency, and predictive validity.

Results

The EFA explained 27.6% of the variance. The AFC indicated a multidimensional structure with four factors and 21 items obtained the best fit (χ2 = 334.358; df = 183; RMSEA=0.030; CFI=.951; TLI=944; NFI=.899) with acceptable internal consistency (ω = .57,.75). EQ-i: YV[S] factors explain 18.5% of the observed variance in problem-centered coping scores.

Conclusions

The psychometric fit of the inventory supports evidence of its usefulness for screening processes in clinical or educational assessment.

Idiosyncratic Profile of Perceived Emotional Intelligence and Post-Traumatic Growth in Breast Cancer Survivors: Findings of a Multiple Mediation Model

Psycho-oncology research suggests that positive personal changes can occur after experiencing breast cancer. These changes can be understood as post-traumatic growth (PTG) and seem to be determined by emotional self-efficacy perception. This study aims to investigate the existence of different profiles of PTG and perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) among breast cancer survivors (BCSs) and healthy controls. Moreover, it aims to study the mechanisms through which PEI may mediate the relationship between disease survival and PTG. The total sample was 636 women divided into two groups: 56 BCS and 580 healthy controls who completed TMMS-24 and PTGI. The results displayed that BCSs apparently show a different profile of PTG and PEI compared to healthy women. The mediation analyses showed that survivorship explained 1.9% of PTG, increasing to 26.5% by the effect of PEI. An indirect effect showed that cancer survival predicts reduced levels of emotional attention, decreasing PTG. However, the most statistical indirect effect evidenced that BCSs regulate their emotions appropriately, having a powerful effect on PTG and counteracting the negative effects of poor emotional attention. Knowing the implications of PEI on PTG could improve follow-up from the time of diagnosis and supporting the patient to cope with the sequelae of the disease.

Los efectos de la inteligencia emocional, la legitimidad y la disuasión en la conducta antisocial

Investigaciones previas sugieren que las conductas antisociales y delictivas son más prevalentes en individuos que presentan una baja inteligencia emocional, así como en aquellos que perciben una baja probabilidad de sanción y una nula legitimidad de las autoridades. El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar los efectos de la inteligencia emocional, la disuasión (específicamente la percepción de probabilidad de recibir sanción) y la legitimidad de las autoridades en la conducta antisocial en reclusos en comparación con un grupo control. El grupo de reclusos estuvo compuesto por 105 sujetos provenientes de un Centro de Reinserción Social de una ciudad del noroeste de México, con una media de edad de 32.03 años (DE = 8.986); y el grupo control, por 105 adultos sin antecedentes penales, con una media de edad de 32.08 años (DE = 10.094). Ambas muestras seleccionadas por conveniencia. Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas en las escalas de inteligencia emocional (t = –4.14, p < .001), legitimidad (t = –3.09, p < .01) y probabilidad de castigo (t = –4.66, p < .001); específicamente, la d de Cohen indicó que la muestra control presentó mayor inteligencia emocional (d = –0.81), mayor percepción de legitimidad (d = –0.60) y mayor percepción de probabilidad de sanción (d = –0.90) en contraste con la muestra de reclusos. Dentro del modelo de ecuaciones estructurales, las variables de inteligencia emocional y percepción de probabilidad de castigo influyeron en el comportamiento antisocial, lo cual indica que posiblemente las competencias emocionales podrían repercutir sobre el temor de recibir alguna sanción ante la comisión de determinadas conductas antisociales.

The Key Role of Emotional Repair and Emotional Clarity on Depression among Breast Cancer Survivors

Breast cancer is the malignancy with the highest incidence in women worldwide. The empirical evidence is inconsistent with the prevalence of depression among breast cancer survivors (BCS), pointing to emotional competencies as protective factors against affective disorders. However, the mechanisms through which these competencies favor a more adaptive emotional state are unknown. Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between the experience of having survived the disease and depression levels in a group of BCS, and the mediating role of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (PEI) in this relation. This was a cross-sectional study with 237 women divided into two groups: 56 BCS and 181 healthy controls who completed the Trait Meta-Mood Scale 24 (TMMS-24) and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Results showed that Survivorship and PEI explained and predicted 37.8% of the variance of depression, corresponding the 11.7% to the direct and/or the indirect effect of the PEI dimensions (Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Emotional Repair). In conclusion, interventions aimed at promoting an adequate PEI in this population-and in the Psycho-oncology field, in general-with a particular focus on the development of Emotional Clarity and Repair need to be implemented. Limitations and future research lines are discussed.

