Disclosure and Exposure of Alcohol on Social Media and Later Alcohol Use: A Large-Scale Longitudinal Study

Drinking Buddies: The Importance of Proximal Norms in Emerging Adults' Alcohol-Related Private and Public Social Media Use

Exposure to alcohol posts on social media has been found to be associated with emerging adults' alcohol use. An important mechanism through which this association seems to occur are social norms. Thus far, however, research has not differentiated between proximal and distal norms and has not accounted for the private (e.g. Instagram private features, Snapchat) and public media outlets (e.g. Instagram public features) through which these norms might have been constructed. The results of our online survey among emerging adults (N = 789, Mage = 21.46, SDage = 1.88, 56.4% female), therefore, showed that exposure to alcohol posts on private SNS features in combination with descriptive proximal norms, instead of more public SNS features and distal norms, played an important role in emerging adults' alcohol use. As such, future research should focus more thoroughly on the interrelations between SNS private features and proximal normative perceptions and try to better understand on which social cues normative perceptions of proximal other's alcohol consumption are based.

The Effects of Alcohol-Related Social Media Content on Adolescents' Momentary Perceived Norms, Attitudes, and Drinking Intentions

Research has shown that exposure to alcohol posts on social media can shape adolescents' alcohol-related normative perceptions and attitudes, which in turn play a role in their drinking intentions. However, these studies focused on content in general, neglecting the variety of alcohol posts on social media. Furthermore, they were mostly cross-sectional and studied behaviors at one-time point, thus not considering within-person/daily (co-)fluctuations in exposure to alcohol posts and drinking cognitions. Therefore, this daily diary study among 275 Belgian adolescents (Mage = 15.83, SD = .88, 56.2% girls, 43% boys, 1 X) adds to the literature by examining how two types of alcohol posts (i.e. alcohol-focused vs. friend-focused) differently predict adolescents' normative perceptions (i.e. descriptive and injunctive), alcohol-related attitudes and intentions to drink, both on the between- and daily within-levels. The results showed that alcohol-focused posts but not friend-focused posts predicted adolescents' drinking cognitions (i.e. injunctive norms, descriptive norms, and attitudes) on the daily within-level. Descriptive norms and attitudes also predicted the intention to drink, on the between and daily within-level for attitudes but only on the daily within-level for norms. Overall, the results highlight that specific types of alcohol posts differently shape adolescents' daily drinking cognitions, thereby informing future interventions.

Adolescents' perceptions of alcohol portrayals in the media and their impact on cognitions and behaviors

OBJECTIVE

Exposure to alcohol in the media is pervasive and may influence adolescents' perceptions and use of alcohol. The purpose of this study was to better understand how adolescents perceive alcohol-related content in both entertainment and social media, with a focus on the valence of portrayals (i.e., positive, negative) and impacts on cognitions and behaviors.

METHOD

Participants were 40 high school students (60% female). Nine focus groups were conducted via videoconferencing, stratified by grade (9th/10th, 11th/12th) and gender. Transcripts were analyzed via template-style thematic analyses to identify themes.

RESULTS

Six themes were developed, including (a) some portrayals of alcohol may increase likelihood of using alcohol, (b) some portrayals of alcohol in the media can discourage drinking, (c) sometimes truly negative consequences of alcohol are portrayed positively or downplayed, (d) media portrayals of alcohol are perceived to be based in reality but are at times exaggerated, (e) adolescent and adult alcohol use is portrayed differently in entertainment media, and (f) the extent to which adolescents are influenced by the media may depend on their preexisting attitudes, beliefs, and education.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents have awareness of media portrayals of alcohol, both positive and negative, and their associated impacts. Findings highlight the need for much more work to understand the conditions under which, and for whom, exposure to different types of positive portrayals of alcohol in the media translate into positive expectancies about alcohol or drinking motives. Such work may ultimately inform intervention targets to reduce early initiation and/or risky drinking among adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Development and validation of the alcohol-related content poster prototype scale: Exploring the impact of social media prototypes on college students' drinking

BACKGROUND

Drinking is a public health concern among college students. Viewing and posting alcohol-related content (ARC) on social media may influence students' favorable prototypes of people who post, thereby impacting their drinking. This study created a measure to explore students' ARC poster prototypes. We validated our measure by examining the prototypes as mediators of the associations between viewing and posting ARC and drinking behaviors.

