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Briceño-Loaiza C, Fernández-Sanhueza B, Benavides-Silva C, Jimenez JY, Rubio AV, Ábalos P, Alegría-Morán RA. Spatial clusters, temporal behavior, and risk factors analysis of rabies in livestock in Ecuador. Prev Vet Med 2024; 226:106188. [PMID: 38513566 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Rabies, a globally distributed and highly lethal zoonotic neglected tropical disease, has a significant impact in South America. In Ecuador, animal rabies cases are primarily linked to livestock, and hematophagous bats play a crucial role in disease transmission. This study aims to identify temporal trends, spatial patterns, and risk factors for animal rabies in Ecuador between 2014 and 2019. Epidemiological survey reports from the official Animal Rabies Surveillance Program of the Phyto and Zoosanitary Regulation and Control Agency of Ecuador (AGROCALIDAD) were used. The Animal Rabies Surveillance Program from AGROCALIDAD consists of an official passive surveillance program that receives reports from farmers or individuals (both trained or untrained) who have observed animals with neurological clinical signs and lesions compatible with bat bites, or who have seen or captured bats on their farms or houses. Once this report is made, AGROCALIDAD personnel is sent for field inspection, having to confirm the suspicion of rabies based on farm conditions and compatibility of signs. AGROCALIDAD personnel collect samples from all suspicious animals, which are further processed and analyzed using the Direct Fluorescent Antibody (DFA) test for rabies confirmatory diagnosis. In this case, study data comprised 846 bovine farms (with intra-farm sample sizes ranging from 1 to 16 samples) located in different ecoregions of Ecuador; out of these, 397 (46.93%) farms tested positive for animal rabies, revealing six statistically significant spatial clusters. Among these clusters, three high-risk areas were identified in the southeast of Ecuador. Seasonality was confirmed by the Ljung-Box test for both the number of cases (p < 0.001) and the positivity rate (p < 0.001). The Pacific Coastal lowlands and Sierra regions showed a lower risk of positivity compared to Amazonia (OR = 0.529; 95% CI = 0.318 - 0.883; p = 0.015 and OR = 0.633; 95% CI = 0.410 - 0.977; p = 0.039, respectively). The breeding of non-bovine animal species demonstrated a lower risk of positivity to animal rabies when compared to bovine (OR = 0.145; 95% CI = 0.062 - 0.339; p < 0.001). Similarly, older animals exhibited a lower risk (OR = 0.974; 95% CI = 0.967 - 0.981; p < 0.001). Rainfall during the rainy season was also found to decrease the risk of positivity to animal rabies (OR = 0.996; 95% CI = 0.995 - 0.998; p < 0.001). This study underscores the significance of strengthening the national surveillance program for the prevention and control of animal rabies in Ecuador and other countries facing similar epidemiological, social, and geographical circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Briceño-Loaiza
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Agencia de Regulación y Control Fito y Zoosanitario (AGROCALIDAD), Ecuador; Carrera de Agroecología, Instituto Superior Tecnológico Juan Montalvo, Loja, Ecuador
| | - Bastián Fernández-Sanhueza
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Recursos Naturales y Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile
| | - César Benavides-Silva
- Facultad de Historia, Geografía y Ciencia Política, Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica, Chile; Centro de Investigaciones Territoriales, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador
| | - José Yaguana Jimenez
- Carrera de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad Agropecuaria y de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador
| | - André V Rubio
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pedro Ábalos
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Raúl A Alegría-Morán
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Recursos Naturales y Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile.
