Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men? A Critical Review of Congruity Models of Gender Discrimination

Female Attendings in University Clinics of Surgery in Germany: A Scoping Analysis of an Ongoing Disparity

INTRODUCTION

 Gender-based discrimination, particularly in healthcare, affects women's roles and opportunities, including in surgery where they remain underrepresented in leadership positions. The extent to which such discrimination is prevalent in attending positions is unclear.

METHODS

 The publicly available records of 48 universities and university-associated hospitals in Germany were extracted to quantify gender ratios among attending surgeons and head surgeons in the fields of visceral, vascular, cardiac, thoracic, pediatric, orofacial, neuro-, trauma, and plastic surgery. Statistical analysis, including Chi-Square tests and Student's t-test, was used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

 Among the 367 department heads, 353 (96.2%) were male and 14 (3.8%) were female. Among the 2,366 attendings, 1,854 (78.4%) were men and 512 (21.6%) were women. These differences were significant (χ²=64.95, p<0.001, odds ratio=0.14, 95% confidence interval=0.08-0.25). Departments being led by a female department head were not more likely to employ female attendings (χ²=0.379, p=0.538, odds ratio=1.17, 95% confidence interval=0.70-1.96).

CONCLUSION

 German surgical departments in University Hospitals have significant gender disparities, with women underrepresented at higher levels. This may negatively affect patient outcomes. To tackle the problem, further research is needed to fully understand the issue.

The Interplay of Strength and Content of Women's Gender Identity, Ambivalent Sexism Targeted at Men, and Attitudes Toward Gender Role Subtypes

In this on-line study of adult women (N = 145), we performed a series of moderation analyses, including women's self-reported gender in-group identification as moderator, their traditional/progressive identity contents as predictors, ambivalent sexism targeted at men and attitudes toward male and female conforming and non-conforming gender roles as outcome variables. We found that both traditional and progressive identity contents were significant predictors of benevolent sexism but did not predict hostile sexism toward men. Moreover, traditional identity contents predicted more negative evaluations of both male and female gender non-conforming roles, while progressive identity contents predicted more positive evaluations of both male and female gender non-conforming roles. The results have also indicated that the less a woman identifies with her gender in-group while having highly traditional identity contents, the lower she evaluates gender non-conforming roles of other women. The present study adds to the existing research on the links between women's gender identity and perceptions of the opposite sex, as well as their evaluations of various gender roles of men and women.

Workplace gender discrimination in the nursing workforce-An integrative review

AIM

To critically synthesise the literature that explores the experiences of workplace gender discrimination from the perspective of registered nurses.

DESIGN

Integrative review.

REVIEW METHODS

Primary research articles reporting on the experience of workplace gender discrimination towards registered nurses in any setting were eligible for inclusion. Studies were critically appraised for methodological quality using a modified Critical Appraisal Skills Program list. The six phases of thematic analysis proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006) were used to guide the analysis. Data were extracted and coded, and themes were identified according to the review aims and significant findings of each study.

DATA SOURCES

CINAHL, MEDLINE, SCOPUS, Cochrane Library, published between January 2012 and June 2022.

RESULTS

Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria. Major themes identified were (1) career progression, (2) career interruption, (3) positioning of men in nursing and (4) positioning of women in nursing.

CONCLUSION

This review shows that both men and women in nursing experience workplace gender discrimination; however, the forms and consequences of this discrimination differ substantially by gender.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION

It is important that the pursuit of greater numerical representation of men in nursing does not result in further reinforcing patriarchal advantage. Professional development for nurse leaders in managing gender issues is recommended.

IMPACT

This integrative review presents current issues on workplace gender discrimination for men and women in nursing. The findings suggest gender roles and norms have an effect on the careers of both men and women in nursing. The time has come to alter restrictive gender norms and to challenge notions of hegemonic masculinity and femininity.

REPORTING METHOD

We have adhered to relevant EQUATOR guidelines-PRISMA.

NO PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

For this literature review on workplace gender discrimination for registered nurses, we did not engage members of the patient population, nor the general public.

Gender equity in the scientific nursing journals indexed in Journal Citation Reports: A cross-sectional study

Background

Scientific activity has been connected to the proven inequality between women and men. To examine the state of gender equality in nursing research by analyzing the representation of male and female as editors and as authors of articles published in scientific journals.