Exploring the Relationship Among Teacher Emotional Intelligence, Work Engagement, Teacher Self-Efficacy, and Student Academic Achievement: A Moderated Mediation Model

In recent years, many studies have been done to identify the factors that affect teacher emotions at schools. However, the empirical evidence on how teachers' emotions influence students' outcomes and performance is not extensive. Against this background, this study explored the correlation between teacher EI and student academic achievement and possible mechanisms may lie in this relationship. A sample of 365 Chinese teachers from 25 public middle schools participated in this study by completing measurements of teacher EI, teacher work engagement, and teacher self-efficacy. The student academic achievement was assessed by the grades of the previous term (February to June 2020) reported by the students. The results indicated that teacher work engagement partially mediated the path from teacher EI and student academic achievement. Moderated mediation further showed that teachers with high self-efficacy had a more significant positive impact on the relationship between teacher work engagement and student academic achievement than teachers with low self-efficacy. The limitations of this study were also discussed.

Aggressiveness in Judokas and Team Athletes: Predictive Value of Personality Traits, Emotional Intelligence and Self-Efficacy

Combat sports and martial arts are often associated with aggressiveness among the general public, although data on judo and/or martial arts and aggressiveness seem to be unclear. This research aims to compare athletes who have trained judo for a prolonged time (minimum 5 years) and athletes from various team sports, primarily regarding the manifestation of aggression, but also regarding personality traits, emotional intelligence, and self-efficacy. Also, the potential predictive value of personality traits, emotional intelligence, and self-efficacy for aggression within subsamples of judokas and team athletes was tested. The research findings showed that professional judo athletes are characterized by a low degree of aggression, especially low indirect and physical manifestations of aggression. In addition, the personality traits Honesty-Humility and Openness to experience are well expressed, contrary to Emotionality and Extraversion, which are less pronounced. They are also characterized by moderate general self-efficacy. On the other hand, members of team sports produced the opposite results, as they are characterized by increased aggression, pronounced traits of Emotionality and Extraversion, somewhat less pronounced traits of Honesty-Humility, Openness to new experience, and less pronounced general self-efficacy. The percentage of explained variability of aggression is slightly higher in the subsample of team sports and constitutes 49.9% of the variability, while in the subsample of judokas it constitutes 47.8% of the variability of the criteria. Practical implications, limitations, and future research directions were discussed.

Empathy, personality traits, and emotional management in 2nd and 4th-year dentistry students: a single-center study

BACKGROUND

Patients fearing dental interventions are at risk of delaying or skipping much-needed treatments. Empathic communication could lead to a higher rate of compliance from patients within this group. Empathy, the big five personality traits, and emotion management abilities are all known to influence the quality of communication between dentists and patients. This study was conducted to analyze whether there is a correlation between these factors in dentistry students.

METHODS

Dentistry students in their 2nd and 4th year of study were asked to complete questionnaires assessing empathy, emotion management, and personality traits. Out of a total of 148 eligible participants, 53 students (34%) volunteered to participate. For empathy, the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (students' version; JSPE-S) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) were used. Personality traits were assessed using the Short Big Five Inventory (BFI-s), and the Situational Test of Emotional Management (STEM) to measure emotional management ability.

RESULTS

Higher scores for emotion management were significantly correlated with the female gender (p ≤ 0.005) and with higher scores in openness (p ≤ 0.05). Students with higher scores in openness also achieved higher scores on the IRI subscales: Perspective taking (p ≤ 0.05), Fantasy (p ≤ 0.01), Empathic concern (p ≤ 0.05), and Personal distress (p ≤ 0.05). For JSPE-S, no correlation with emotion management and personality traits was found.