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Neves JMM, Belo VS, Catita CMS, de Oliveira BFA, Horta MAP. Modeling of Human Rabies Cases in Brazil in Different Future Global Warming Scenarios. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:212. [PMID: 38397701 PMCID: PMC10888213 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21020212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Bat species have been observed to have the potential to expand their distribution in response to climate change, thereby influencing shifts in the spatial distribution and population dynamics of human rabies cases. In this study, we applied an ensemble niche modeling approach to project climatic suitability under different future global warming scenarios for human rabies cases in Brazil, and assessed the impact on the probability of emergence of new cases. We obtained notification records of human rabies cases in all Brazilian cities from January 2001 to August 2023, as reported by the State and Municipal Health Departments. The current and future climate data were sourced from a digital repository on the WorldClim website. The future bioclimatic variables provided were downscaled climate projections from CMIP6 (a global model ensemble) and extracted from the regionalized climate model HadGEM3-GC31-LL for three future socioeconomic scenarios over four periods (2021-2100). Seven statistical algorithms (MAXENT, MARS, RF, FDA, CTA, GAM, and GLM) were selected for modeling human rabies. Temperature seasonality was the bioclimatic variable with the highest relative contribution to both current and future consensus models. Future scenario modeling for human rabies indicated a trend of changes in the areas of occurrence, maintaining the current pace of global warming, population growth, socioeconomic instability, and the loss of natural areas. In Brazil, there are areas with a higher likelihood of climatic factors contributing to the emergence of cases. When assessing future scenarios, a change in the local climatic suitability is observed that may lead to a reduction or increase in cases, depending on the region.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vinicius Silva Belo
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinopolis 36307-352, Brazil;
| | - Cristina Maria Souza Catita
- Department of Geographic Engineering, Geophysics and Energy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon 1649-004, Portugal;
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Hegewisch-Taylor J, Dreser A, Aragón-Gama AC, Moreno-Reynosa MA, Ramos Garcia C, Ruckert A, Labonté R. Analyzing One Health governance and implementation challenges in Mexico. Glob Public Health 2024; 19:2377259. [PMID: 39052951 DOI: 10.1080/17441692.2024.2377259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Establishing a robust One Health (OH) governance is essential for ensuring effective coordination and collaboration among human, animal, and environmental health sectors to prevent and address complex health challenges like zoonoses or antimicrobial resistance. This study conducted a mixed-methods environmental scan to assess to what extent Mexico displays a OH governance and identify opportunities for improvement. Through documentary analysis, the study mapped OH national-level governance elements: infrastructure, multi-level regulations, leadership, multi-coordination mechanisms (MCMs), and financial and OH-trained human resources. Key informant interviews provided insights into enablers, barriers, and recommendations to enhance a OH governance. Findings reveal that Mexico has sector-specific governance elements: institutions, surveillance systems and laboratories, laws, and policies. However, the absence of a OH governmental body poses a challenge. Identified barriers include implementation challenges, non-harmonised legal frameworks, and limited intersectoral information exchange. Enablers include formal and ad hoc MCMs, OH-oriented policies, and educational initiatives. Like other middle-income countries in the region, institutionalising a OH governance in Mexico, may require a OH-specific framework and governing body, infrastructure rearrangements, and policy harmonisation. Strengthening coordination mechanisms, training OH professionals, and ensuring data-sharing surveillance systems are essential steps toward successful implementation, with adequate funding being a relevant factor.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anahí Dreser
- Center for Health Systems Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | | | - María Antonieta Moreno-Reynosa
- National Laboratory of Sustainability Sciences, Institute of Ecology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Celso Ramos Garcia
- Center for Infectious Diseases Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Arne Ruckert
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Ronald Labonté
- School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
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Schneider MC, Min KD, Romijn PC, De Morais NB, Montebello L, Manrique Rocha S, Sciancalepore S, Hamrick PN, Uieda W, Câmara VDM, Luiz RR, Belotto A. Fifty Years of the National Rabies Control Program in Brazil under the One Health Perspective. Pathogens 2023; 12:1342. [PMID: 38003806 PMCID: PMC10674250 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In 1973, the National Rabies Program was created in Brazil through an agreement between the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. Since its beginning, it developed integrated action through access to free post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for people at risk, dog vaccination campaigns, a joint surveillance system, and awareness. This study aims to describe human rabies in Brazil under the One Health perspective in recent decades, including achievements in the control of dog-mediated cases and challenges in human cases transmitted by wild animals. This paper also explores possible drivers of human rabies in the Northeast Region with half of the cases. The first part of this study was descriptive, presenting data and examples by periods. Statistical analysis was performed in the last period (2010-2022) to explore possible drivers. Dog-mediated human cases decreased from 147 to 0, and dog cases decreased from 4500 to 7. A major challenge is now human cases transmitted by wild animals (bats, non-human primates, and wild canids). Most current human cases occur in municipalities with a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome and a Gini index higher than 0.5. In the multivariable analysis, an association with temperature was estimated (OR = 1.739; CI95% = 1.181-2.744), and primary healthcare coverage (OR = 0.947; CI95% = 0.915-0.987) was identified as a protector. It is possible to significantly reduce the number of dog-mediated human rabies cases through the efforts presented. However, Brazil has wildlife variants of the rabies virus circulating. The association of human cases with higher temperatures in the Northeast is a concern with climate change. To reduce human cases transmitted by wild animals, it is important to continue distributing free PEP, especially in remote at-risk areas in the Amazon Region, and to increase awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cristina Schneider
- Department of Global Health, School of Health, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
- Institute of Collective Health Studies, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 24220-900, Brazil; (V.d.M.C.); (R.R.L.)