Method

A cross-sectional study was carried out between September-2019 and May-2020. All the scientific publications published in 115 nursing journals indexed in the Journal Citation Reports in the years 2008, 2013, and 2017 were chosen as analysis units. The main variables studied were gender of the “journal editor”; gender of the “first author”, “last author”, “corresponding author”, and “first author in funded articles”. Descriptive and inferential analysis was performed.

Results

The proportion of male editors in 2008, 2013, and 2017 was 23.3, 19, and 18.5% respectively, with a male/female ratio of 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5. Male editors are mainly found in the journals of the first quartile (Q1 = 33.8%, ratio1:2), compared to the journals of the fourth quartile (Q4 = 6.6%, ratio1:14), p &lt; 0.01. The male authorship position was “last author” (30.9%, ratio1:2), “corresponding author” (23.3%, ratio 1:3), “first author” (22.1%, ratio 1:4) and “first author in funded articles” (21.8%, ratio 1:4). Furthermore, in 19.5%, of the articles there were more male authors. The percentage of articles with male authorship increased from 2008 to 2017, “first author” (21.1–23.4%; p &lt; 0.01), “last author” (30.0–31.1%; p = 0.22), “corresponding author” (22.5–24.2; p = 0.01), and “first author in funded articles” (18.1–25.9%; p &lt; 0.001).

Conclusions

Men are over-represented in the editor role in the most prestigious nursing journals. There are a higher proportion of male authors in the main positions of authorship.

Discrimination and insomnia: Examining depressive symptoms and nicotine withdrawal through a serial mediation model in a sample of smokers

Insomnia is a common sleep disorder associated with poor health outcomes. Individuals from racially underrepresented groups as well as women tend to report more severe insomnia symptoms, and frequent experiences of discrimination have been found to drive such disparities. Smokers commonly experience sleep problems since nicotine can alter the sleep-wake cycle. Discrimination is associated with increased nicotine dependence, and such discrimination may also intensify tobacco withdrawal, specifically mood and cognitive-related aspects of withdrawal. The potential impact of discrimination on withdrawal symptoms and related mood symptoms like depression may lead to increases in insomnia symptoms. However, no studies to date have evaluated the indirect association of discrimination with insomnia severity through nicotine withdrawal and depressive symptoms. Therefore, this cross-sectional survey of n = 110 non-Hispanic Black and White current smokers (48.2 % Black, 69.1 % women) investigated these associations through a serial mediation model. Controlling for race, gender, nicotine dependence levels, and income, multivariate analyses supported a significant indirect effect of discrimination on insomnia severity through depressive symptoms. Analyses supported the hypothesized serial mediation model whereby discrimination is positively associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn are linked to more severe nicotine withdrawal, leading to greater insomnia severity. Smokers encountering frequent experiences of discrimination might be at increased risk of suffering insomnia as a result of their increased depressive and withdrawal symptoms. Future work is necessary to understand the role of depressive symptoms in these associations as well as possible implications for smoking relapse and success of smoking cessation programs.

Visiones sobre el género y el envejecimiento en hombres y mujeres trabajadores en Colombia

Esta investigación evaluó creencias sobre el género (sexismo benevolente y hostil) y el envejecimiento (estereotipos positivos y negativos), experiencias de acoso laboral y sexual y de edadismo en el trabajo, así como las asociaciones entre estas, en una muestra de hombres y mujeres colombianos de 18-30 años (M = 25.3, DE =3.26), 31-45 (M = 37.6, DE = 4.44) y 45-75 (M = 53.56, DE = 5.8), mediante un cuestionario de autorreporte con escalas validadas o adaptadas para el contexto colombiano. Mediante varios ANOVA, evaluamos diferencias en creencias sobre género y el envejecimiento y en experiencias de acoso y discriminación, en función del sexo y grupo de edad. Para valorar las asociaciones entre creencias y experiencias utilizamos análisis de regresión. Hallazgos estadísticamente significativos sugieren que los hombres reportan mayor sexismo en general, aunque en ambos sexos prevalece el sexismo hostil sobre el benevolente. Los mayores de 30 años reportaron más estereotipos positivos del envejecimiento que los más jóvenes; las mujeres jóvenes, más experiencias de acoso sexual, pero las mayores, más acoso laboral. Adicionalmente, los estereotipos positivos del envejecimiento podrían proteger frente al acoso en el trabajo. Las creencias sobre el género y la edad impactan diferencialmente a hombres y mujeres de diferentes grupos etarios.