CONCLUSION

Empathy and emotion management might not be significantly related in dentistry students. Regarding personality traits, students who scored higher on openness also indicated higher abilities in emotion management. These findings should be taken into consideration when planning communication courses for dentistry students, as it might be possible to independently train empathy and emotion management as part of emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence in incarcerated sexual offenders with sexual sadism

Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined by the ability to perceive, manage, and reason about emotions in oneself and others. Studies have reported deficits in EI abilities among certain antisocial populations such as individuals with psychopathy, and enhanced performance among sexual offenders. Despite EI's relevance to offending behaviour, the association between EI and paraphilic offending has been under-studied. We examined the association between EI, sexual offending, and sexual sadism in 80 incarcerated men with sexual offenses and 207 incarcerated men with non-sexual offences. EI was assessed using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Sadism was measured using the Severe Sexual Sadism Scale (SeSaS). Results showed that SeSaS scores were positively associated with Strategic EI (the ability to understand and manage emotions), but were not significantly related to Experiential EI. This may reflect core characteristics of sexual sadism including domination and manipulation, challenging the prevalent notion that higher EI is invariably positive.

Mediating effects of emotional intelligence and resilience on the relationship between type D personality and caring ability in nursing students: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Nursing students must learn about the core values of nursing care. Thus, education designed to improve their caring ability should be included in nursing curricula. Nursing students' caring ability is reportedly affected by emotional intelligence and resilience. However, no studies have explored whether these qualities have mediating effects on the relationship between nursing students' type D personality and their caring ability.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the mediating effects of emotional intelligence and resilience on the relationship between type D personality and caring ability in nursing students.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional, descriptive survey study.

SETTING

The study was conducted in South Korea.

PARTICIPANTS

278 nursing students.

METHODS

Type D personality, emotional intelligence, resilience, and caring ability were measured using questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Pearson's correlations, regression analysis, and Hayes' Process Macro using the bootstrap method.

RESULTS

Results indicated that type D personality significantly predicted emotional intelligence (B = -6.80, p < .001), resilience (B = -6.77, p < .001), and caring ability (B = -7.20, p = .001). Emotional intelligence mediated the relationship between type D personality and caring ability.

CONCLUSION

Interventions to improve the caring ability of nursing students should include an evaluation of nursing students' emotional intelligence and strategies to promote their emotional intelligence.

Self- but Not Other-Dimensions of Mentalizing Moderate the Impairment Associated With Social Anxiety in Adolescents From the General Population

Mentalizing, or social cognition, refers to the brain's higher order capacity that allows humans to be aware of one's own and others' mental states (e.g., emotions, feelings, intentions). While cognition in social anxiety has been broadly analyzed, there is a paucity of research regarding the role of social cognition. Moreover, mentalizing or social cognition research is traditionally focused on the understanding of others' mental states, rather than self-mentalizing. Finally, most studies analyze the role of social cognition in the development or maintenance of social anxiety, yet no study to date has analyzed whether social cognition moderates functional impairment associated with it. This study analyzes whether self- and other-mentalizing moderate the relationship between social anxiety and impairment in social and self-functioning. A sample of 262 adolescents from the non-clinical population was assessed on measures of social anxiety, self- and other- mentalization, indicators of social functioning (social competence and sociometric status), and indicators of self-functioning (depression and self-esteem). Multiple linear regressions were conducted to test possible moderation effects of self-mentalizing and other-mentalizing on the relationships between social anxiety and social and self-functioning. Results revealed that other-mentalizing does not moderate social- nor self-functioning, while self-mentalizing moderates the impairment of all of them. While impairment in social functioning is buffered by one dimension of self-mentalizing (emotional clarity; b = 0.003, p = 0.043 and b = 0.016, p = 0.008 for social competence and sociometric status, respectively), impairment in self-functioning is strengthened by the other dimension (attention to emotions; b = -0.007, p = 0.008 and b = 0.009, p = 0.047 for self-esteem and depression, respectively). Probing the moderation at the 16th, 50th, and 84th percentiles revealed that the negative imbalance between dimensions (i.e., high attention and low clarity) tended to exacerbate impairment most on all indicators, while the positive imbalance (i.e., low attention and high clarity) was usually the most buffering condition. This supports that "low-flying" or implicit mentalizing provides more resilience than explicit mentalizing (i.e., high attention and high clarity). Findings suggest that the work on emotional self-awareness should be stressed in the intervention of the social anxiety spectrum conditions in order to improve prevention, functioning, and ultimately, treatments, of people impaired by symptoms of social anxiety.