METHODS

Students (N = 8065) were asked to complete measures related to viewing and posting ARC, drinking behaviors, and adjectives that described their perceptions of the prototypical college student who posts ARC on social media.

RESULTS

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis yielded three prototypical images of students who post ARC on social media: hedonistic, despondent, and sociable. There were significant pathways between viewing and posting ARC and drinking. The sociable prototype emerged as a significant mediator of the association between ARC viewing and posting and drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the role of students' poster prototypes may be important for informing targeted interventions. Our results indicate that the underlying reason for increased drinking among students with greater ARC engagement is that they perceived other ARC viewers and posters as being more sociable. Future research may focus on modifying these perceptions.

Self-Reported versus Actual Alcohol-Related Communication on Instagram: Exploring the Gap

Numerous studies have highlighted the relation between drinking behavior and alcohol references on social media. However, most studies on substance-use-related social media effects rely on self-report data, and it remains unclear whether individuals can accurately report their online alcohol-related communication. This study contributes to this line of research by examining whether individuals accurately report their alcohol-related self-sharing behavior on social media and what factors contribute to a misestimation of this behavior. A sample of 149 Belgian college students (64.3% females, M_age = 21.33, SD = 1.49) participated in this study, who were asked survey questions on their general and alcohol-related social media use. In addition, all posts they shared on their Instagram profiles between April 1^st, 2019, and March 31^st, 2020, were captured and coded. The results indicated a positive association between the counted and self-reported frequencies of sharing alcohol posts on Instagram. However, most participants overestimated how often they shared this content. The perceived injunctive norms and sharing alcohol posts for entertainment motives were the only significant predictors of this overestimation. We conclude that this overestimation may be a result of subtle social desirability processes and a misremembrance of what has been shared.

Using social network methodology to examine the effects of exposure to alcohol-related social media content on alcohol use: A critical review

Peer social influence is a robust predictor of problematic drinking among young adults and adolescents; it is typically assessed by collecting nonspecific social network information (i.e., behaviors of peers globally) or specific social network information (i.e., behaviors of named friends). Socialization happens both in-person and online through social media. Exposure to alcohol-related social media content is consistently related to alcohol consumption in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies alike. Previous research has often not focused on who specifically is sharing the alcohol-related social media content with most examining effects of exposure to content posted by nonspecific network members (e.g., peers, friends) and individual alcohol consumption. The purpose of the current critical review is to describe how exposure to alcohol-related social media content is commonly measured and how including a specific social network assessment may explain more variance in alcohol use. The review found inconsistencies in the reference groups used when assessing frequency of exposure and found that specific modalities of content exposure were often not assessed. Of the 30 published studies reviewed, 15 used cross-sectional designs, which is regrettable considering that the composition of adolescent and young adult peer groups have been found to change over time possibly affecting the content viewed. Understanding factors which affect the relationship between exposure to alcohol-related social media content and individual alcohol use has implications for tailoring drinking interventions to address the unique social influence of social media content. Gaps in the literature are summarized and future directions for research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Social media use and alcohol consumption among students in Uganda: a cross sectional study

Background

Globally, alcohol use significantly contributes to the disease burden. Alcohol consumption in Uganda is related to several health consequences among young people, including university students. Social media is commonly used by students to share academic information and create social networks. Among young people in high-income countries, previous studies have also shown that social media use can have negative health outcomes related to alcohol use, and associated problems. To date, similar studies conducted in low- and middle-income countries are largely missing.

Objective

To assess the prevalence of and associations between social media use and alcohol consumption among university students in Uganda.

Method

This was a cross-sectional study among 996 undergraduate students at Makerere University. Data were collected using a questionnaire. Alcohol use in the previous 12 months was the dependent variable. The independent variable was social media use categorised as general use, alcohol-related use, and social media lurking/passive participation. Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess associations. Crude and adjusted odds ratios were reported.

Results

Nearly all students (97%) used social media and 39% reported alcohol use. Regular alcohol use was significantly associated with moderate (OR = 2.22, CI: 1.35–3.66) and high level general social media use (OR = 2.45, CI: 1.43–4.20). Regular alcohol use was also associated with alcohol-related social media (OR = 6.46, CI: 4.04–10.30), and alcohol-related lurking (OR = 4.59, CI: 2.84–7.39). Similar, although weaker associations were identified for occasional alcohol use.