- PAHO/WHO (Ret.), Washington, DC 20037, USA;
| | - Kyung-Duk Min
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk 28644, Republic of Korea;
| | | | | | - Lucia Montebello
- Secretaria de Vigilancia em Saúde e Ambiente, Ministry of Health, Brasilia 70723-040, Brazil; (L.M.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Silene Manrique Rocha
- Secretaria de Vigilancia em Saúde e Ambiente, Ministry of Health, Brasilia 70723-040, Brazil; (L.M.); (S.M.R.)
| | | | | | - Wilson Uieda
- Department of Zoology and Botany, São Paulo State University (Ret.), Sao Paulo 05508-090, Brazil;
| | - Volney de Magalhães Câmara
- Institute of Collective Health Studies, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 24220-900, Brazil; (V.d.M.C.); (R.R.L.)
| | - Ronir Raggio Luiz
- Institute of Collective Health Studies, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 24220-900, Brazil; (V.d.M.C.); (R.R.L.)
| | - Albino Belotto
- PAHO/WHO, Washington, DC 20037, USA; (S.S.); (A.B.)
- FUNASA (Fundacao SESP)/Ministry of Health (Ret.), Brasilia 70070-040, Brazil
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Jato-Espino D, Mayor-Vitoria F, Moscardó V, Capra-Ribeiro F, Bartolomé del Pino LE. Toward One Health: a spatial indicator system to model the facilitation of the spread of zoonotic diseases. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1215574. [PMID: 37457260 PMCID: PMC10340543 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1215574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Recurrent outbreaks of zoonotic infectious diseases highlight the importance of considering the interconnections between human, animal, and environmental health in disease prevention and control. This has given rise to the concept of One Health, which recognizes the interconnectedness of between human and animal health within their ecosystems. As a contribution to the One Health approach, this study aims to develop an indicator system to model the facilitation of the spread of zoonotic diseases. Initially, a literature review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement to identify relevant indicators related to One Health. The selected indicators focused on demographics, socioeconomic aspects, interactions between animal and human populations and water bodies, as well as environmental conditions related to air quality and climate. These indicators were characterized using values obtained from the literature or calculated through distance analysis, geoprocessing tasks, and other methods. Subsequently, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) techniques, specifically the Entropy and Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) methods, were utilized to combine the indicators and create a composite metric for assessing the spread of zoonotic diseases. The final indicators selected were then tested against recorded zoonoses in the Valencian Community (Spain) for 2021, and a strong positive correlation was identified. Therefore, the proposed indicator system can be valuable in guiding the development of planning strategies that align with the One Health principles. Based on the results achieved, such strategies may prioritize the preservation of natural landscape features to mitigate habitat encroachment, protect land and water resources, and attenuate extreme atmospheric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Jato-Espino
- GREENIUS Research Group, Universidad Internacional de Valencia—VIU, Calle Pintor Sorolla, Valencia, Spain
| | - Fernando Mayor-Vitoria
- GREENIUS Research Group, Universidad Internacional de Valencia—VIU, Calle Pintor Sorolla, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vanessa Moscardó
- GREENIUS Research Group, Universidad Internacional de Valencia—VIU, Calle Pintor Sorolla, Valencia, Spain
| | - Fabio Capra-Ribeiro
- GREENIUS Research Group, Universidad Internacional de Valencia—VIU, Calle Pintor Sorolla, Valencia, Spain
- School of Architecture, College of Art and Design, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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Taylor E, Aguilar-Ancori EG, Banyard AC, Abel I, Mantini-Briggs C, Briggs CL, Carrillo C, Gavidia CM, Castillo-Neyra R, Parola AD, Villena FE, Prada JM, Petersen BW, Falcon Perez N, Cabezas Sanchez C, Sihuincha M, Streicker DG, Maguina Vargas C, Navarro Vela AM, Vigilato MAN, Wen Fan H, Willoughby R, Horton DL, Recuenco SE. The Amazonian Tropical Bites Research Initiative, a hope for resolving zoonotic neglected tropical diseases in the One Health era. Int Health 2023; 15:216-223. [PMID: 35896028 PMCID: PMC9384559 DOI: 10.1093/inthealth/ihac048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) disproportionately affect populations living in resource-limited settings. In the Amazon basin, substantial numbers of NTDs are zoonotic, transmitted by vertebrate (dogs, bats, snakes) and invertebrate species (sand flies and triatomine insects). However, no dedicated consortia exist to find commonalities in the risk factors for or mitigations against bite-associated NTDs such as rabies, snake envenoming, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis in the region. The rapid expansion of COVID-19 has further reduced resources for NTDs, exacerbated health inequality and reiterated the need to raise awareness of NTDs related to bites. METHODS The nine countries that make up the Amazon basin have been considered (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Surinam and Venezuela) in the formation of a new network. RESULTS The Amazonian Tropical Bites Research Initiative (ATBRI) has been created, with the aim of creating transdisciplinary solutions to the problem of animal bites leading to disease in Amazonian communities. The ATBRI seeks to unify the currently disjointed approach to the control of bite-related neglected zoonoses across Latin America. CONCLUSIONS The coordination of different sectors and inclusion of all stakeholders will advance this field and generate evidence for policy-making, promoting governance and linkage across a One Health arena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Taylor