The Nexus of the Dark Triad Personality Traits With Cyberbullying, Empathy, and Emotional Intelligence: A Structural-Equation Modeling Approach

This study set out to elucidate the complex suite of associations between the Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), emotional intelligence, empathy, and cyberbullying, as the respective findings regarding this topic have been inconsistent. Studies preponderantly have relied on abbreviated Dark Triad measures that do not differentiate between its lower-order facets. Further, most extant studies have exclusively been based on female psychology undergraduates and have not accounted for known sex differences on the Dark Triad traits and cyberbullying, or for negative associations between cyberbullying and age. Therefore, this nexus of interrelations was investigated in a diverse community sample (N = 749). A structural equation-modeling approached was used to examine predictors of cyberbullying and to test for mediating relationships between lower-order Dark Triad facets and emotional intelligence and empathy. Multigroup models were applied to test for sex-specific patterns. Empathy did not predict cyberbullying, whereas emotional intelligence partly mediated the Dark Triad associations with cyberbullying among both sexes. Sex-specific patterns in the associations between Dark Triad traits and cyberbullying were particularly observed for the grandiose and vulnerable narcissism facets. Emotional intelligence appeared to buffer effects of grandiose narcissism on cyberbullying. Future research could fruitfully explore cyberbullies' profiles regarding primary and secondary psychopathy, sex differences in narcissism, and buffering effects of emotional intelligence. Further improvements regarding the measurement of dark personality traits are indicated as well.

Initial Evidence for the Hypersensitivity Hypothesis: Emotional Intelligence as a Magnifier of Emotional Experience

In this article, we provide preliminary evidence for the ‘hypersensitivity hypothesis’, according to which Emotional Intelligence (EI) functions as a magnifier of emotional experience, enhancing the effect of emotion and emotion information on thinking and social perception. Measuring ability EI, and in particular Emotion Understanding, we describe an experiment designed to determine whether, relative to those low in EI, individuals high in EI were more affected by the valence of a scenario describing a target when making an affective social judgment. Employing a sample of individuals from the general population, high EI participants were found to provide more extreme (positive or negative) impressions of the target as a function of the scenario valence: positive information about the target increased high EI participants’ positive impressions more than it increased low EI participants’ impressions, and negative information increased their negative impressions more. In addition, EI affected the amount of recalled information and this led high EI individuals to intensify their affective ratings of the target. These initial results show that individuals high on EI may be particularly sensitive to emotions and emotion information, and they suggest that this hypersensitivity might account for both the beneficial and detrimental effects of EI documented in the literature. Implications are discussed.

QEPro: An ability measure of emotional intelligence for managers in a French cultural environment

Managers' interest in the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has grown steadily due to an accumulation of published articles and books touting EI's benefits. For over thirty years, many researchers have used or designed tools for measuring EI, most of which raise important psychometric, cultural and contextual issues. The aim of this article is to address some of the main limitations observed in previous studies of EI. By developing and validating QEPro we propose a new performance-based measure of EI based on a modified version of Mayer and Salovey's (1997) four-branch model. QEPro is an ability EI measure specifically dedicated to managers and business executives in a French cultural environment (N = 1035 managers and executives). In order to increase both the ecological and the face validity of the test for the target population we used the Situational Judgment Tests framework and a theory-based item development and scoring approach. For all items, correct and incorrect response options were developed using established theories from the emotion and management fields. Our study showed that QEPro has good psychometric qualities such as high measurement precision and internal consistency, an appropriate level of difficulty and a clear factorial structure. The tool also correlates in meaningful and theoretically congruent ways with general intelligence, Trait EI measures, the Big Five factors of personality, and the Affect measures used in this study. For all these reasons, QEPro is a promising tool for studying the role of EI competencies in managerial outcomes.

Lights and Shadows of Trait Emotional Intelligence: Its Mediating Role in the Relationship Between Negative Affect and State Anxiety in University Students