Conclusions

Approximately four in ten students reported alcohol use in the past year, and almost all students used social media. Alcohol-related social media use was associated with occasional and regular alcohol use, with stronger associations for regular use. These findings may guide further research and present an opportunity for potential alcohol control interventions to improve health among young populations in low- and middle-income countries.

A Parent-Based Intervention for Reducing High-risk Social Media Cognitions, Alcohol Use, and Negative Consequences Among Adolescents: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of adolescent alcohol use continues to be a public health concern. Although adolescents spend an increasing amount of time with their friends, parents remain an important source of support and continue to play a key role in the lives of their adolescents. Extensive research in this area has resulted in parent-based intervention (PBI) efforts to prevent or reduce adolescent alcohol use. However, one major limitation of PBIs is that they do not currently consider the large role that social media plays in adolescents' lives and in relation to their alcohol use. We will add to the literature by developing and refining a web-based PBI designed to reduce both high-risk social media cognitions and alcohol use among adolescents.

OBJECTIVE

The central goal of the proposed study is to develop, refine, and pilot a web-based PBI to reduce both high-risk social media cognitions and alcohol use among adolescents.

METHODS

A total of 100 parent-teen dyads will be randomly assigned to one of the following 2 conditions: intervention or control. Parents in the intervention group will be given access to the web-based PBI and suggestions for working through the PBI modules with their teens. The parent-teen dyads will fill out 3 questionnaires: a baseline questionnaire, 1-month questionnaire, and 6-month questionnaire.

RESULTS

Recruitment and enrollment will begin in August 2022. Upon completion of the intervention trial, we will examine the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effect sizes of the newly developed web-based PBI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has the potential to open doors for future studies examining the clinical implications of an efficacious web-based PBI to reduce alcohol use and high-risk cognitions about alcohol displays on social media.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04333966; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04333966.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/38543.

Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory

We propose an adaptation of Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory, neo-ecological theory. As bioecological theory was developed in the 20th century, it requires significant modifications to reflect some of the most ubiquitous contexts in which adolescents learn, play, and grow-the technological and virtual ones. Although several scholars have developed laudable theories related to youth development in virtual contexts, the field lacks an overarching theory to address the intersection of development and technology. In developing neo-ecological theory, we hold true to the tenets of bioecological theory, but suggest key modifications to reflect our technologized world. We delineate a key alteration to the microsystem, namely the existence of two types of microsystems-physical and virtual. In addition, we emphasize the importance of macrosystemic influences (i.e., the influences of culture and within-society subcultural variation) in understanding development in the digital age. The implications of these modifications cascade across the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model; proximal processes, person characteristics, context, and time are all reexamined. In the digital age, virtual microsystems are central contexts in which youth engage in proximal processes. As such, we believe that all scholars of development, regardless of their specific research interests, should consider the ways digital contexts influence their outcomes of interest. Without it, practitioners, policy makers, parents, and technologists will be in the dark about how best to support adolescents.

Drinking and Social Media Use Among Workers During COVID-19 Pandemic Restrictions: Five-Wave Longitudinal Study

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic restricted everyday life during 2020-2021 for many people worldwide. It also affected alcohol consumption patterns and leisure activities, including the use of social media.

Objective

The aim of this study was to analyze whether social media use predicts increased risky drinking over time and during the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions in particular.

Methods

This 5-wave longitudinal survey study, based on a nationwide sample of workers, was conducted in Finland in 2019-2021. A total of 840 respondents (male: 473/840, 56.31%; age range 18-64 years; mean age 43.90, SD 11.14 years) participated in all 5 waves of the study. The outcome variable was risky drinking, measured using the 3-item Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C). Multilevel linear hybrid modeling enabled the investigation of both within-person and between-person effects. Predictors included social media use and communication, involvement in social media identity bubbles, psychological distress, and remote working. Controls included sociodemographic factors and the Big Five personality traits.

Results

Increased involvement in social media identity bubbles was associated with an increase in risky drinking behavior. Of all social media platforms examined, online dating app use was associated with riskier use of alcohol over time during the COVID-19 crisis. Daily social media communication with colleagues about nonwork topics was associated with risky drinking. Female gender, younger age, university education, nonindustrial occupational field, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism were associated with lower levels of risky drinking.