Conditional Parochial Vicarious Ostracism: Gender Collective Narcissism Predicts Distress at the Exclusion of the Gender Ingroup in Women and Men

Three experiments (two pre-registered) tested whether gender collective narcissism (i.e., a belief that one’s gender ingroup’s exceptionality is not sufficiently recognized by others) predicts parochial vicarious ostracism (i.e., feeling ostracized and distressed while recognizing the gender ingroup’s exclusion, but not when recognizing the exclusion of the gender outgroup). In all studies (overall N = 1480), gender collective narcissism was positively associated with distress among women who witnessed the exclusion of women, but not among men who witnessed the exclusion of women. In Study 3, gender collective narcissism was positively associated with distress among men who witnessed the exclusion of men, but not among women who witnessed the exclusion of men. These findings help explain why men do not universally feel distressed by the discrimination of women and why some women may mobilize to challenge gender discrimination.

Validity and reliability of the gender equity scale in nursing education

Equity is an emerging issue across all sectors of society, and one of the frequently raised concerns in nursing education is gender inequity. An accurate assessment appears to be a key component in creating an environment of gender equity in nursing education. This study aimed to develop a scale of gender equity in nursing education and establish its validity and reliability. In total, 341 senior nursing students participated in the psychometric evaluation of the Gender Equity Scale in Nursing Education. This psychometric evaluation revealed that the 4-subdomain (personal experience of gender inequity, perceptions of gender roles, gender discrimination, and gender biases in class), 23-item measure possesses both good reliability and validity, as well as a good level of internal consistency. The Gender Equity Scale in Nursing Education was developed as a self-report questionnaire for both female and male students and considers gender role stereotypes, gender-biased educational climates, gender discrimination, and gender inequity in nursing education.

Experiences of Gender Discrimination and Sexual Harassment Among Residents in General Surgery Programs Across the US

Importance

Mistreatment is a common experience among surgical residents and is associated with burnout. Women have been found to experience mistreatment at higher rates than men. Further characterization of surgical residents' experiences with gender discrimination and sexual harassment may inform solutions.

Objective

To describe the types, sources, and factors associated with (1) discrimination based on gender, gender identity, or sexual orientation and (2) sexual harassment experienced by residents in general surgery programs across the US.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional national survey study was conducted after the 2019 American Board of Surgery In-Training Examination (ABSITE). The survey asked respondents about their experiences with gender discrimination and sexual harassment during the academic year starting July 1, 2018, through the testing date in January 2019. All clinical residents enrolled in general surgery programs accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education were eligible.

Exposures

Specific types, sources, and factors associated with gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Primary outcome was the prevalence of gender discrimination and sexual harassment. Secondary outcomes included sources of discrimination and harassment and associated individual- and program-level factors using gender-stratified multivariable logistic regression models.

Results

The survey was administered to 8129 eligible residents; 6956 responded (85.6% response rate)from 301 general surgery programs. Of those, 6764 residents had gender data available (3968 [58.7%] were male and 2796 [41.3%] were female individuals). In total, 1878 of 2352 female residents (79.8%) vs 562 of 3288 male residents (17.1%) reported experiencing gender discrimination (P < .001), and 1026 of 2415 female residents (42.5%) vs 721 of 3360 male residents (21.5%) reported experiencing sexual harassment (P < .001). The most common type of gender discrimination was being mistaken for a nonphysician (1943 of 5640 residents [34.5%] overall; 1813 of 2352 female residents [77.1%]; 130 of 3288 male residents [4.0%]), with patients and/or families as the most frequent source. The most common form of sexual harassment was crude, demeaning, or explicit comments (1557 of 5775 residents [27.0%] overall; 901 of 2415 female residents [37.3%]; 656 of 3360 male residents [19.5%]); among female residents, the most common source of this harassment was patients and/or families, and among male residents, the most common source was coresidents and/or fellows. Among female residents, gender discrimination was associated with pregnancy (odds ratio [OR], 1.93; 95% CI, 1.03-3.62) and higher ABSITE scores (highest vs lowest quartile: OR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.14-2.43); among male residents, gender discrimination was associated with parenthood (OR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.31-2.27) and lower ABSITE scores (highest vs lowest quartile: OR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.43-0.76). Senior residents were more likely to report experiencing sexual harassment than interns (postgraduate years 4 and 5 vs postgraduate year 1: OR, 1.77 [95% CI, 1.40-2.24] among female residents; 1.31 [95% CI, 1.01-1.70] among male residents).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, gender discrimination and sexual harassment were common experiences among surgical residents and were frequently reported by women. These phenomena warrant multifaceted context-specific strategies for improvement.