Nowadays, students are experiencing difficult and stressful situations due to the Global Pandemic Alert. This changing world can evoke negative emotions that have been traditionally linked to higher anxiety. Researches have been focused on the positive outcomes of trait emotional intelligence (TEI) preventing psychological disorders. However, the possibility that TEI might have a dark side has been neglected. Hence, this study aimed to explore the mediating effect of the three dimensions of TEI in the relationship between negative affect and anxiety symptoms among college students. Participants of this research were 467 undergraduates who completed an online self-reported questionnaire including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1970), and Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24, Salovey et al., 1995). The global serial mediation model showed that the total amount of variance explained by the global model was 30.8% (R ² = 0.31). Negative affectivity and age accounted for the 15.1% of state anxiety variance (R ² = 0.15; c: B = 0.63, p < 0.001) while 15.7% of the variance of state anxiety was attributed to the direct or indirect effect of the three dimensions of TEI (R ² = 0.16). Five indirect effects presented statistical significance (95% BootCI). The contrast analyses between mediators showed that three indirect effects had higher statistical weigh; the ability of negative affect to increase state anxiety through (i) emotional attention; (ii) emotional clarity, and (iii) serially through emotional clarity and mood repair. Our results indicated that students' negative emotions lead to higher emotional attention which in turn may enhance state anxiety in two ways: by a direct effect of emotional attention on state anxiety and by a serial effect through emotional clarity. Moreover, when negative affect is associated with lower emotional clarity, anxiety symptoms may also arise. However, when attention and clarity are connected, the negative effect is reversed into a positive one, decreasing state anxiety.

Work-Related Flow: The Development of a Theoretical Framework Based on the High Involvement HRM Practices With Mediating Role of Affective Commitment and Moderating Effect of Emotional Intelligence

The long-term success of organizations is mainly attributable to employees' psychological health. Organizations focusing on promoting and managing the flow (an optimal experience and optimal functioning state) may enhance employees' well-being and performance to an optimum level. Surprisingly, the literature representing the role of HRM practices for their effect on work-related flow (i.e., intrinsic motivation, absorption, and work enjoyment) is very sparse. Accordingly, by drawing primarily on the job demands-resources model and HRM specific attribution theory, this paper develops a theoretical framework that unravels the effectiveness of specific organizational level High Involvement HRM (HIHRM) practices (i.e., recognition, empowerment, information sharing, fair rewards, and competence development) in activating the individual level work-related flow with beneficial effect and mediating role of affective commitment. In addition to highlighting the underlying mechanisms that may cause HIHRM practices to be regarded as resources and sometimes as demands, this paper especially proposes that these practices implemented with a focus to promote employee well-being are perceived as job resources and may positively influence affective commitment and flow, whereas these practices used as a demand to increase performance are perceived as job demands and may hinder affective commitment and flow. It is further significant to understand the possible moderating effects of emotional intelligence on the relationships among HIHRM practices, affective commitment, and flow. The paper augments the knowledge and understanding of the impact process of HIHRM practices, in particular how the HIHRM effect is sensed by the workers and thus, influences their succeeding job attitude and work experience. Finally, this work, as the first paper to link HIHRM practices with work-related flow, promotes the concept of positive psychology in the workplace.

Breast Cancer and Resilience: The Controversial Role of Perceived Emotional Intelligence

Cancer is a chronic disease that causes the most deaths in the world, being a public health problem nowadays. Even though breast cancer affects the daily lives of patients, many women become resilient after the disease, decreasing the impact of the diagnosis. Based on a positive psychology approach, the concept of co-vitality arises understood as a set of socio-emotional competencies that enhance psychological adaptation. In this sense, emotional intelligence is one of the main protective factors associated with resilience. However, it is not always as beneficial as it seems, and can lead to collateral effects on psychological adjustment. Given this controversy, this study aims to find the specific processes through which the dimensions of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (PEI) (Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Mood Repair) can act as a risk or protective factor in the development of resilience. The total sample was 167 women (Age: M = 43.26; SD = 12.43), 46.7% were breast cancer survivors, and 53.3% were healthy controls. The selection of women with breast cancer carries out randomly, recruited through the Oncology Units. The sample completed measures of resilience and PEI, through Resilience Scale (Wagnild and Young, 1993) and TMMS-24 (Salovey et al., 1995). The results showed that breast cancer survivors showed higher age and greater levels of resilience and mood repair than healthy women. The mediation analysis revealed that breast cancer survival and PEI predicted 28% of the variance of resilience. The direct effects showed that emotional clarity and mood repair increased resilience levels. Although breast cancer did not predict resilience directly, it does through mood repair by an indirect process. Besides, the analysis showed that emotional attention played a role in vulnerability, decreasing mood repair, and resilience. These research support theories that point to a possible dark side of PEI, thus, a great level of emotional attention makes dark the positive effect of mood repair and personal growth if a clear perception of emotions does not complement it. These results provide empirical support concerning the need to work complementary each dimension of PEI to avoid unwanted effects on intrapersonal adjustment.