Conclusions

Social media use during a pandemic carries some risks for alcohol consumption. Involvement in social media identity bubbles and online dating are risk factors for excessive drinking during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Causal Effects of Alcohol-Related Facebook Posts on Drinking Behavior: Longitudinal Experimental Study

Background

Adolescents and young adults frequently post alcohol-related content (ie, alcoholposts) on social media. This is problematic because both social norms theory and social learning theory suggest that viewing alcoholposts of peers could increase drinking behavior. It is therefore paramount to understand the effects of exposure to alcoholposts on viewers.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the causal effects of exposure to alcoholposts on alcohol consumption by using a rigorous design.

Methods

We conducted a 6-week longitudinal study during which alcoholposts were measured by a newly developed app that copied Facebook posts shared by participants (n=281) to a new social media environment. In addition, daily questionnaires assessed alcohol use. Effects of natural alcoholposts (ie, posted by the participants) were assessed in phase 1, and effects of experimental posts (ie, posted by fake participants) were explored in phase 2.

Results

Results showed that natural alcoholposts increased the occurrence and quantity of drinking the following day. That is, exposure to a single additional alcoholpost increased the log odds of drinking the next day by 0.27 (b=.27, credible interval [CI] .18 to .35). Furthermore, the number of natural alcoholposts had a positive (predictive) effect on the number of glasses drunk the next day (b=.21, CI .14 to .29). In phase 2 when experimental posts were also present, these effects decreased. Experimental posts themselves had hardly any effects.

Conclusions

This study illustrates clear and direct effects of exposure to alcoholposts on next-day alcohol consumption and suggests that alcoholposts represent an important societal problem that interventions need to address.

Integrating social media inspired features into a personalized normative feedback intervention combats social media-based alcohol influence

BACKROUND

Research suggests that the social media platforms popular on college campuses may reflect, reinforce, and even exacerbate heavy drinking practices among students. The present study was designed to directly examine: (1) whether exposure to alcohol-related content on social media diminishes the efficacy of a traditional web-based personalized normative feedback (PNF) alcohol intervention among first-year drinkers; and (2) if social media inspired features and digital game mechanics can be integrated into a PNF intervention to combat social media-based alcohol influence and increase efficacy.

METHOD

Alcohol experienced first-year college students (N = 223) completed a pre-survey that assessed exposure to alcohol-related content and social media and were randomized to 1 of 3 web-based alcohol PNF conditions (traditional, gamified only, or social media inspired gamified). One month later, participants' alcohol consumption was reassessed.

RESULTS

Among participants who received traditional PNF, social media-based alcohol exposure interacted with pre-intervention drinking such that traditional PNF was less effective in reducing drinking among heavier drinkers reporting greater exposure to alcohol-related social media content. Further, when regression models compared the efficacy of all three conditions, the social media inspired gamified PNF condition was significantly more effective in reducing drinking than was traditional PNF among moderate and heavy drinkers reporting greater exposure to alcohol on social media.

CONCLUSION

Although additional research is needed, these findings suggest that representing the population of students on whom normative statistics are based with social media-like user avatars and profiles may enhance the degree to which alcohol PNF is relatable and believable among high-risk students.

An examination of the prospective associations between objectively assessed exposure to alcohol-related Instagram content, alcohol-specific cognitions, and first-year college drinking

Previous research suggests that exposure to alcohol-related content on social media sites (SMSs) may inflate perceptions of drinking norms, thereby increasing drinking among college students and potentially undermining popular social norms-based alcohol interventions. However, prior research on exposure has used subjective measures of alcohol exposure and has focused mostly on Facebook. The current study focused on Instagram, a popular SMS among college students, and utilized objective time tracking and newsfeed sampling methods to rigorously examine the prospective relationship between exposure to alcohol-related Instagram content (ARIC), alcohol cognitions, and drinking. Participants were 309 matriculating college students (Mage = 18.1, SD = 0.26; 62.1% female; 46.9% White/Caucasian; 17.5% Hispanic) who had their Instagram use tracked and newsfeeds sampled via a macro several times during the transition into college (August & September), and completed a baseline survey and two follow-up surveys. A sequential mediation model examined theoretically derived pathways between objective ARIC exposure and alcohol use. Results revealed that objective ARIC exposure during the transition to college was positively associated with drinking at the end of the first year of college, and subjective frequency of ARIC exposure mediated this relationship between objective ARIC exposure and later drinking. Subjective frequency of ARIC exposure also mediated the association between objective ARIC exposure and perceptions of descriptive norms, which, in turn, predicted later drinking. These findings illustrate that greater objective ARIC exposure during the transition into college may increase risky drinking over the first year via increased subjective frequency of ARIC and elevated perceptions of drinking norms. Priority directions for future research are discussed and several novel ways in which social norms-based interventions for first-year students may be enhanced to better combat ARIC-related influences are introduced.