Belief in sexism shift: Defining a new form of contemporary sexism and introducing the belief in sexism shift scale (BSS scale)

The belief that the target of sexism has shifted from women to men is gaining popularity. Yet despite its potential theoretical and practical importance, the belief that men are now the primary target of sexism has not been systematically defined nor has it been reliably measured. In this paper, we define the belief in sexism shift (BSS) and introduce a scale to measure it. We contend that BSS constitutes a new form of contemporary sexism characterized by the perception that anti-male discrimination is pervasive, that it now exceeds anti-female discrimination, and that it is caused by women's societal advancement. In four studies (N = 666), we develop and test a concise, one-dimensional, 15-item measure of BSS: the BSS scale. Our findings demonstrate that BSS is related to, yet distinct from other forms of sexism (traditional, modern, and ambivalent sexism). Moreover, our results show that the BSS scale is a stable and reliable measure of BSS across different samples, time, and participant gender. The BSS scale is also less susceptible to social desirability concerns than other sexism measures. In sum, the BSS scale can be a valuable tool to help understand a new and potentially growing type of sexism that may hinder women in unprecedented ways.

Gender discrimination in hiring: An experimental reexamination of the Swedish case

We estimated the degree of gender discrimination in Sweden across occupations using a correspondence study design. Our analysis of employer responses to more than 3,200 fictitious job applications across 15 occupations revealed that overall positive employer response rates were higher for women than men by almost 5 percentage points. We found that this gap was driven by employer responses in female-dominated occupations. Male applicants were about half as likely as female applicants to receive a positive employer response in female-dominated occupations. For male-dominated and mixed occupations we found no significant differences in positive employer responses between male and female applicants.

Perceived group discrimination based on one's gender and the gender gap in depression in Europe

BACKGROUND

Gender discrimination is one of the most significant psychosocial stressors. This study examined whether the relationship between perceived group discrimination against one's gender (PGD) and the gender gap depression varied by societal levels of gender inequality.

METHODS

The current study used data from three waves (2006, 2012 and 2014) of the European Social Survey and applied multilevel linear regression methods. We assessed depressive feelings through the eight-item version of the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. The sample contained 71,419 respondents living in 22 countries.

RESULTS

While only a small percentage of people were confronted with PGD, this group consistently reported more depressive feelings. PGD had a similar effect on the mental health of men and women, except for men in more gender-egalitarian societies. When confronted with PGD, the latter group reported more depressive feelings in comparison to men in more gender unequal societies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research found a strong association between PGD and depression. In addition, this relationship varied by societal levels of gender equality. More pronounced gender equality strengthened this relationship in men. Research that ignores this social context might, therefore, be limited in terms of generalization.

The Racialized and Gendered Workplace: Applying an Intersectional Lens to a Field Experiment on Hiring Discrimination in Five European Labor Markets

We draw on a field experiment conducted in five European countries to analyze hiring discrimination on the basis of gender and race. We adopt an intersectional perspective and relate existing theories on gender and racial discrimination to recent work on the gendered stereotype content of different races. We find that employers prefer hiring white women over men for female-typed jobs. By contrast, women of color do not have any advantage over men of the same race. Moreover, black and Middle Eastern men encounter the strongest racial discrimination in male-typed jobs, where it is possible that their stereotyped masculinity, made salient by the occupational context, is perceived as threatening. Overall, we argue that the employment chances of applicants of different gender and racial backgrounds are highly dependent on their perceived congruence (or lack thereof) with the feminine or masculine traits of the job they apply to.