Medical Students Immersed in a Hyper-Realistic Surgical Training Environment Leads to Improved Measures of Emotional Resiliency by Both Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Burnout is being experienced by medical students, residents, and practicing physicians at significant rates. Higher levels of Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence may protect individuals against burnout symptoms. Previous studies have shown both Hardiness and Emotional IntelIigence protect against detrimental effects of stress and can be adapted through training; however, there is limited research on how training programs affect both simultaneously. Therefore, the objective of this study was to define the association of Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence and their potential improvement through hyper realistic immersion simulation training in military medical students.

METHODS

Participants in this study consisted of 68 second year medical students representing five medical schools who were concurrently enrolled in the United States military scholarship program. During a six day hyper-realistic surgical simulation training course, students rotated through different roles of a medical team and responded to several mass-casualty scenarios. Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence were assessed using the Hardiness Resilience Gauge (HRG) and the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I 2.0) respectively, at two time points: on arrival (pre-event) and after completion of the course (post-event).

RESULTS

Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence scores and sub scores consistently improved from pre-event to post-event assessments. No difference in training benefit was observed between genders but differences were observed by age where age was more often associated with Emotional Intelligence. In addition, factor analysis indicated that the HRG and EQ-I 2.0 assessment tools measured predominately different traits although they share some commonalities in some components.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that Hardiness and Emotional Intelligence scores can be improved through immersion training in military medical students. Results from this study support the use of training course interventions and prompt the need for long term evaluation of improvement strategies on mitigating burnout symptoms.

I'm Not Good for Anything and That's Why I'm Stressed: Analysis of the Effect of Self-Efficacy and Emotional Intelligence on Student Stress Using SEM and QCA

Stress negatively affects the well-being and the quality of life of the society. Specifically in the academic context, it is relevant to analyze its levels due to its impact on performance and learning. There are factors that affect the said stress including, among others, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence. The purpose of this study is to analyze how emotional intelligence and perceived self-efficacy affect student stress. In order to show this influence, two complementary methodologies are implemented: the structural equation models (SEMs) and the comparative qualitative analysis (QCA). A total of 477 students (85% of women) from a private University of Valencia participated in the study, with ages ranging from 18 to 53 years old (M = 21.57, SD = 3.68). The assessment instruments used were as follows: Emotional Intelligence Scale (TMMS-24) to measure emotional intelligence; General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSS) to measure self-efficacy; and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to measure stress. The results in the SEM endorse the hypotheses that emotional clarity and self-efficacy are negatively related to stress and positively related to emotional attention (EA), explaining 25% of the variance. The QCA results show that none of the variables is a necessary condition for inducing stress. Nevertheless, different combinations of these variables are sufficient conditions to explain 35% of the high stress levels. The most important combination over high stress levels seems to be the interaction between high levels of EA and low levels of self-efficacy. Regarding the low levels of perceived stress, there are sufficient conditions to explain 50% of them. Mainly, the most important interaction is between low levels of self-efficacy and low levels of EA. The comparison of both methodologies enables the broadening of new horizons at the methodological level applicable to different contexts.

Are Trait Emotional Competencies and Heart Rate Variability Linked to Mental Health of Coronary Heart Disease Patients?

PURPOSE

Depression and anxiety have been extensively associated with adverse outcomes in coronary heart disease patients. However, psychological and physiological processes underlying the persistence of these troubles in coronary heart disease patients attending cardiac rehabilitation are poorly investigated. Trait emotional competencies and heart rate variability could be some of these processes. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the predictive value of trait emotional competencies and heart rate variability on depression and anxiety symptoms persistence in coronary heart disease patients.

METHODS

Eighty-four patients who recently presented a myocardial infarction were evaluated at the beginning of cardiac rehabilitation. Forty-two patients continued their rehabilitation program and were then assessed three months later. They completed the Profile of Emotional Competence as well as the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and underwent a 5-minute resting heart rate variability measure.

RESULTS

Low trait emotional competencies score predicted depression symptoms persistence, but unexpectedly, high trait emotional competencies score was also associated with withdrawal from cardiac rehabilitation. Contrary to our expectations, heart rate variability did not predict depression or anxiety symptoms persistence and was not associated with trait emotional competencies.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to report an association between trait emotional competencies and depression symptoms persistence in coronary heart disease patients. However, heart rate variability was not associated with either depression or anxiety supporting the idea of mixed literature and highlighting the need of future research.