- University of Surrey, School of Veterinary Medicine, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford, GU2 7AL, UK
| | - Elsa Gladys Aguilar-Ancori
- Instituto Universitario de Enfermedades Tropicales y Biomedicina de Cusco - Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco, Cusco, 08003, Peru
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Animal and PlantHealth Agency, WoodhamLane, New Haw, Weybridge, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Isis Abel
- Laboratório de Epidemiologia e Geoprocessamento, Instituto de MedicinaVeterinária, Universidade Federal do Pará, Castanhal, Pará, 68743-970, Brasil
| | - Clara Mantini-Briggs
- Berkeley Center for Social Medicine and the Institute for the Study of Societal Issues, University of California, Berkeley, 94720-5670, USA
| | - Charles L Briggs
- Berkeley Center for Social Medicine and the Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, 94720-5670, USA
| | - Carolina Carrillo
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. Cesar Milstein, Fundación Pablo Cassará - ConsejoNacional de InvestigacionesCientíficas y Técnicas, Saladillo 2468 (C1440FFX) Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cesar M Gavidia
- Facultad de MedicinaVeterinaria, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, 15021, Perú
| | - Ricardo Castillo-Neyra
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine at University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 19104-6021, USA
- One Health Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad PeruanaCayetano Heredia, Lima, 15102, Peru
| | - Alejandro D Parola
- Fundación Pablo Cassará. Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. Cesar Milstein, Saladillo 2468 (C1440FFX) Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fredy E Villena
- Asociaciónpara el Empleo y Bienestar Animal en Investigación y Docencia (ASOPEBAID), Lima, 15072, Peru
| | - Joaquin M Prada
- University of Surrey, School of Veterinary Medicine, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford, GU2 7AL, UK
| | - Brett W Petersen
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, 30333, USA
| | - Nestor Falcon Perez
- Facultad de MedicinaVeterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, 15102, Perú
| | - Cesar Cabezas Sanchez
- Centro de InvestigacionesTecnologicas, Biomedicas y Medioambientales-CITBM, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, 15081, Peru
| | | | - Daniel G Streicker
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Ciro Maguina Vargas
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander Von Humbolt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, 15102, Perú
| | | | - Marco A N Vigilato
- Pan American Center for Foot and Mouth Disease and Veterinary Public Health, Department of Communicable Diseases and Environmental Determinants of Health, Pan American Health Organization, Rio de Janeiro, 25040-004, Brazil
| | - Hui Wen Fan
- Bioindustrial Center, InstitutoButantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | | | - Daniel L Horton
- University of Surrey, School of Veterinary Medicine, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford, GU2 7AL, UK
| | - Sergio E Recuenco
- Centro de InvestigacionesTecnologicas, Biomedicas y Medioambientales-CITBM, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, 15081, Peru
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Ghai S, Hemachudha T. Continued Failure of Rabies Elimination—Consideration of Challenges in Applying the One Health Approach. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:847659. [PMID: 35425835 PMCID: PMC9001886 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.847659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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de Faria PC, da Luz RMA, Gitti CB. Canine rabies in Belford Roxo City, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: a case report. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 2022; 44:e002022. [PMID: 36066911 PMCID: PMC9432856 DOI: 10.29374/2527-2179.bjvm002022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a highly lethal disease and is considered one of the most important zoonoses worldwide. In Brazil, the rabies cycle in domestic animals is under control. However, there is feedback from the wildlife cycle as many bats are present in the cities and rural areas of the country. This paper reports a case of a dog receiving veterinary assistance that presented with misbehavior and other unusual signs. After clinical evaluation by two veterinarians and a period of hospitalization to perform tests and treatment, the dog died, and the Municipal Health Department was contacted due to the suspicion of rabies. After laboratory testing and sample analysis, the diagnosis of rabies was confirmed. This case demonstrates the importance of veterinarians' qualifications in performing clinical and laboratory diagnoses, such as their knowledge concerning surveillance measures and preventive steps before and after exposure. Reinforcing the significance of maintaining vaccination coverage for rabies and promoting public and private vaccination campaigns in areas that lack vaccination campaigns are useful.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael Moreira Ancora da Luz
- . Undergraduate in Veterinary Medicine, Instituto de Veterinária (IV), Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro. Campus Seropédica, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Clayton Bernardinelli Gitti
- . Veterinarian, DSc. Departamento de Epidemiologia e Saúde Pública (DESP), IV, UFRRJ. Campus Seropédica, RJ, Brazil.
- Correspondence Clayton Bernardinelli Gitti Departamento de Epidemiologia e Saúde Pública, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro – UFRRJ Rodovia BR 465, Km 7, Campus Universitário, Zona Rural CEP 23897-000 - Seropédica (RJ), Brasil E-mail:
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