Posting Alcohol-Related Content and Texting Under the Influence Among Hispanic College Students

Social media use and texting among college students often coincide with drinking. The present study investigated the associations between monthly alcohol use, social media habits, sharing alcohol references, and drunk texting among Hispanic college students. Participants (n = 620, 71.6% female; Mage = 21.07 years, SD = 3.60) completed an online survey containing: demographics, drug use frequency, Sharing of Alcohol-Related Content on Social Media Sites Scale (SARC), Texting Under the Influence Scale, Strategic Self Presentation Scale, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, and iPhone Screen Time. Bivariate correlations assessed relationships between all variables. Six logistic regressions assessed subscales of the SARC, and a linear regression assessed the Texting Under the Influence Scale. Almost 15% of participants met criteria for social media addiction, almost 40% reported ever sharing alcohol posts, and approximately 20% reported drunk texting at least once per month. Participants with iPhones averaged 16.84 weekly hours on social media (based on "screen time"). Frequently posting references of drinking alone was associated with more time on social media, higher social media addiction, and greater public sharing of alcohol content. Conversely, posting references of drinking at social gatherings was associated with privately sharing alcohol references and increased social media addiction. Drunk texting was related to increased age, greater Instagram use, decreased Facebook use, and privately sharing alcohol posts. Findings suggest patterns of drinking and sharing alcohol-related content to inform health promotion efforts, especially while many during COVID-19 are heightening use of alcohol and social media.

Temporal, Sex-Specific, Social Media-Based Alcohol Influences during the Transition to College

The transition to college is an important developmental phase, usually met with increased social desirability, access to alcohol, and new peer groups. Recently, research has utilized social media as a predictor of events during college, but few have assessed how social media can influence alcohol use during the transition to college. Methods: Participants (N = 320) were recruited prior to entering their first year of college. Participants were 18 years old, 60.7% were women, with 46.3% identifying as White, 16.5% Hispanic, 14.9% Asian, 9.5% Black, and 7.6% other. Each participant was assessed three times: prior to matriculation, first semester, and second semester of their freshman year. We assessed the effect of exposure to alcohol content via social media on long-term trajectories of alcohol use. We also assessed self-reported sex as a moderator. Results: Exposure to alcohol content (over and above one's own posting of alcohol content) was associated with greater frequency of drinking during the transition to college. In the multi-group model, exposure to alcohol content was associated with greater drinking prior to matriculation for men. However, for women, exposure to alcohol content was associated with greater alcohol use in the first semester of college. Conclusion: Our results indicate exposure to alcohol-related media content is a strong predictor, over and above one's own positing, of increased drinking, and this effect varies by sex and point in time. Our results lend support for more tailored and time-specific prevention programming for incoming freshmen that should integrate social media normative feedback.

Posting Post-Blackout: A Qualitative Examination of the Positive and Negative Valence of Tweets Posted after "Blackout" Drinking

Alcohol-induced memory loss (i.e., blackout) is a consequence of drinking that is both common and associated with additional negative outcomes. The goal of the present study was to use publicly available Twitter data to better understand cognitions and emotions following blackouts. Tweets containing key terms (e.g., "black out") were collected over 4 days in 2018. Using NVivo software, we coded all post-blackout Tweets for valence (positive, negative, neutral). Within each valence category, we reviewed Tweets to identify themes. Among Tweets coded with a positive valence, themes included pride in blacking out, pride in ability to function despite blackouts, blackouts as a shared social experience, and overall positive views of a drinking experience despite blackouts. Among Tweets coded with a negative valence, themes included the experience of other negative consequences on blackout nights, blackouts as unexpected/unplanned, blackouts as motivator of change, and blackout-related negative emotions. Additionally, Tweeters expressed pride in avoiding blackouts during drinking events. Findings provide insight into why not all individuals describe blackouts negatively, by analyzing specific statements made in a public forum following a blackout. Such insight may inform interventions targeting those who report this risky outcome of drinking, including those that could be delivered via social media.