The Relationships Among Testosterone, Cortisol, and Cognitive Control of Emotion as Underlying Mechanisms of Emotional Intelligence of 10- to 11-Year-Old Children

Emotional intelligence is an important factor contributing to social adaptation. The current study investigated how salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) levels, cognitive control of emotional conflict processing were associated with children's emotional intelligence (EI). Thirty-four 10- to 11-year-old children were enrolled and instructed to complete questionnaires on emotional intelligence as well as empirical tasks of emotional flanker and Stroop with event-related potential (ERP) recordings. Saliva collection took place on another day without ERP tasks. Results showed that lower T and C levels were associated with higher accuracy in emotional conflict tasks, as well as better emotional intelligence (managing self emotions). In the Stroop task, higher T/C ratios were associated with greater congruency effects of N2 latencies, and lower cortisol levels correlated with stronger slow potential activities (SP). For girls, the correlation between cortisol and emotional utilization was mediated by the SP amplitudes on fearful conflicts in the flanker task (95% CI: -8.64, -0.54, p < 0.050). In conclusion, the current study found the relationship between cortisol and an emotional intelligence ability, emotional utilization, might be mediated by brain activities during emotional conflict resolution processing (SP responses) in preadolescent girls. Future studies could further investigate testosterone-cortisol interaction and its relation with cognitive control of emotion as underlying mechanisms of emotional intelligence.

Are Effect Sizes in Emotional Intelligence Field Declining? A Meta-Meta Analysis

Since Salovey and Mayer (1990) first proposed the emotional intelligence (EI) as an independent intellectual component, research on the field of EI has developed rapidly. A large number of studies have shown that emotional intelligence is an important predictor that affects our lives, such as job performance, mental health, and so on. However, we observed that some effect sizes in the field of emotional intelligence decreased over time. Is this kind of decline simply due to random errors, or is emotional intelligence field undergoing decline effects? The present study analyzed 484 effect sizes based on the responses of 102,579 participants from nine meta-analyses in emotional intelligence field to estimate the average effect size, and evidence for decline effects in this field. This study finds that the average effect size of EI is 0.244 (p < 0.001), and the average effect size of mixed EI (r = 0.272, p < 0.001) is significantly higher than that of ability EI (r = 0.160, p < 0.001). Effect sizes in the field of EI decrease with time, there are decline effects in emotional intelligence field. Furthermore, there are also decline effects in mixed EI field. However, we find no evidence that there are decline effects in ability EI field. Base on the significant average effect size of mixed EI, the most likely explanation for the decline in effect sizes is that effect sizes of mixed EI in the original studies were overestimate. This study considers decline effects in mixed EI research as inflated decline effects. To sum up, decline effects in the field of emotional intelligence are mainly due to the choice of emotional intelligence model and measurement method.

The Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Maintenance of Depression Symptoms and Loneliness Among Children

Identifying factors that predict the maintenance of depression and loneliness in children is important for intervention design. Whilst emotional intelligence (EI) has been identified as a predictor of mental health, research examining how both trait and ability EI contribute to long-term patterns of symptomatology in children is markedly absent. We examined the impact of both TEI and AEI on the maintenance of loneliness and depressive symptoms over 1 year in children aged 9-11 years. Two hundred and thirteen children (54% male) completed the TEIQue-CF and the MSCEIT-YV at the first time point of the study, and the Child Depression Inventory and the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents at Time 1 and, again, 1 year later. Findings indicate that emotional skills (AEI) are important for predicting the maintenance of depressive symptoms and loneliness in children over 1 year; emotional self-competency (TEI) is less influential, only contributing to long-term loneliness in girls. Moreover, whilst deficiencies in the ability to perceive and understand emotions were predictive of prolonged symptomatology, so, too, were proficiencies in using emotion to facilitate thinking and emotion management. Those findings carry important implications for EI theory and future research. They also indicate that EI interventions tailored to groups of "at risk" school children may be useful for reducing specific profiles of internalizing symptoms. Programs targeting AEI skills may be universally helpful for reducing the likelihood that depressive symptoms and loneliness will be maintained over time in middle childhood; girls at risk for prolonged loneliness would additionally benefit from opportunities to bolster TEI.