Lesbians' use of popular social media sites is associated with perceived drinking norms & interest in receiving personalized normative feedback on alcohol use

Alcohol-related problems disproportionately impact sexual minority women. Recent research suggests that lesbian-identified women overestimate peer drinking norms and therefore, personalized normative feedback (PNF) may be an appropriate and efficacious intervention strategy for reducing alcohol-related risks in this population. To inform the development and packaging of such interventions, this study examines lesbians' use of the popular social media sites Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter in relation to alcohol consumption, perceptions of peer drinking norms, confidence in normative perceptions, and interest in receiving alcohol PNF. Findings suggest that the lesbians who are most likely to benefit from a PNF alcohol intervention may also be the most readily reached via social media sites. Alcohol interventions that both recruit and deliver PNF via widely used social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram represent a promising and cost-effective strategy to reduce heavy drinking among lesbians.

#drunktwitter: Examining the relations between alcohol-related Twitter content and alcohol willingness and use among underage young adults

PURPOSE

Despite the importance of social networking sites on young adult alcohol use, few studies have examined Twitter as a conduit for sharing drinking behavior. However, this work generally uses random samples of tweets and thus cannot determine the extent to which Tweets correspond with self-reported drinking cognitions or behaviors. The primary aims of the present study were to (1) document basic patterns of alcohol-related Twitter activity in a subsample of young adult drinkers, and (2) examine whether willingness to drink, alcohol use, and negative consequences are associated with alcohol-related tweeting behavior.

METHODS

186 young adults age 18-20 completed an online survey and provided Twitter handle information. From these participants, a random sample of 5000 Tweets was coded by a trained team to determine whether tweets were related to alcohol use or not. Ordinary least squares regression analyses were conducted to determine whether the proportion of alcohol-related Tweets is associated with self-reported alcohol use willingness, behaviors, and negative consequences.

RESULTS

Results indicated that not only are alcohol-related tweets common among young adults, but that the proportion of one's overall tweets that are related to alcohol is significantly associated with willingness to drink, alcohol use, and negative consequences.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study are an important step to understanding how digital behavior (e.g., posting about alcohol on Twitter) is related to an individual's self-reported drinking cognitions, alcohol use, and negative consequences and has implications for the way Twitter data can be used for public health surveillance and interventions.

Prevalence and correlates of stimulant and depressant pharmacological cognitive enhancement among Norwegian students

AIMS

To assess the prevalence and factors associated with stimulant and depressant pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) drug use among Norwegian students.

DESIGN

In the first wave (T1), 28,553 students were invited to participate, of whom 9370 (32.8%) responded and completed the survey (mean age = 24.9 years, 63.5% female). One year later (T2) those who had responded to some items at T1 were invited to participate in a follow-up survey, where 4783 (47.2%) responded and completed the survey (mean age = 24.8 years, 64.8% female).

RESULTS

Lifetime prevalence of stimulant PCE drug use was 2.1% at T1 and 3.6% at T2. The lifetime prevalence of depressant PCE drug use was 1.5% at T1 and 3.3% at T2. Stimulant PCE drug use at T2 was predicted by low scores on agreeableness and anxiety, high scores on intellect/openness, and alcohol use, and stimulant and depressant PCE drug use at T1; while depressant PCE drug use at T2 was predicted by low scores on extroversion, high scores on conscientiousness, intellect/openness, and anxiety, and stimulant and depressant PCE drug use at T1.

CONCLUSIONS

The rates of stimulant and depressant PCE drug use increased from T1 to T2. Pharmacological cognitive enhancement drug use may be explained by a combination of a motivation for improving academic achievements and a general inclination towards substance use. The current results may suggest that stimulant PCE drug users are more antisocial and indifferent to rules, while depressant PCE drug users are more motivated by coping with stress.