The Role of Health Consciousness, Patient-Physician Trust, and Perceived Physician's Emotional Appraisal on Medical Adherence

Poor adherence to medical recommendations is a well-recognized catalyst for public health consequences worldwide. The literature highlights health consciousness as a likely antecedent to patient-physician trust, which in turn promotes medical adherence. Nevertheless, principles of patient-centered care suggest that patient perceptions of their doctor's appraisal of their emotions may influence the path between trust and medical adherence. Accordingly, this study tested the mediating role of patient-physician trust in the relation between health consciousness and medical adherence and assessed whether patient ratings of their doctor's appraisal of their own and their patients' emotions moderated the mediated relation. Data were collected via self-report questionnaires from two culturally and economically diverse countries: Bosnia-Herzegovina (N = 262) and the United States (N = 314). Participants were young, healthy adults who visited their primary care physician in the past year. The study employed confirmatory factor analysis, mediation, and moderated mediation analyses. The results indicate that health consciousness positively related to patient-physician trust, which was in turn related to higher medical adherence and which mediated 28% of the total effect of health consciousness. Nevertheless, among patients who rated their physicians to have low appraisal for their patients' emotions but high appraisal for their own emotions, the path from trust to adherence was not significant. These results highlight the importance of promoting health consciousness among young individuals, all while training practitioners to be attuned to their patients' emotions and circumstances above their own. However, additional findings indicate that the interrelation between doctors' emotional attributes and adherence is not necessarily one directional and warrants further investigation.

Does Emotional Intelligence Buffer the Effects of Acute Stress? A Systematic Review

People with higher levels of emotional intelligence (EI: adaptive emotional traits, skills, and abilities) typically achieve more positive life outcomes, such as psychological wellbeing, educational attainment, and job-related success. Although the underpinning mechanisms linking EI with those outcomes are largely unknown, it has been suggested that EI may work as a "stress buffer." Theoretically, when faced with a stressful situation, emotionally intelligent individuals should show a more adaptive response than those with low EI, such as reduced reactivity (less mood deterioration, less physiological arousal), and faster recovery once the threat has passed. A growing number of studies have begun to investigate that hypothesis in respect to EI measured as both an ability (AEI) and trait (TEI), but results are unclear. To test the "stress-buffering" function of EI, we systematically reviewed experimental studies that explored the relationship between both types of EI and acute stress reactivity or recovery. By searching four databases, we identified 45 eligible studies. Results indicated that EI was only adaptive in certain contexts, and that findings differed according to stressor type, and how EI was measured. In terms of stress reactivity, TEI related to less mood deterioration during sports-based stressors (e.g., competitions), physical discomfort (e.g., dental procedure), and cognitive stressors (e.g., memory tasks), but did not appear as helpful in other contexts (e.g., public speaking). Furthermore, effects of TEI on physiological stress responses, such as heart rate, were inconsistent. Effects of AEI on subjective and objective stress reactivity were often non-significant, with high levels detrimental in some cases. However, data suggest that both higher AEI and TEI relate to faster recovery from acute stress. In conclusion, results provide mixed support for the stress-buffering effect of EI. Limitations and quality of studies are also discussed. Findings could have implications for EI training programmes.

Development and Validation of Two Short Forms of the Managing the Emotions of Others (MEOS) Scale

The 58-item MEOS assesses managing the emotions of others, a component of trait emotional intelligence (EI). Managing another person's emotions can be used with the intention of helping the target but also in a strategically manipulative manner; the subscales of the MEOS cover both these aspects of emotion management. In order to allow researchers to access shorter versions of the MEOS for use in studies where administering the full-length scale is not feasible, two short forms of the MEOS with six (MEOS-SF) and four (MEOS-VSF) items per sub-scale were developed and validated. Study 1 used factor analysis of pre-existing MEOS item data to select items for the short forms and also compared the bivariate correlations of the MEOS, MEOS-SF and MEOS-VSF with personality and global trait EI. Study 2 examined the MEOS-SF and MEOS-VSF in two new samples (N = 394/226). The results from both studies showed that the short forms had good psychometric properties and associations similar to those of the full-length MEOS with personality, global trait EI, and other measures. The MEOS-SF and MEOS-VSF are hence suitable for use in contexts where a brief assessment of the full range of the domain of managing the emotions of others is required. The availability of short subscales assessing the manipulative facets of the MEOS is especially relevant to the emerging area of “dark side” trait EI research.