Bacteriophages with Potential to Inactivate Aeromonas hydrophila in Cockles: In Vitro and In Vivo Preliminary Studies

Characterizations of Newly Isolated Erwinia amylovora Loessnervirus-like Bacteriophages from Hungary

This study explores alternative methods to combat bacterial infections like fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora (Ea) using bacteriophages as potential antimicrobial agents. Two lytic phages, Ea PF 7 and Ea PF 9, were isolated from apple samples and classified as Loessnervirus-like based on their genomes. Both phages showed strong efficacy, lysing 95% of the tested 37 Ea strains. They inhibited bacterial growth for up to 10 h, even at low infection rates. The phages had a short latent period of 10 min and produced high burst sizes of 108 and 125 phage particles per infected cell. Stability tests revealed that both phages were stable at moderate temperatures (37-45 °C) and within a pH range of 4-10. However, their viability decreased at higher temperatures and extreme pH levels. Both phages exhibited notable desiccation tolerance and moderate resistance to UV-B radiation during UV testing. The phages were exposed to carefully controlled irradiation, considering factors like lamp type, radiation intensity, exposure time, and object distance. This method introduces a complex approach to research, ensuring repeatable and comparable results. These findings suggest that Ea PF 7 and Ea PF 9 hold promise as antimicrobial agents for therapeutic and biotechnological applications, potentially helping to combat antibiotic resistance in the future.

Characterization of novel phages KPAФ1, KP149Ф1, and KP149Ф2 for lytic efficiency against clinical MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae infections

Phage therapy offers a promising approach to the increasing antimicrobial resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae. This study highlights three novel lytic bacteriophages-KPAФ1, KP149Ф1, and KP149Ф2- targeting multidrug-resistant (MDR) K. pneumoniae. These phages belong to the Myoviridae and Podoviridae family and demonstrate their efficacy and stability across a wide range of temperatures (up to 60°C) and pH levels (pH 4 to 11). Genomic analysis reveals that they are free from virulence, toxicity, and antimicrobial resistance genes, making them promising candidates for therapeutic use. Among these phages, KPAФ1 showed the highest lytic activity with a 26.15% lysis against MDR K. pneumoniae isolates. Additionally, a phage cocktail comprising all three phages improved lytic efficacy to 32.30%. This study also examined the antimicrobial resistance profiles of K. pneumoniae isolates, emphasizing the critical need for alternative treatments. By effectively targeting resistant strains, these phages offer a potential candidacy to be used as a viable alternative or a complementary antimicrobial agent to traditional antibiotics, opening up the possibility for advanced phage-based therapies. The promising results from this study pave the way for developing new treatments that could significantly improve patient care and outcomes from the growing issue of resistant bacterial infections.

Characterising phages for the control of pathogenic bacteria associated with bivalve consumption

In the present study, five new bacteriophages (or phages) were characterized, and their efficacy in controlling pathogenic bacteria-Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus-associated with bivalve consumption was evaluated. The isolated phages include both siphovirus [vB_EcoS_UALMA_PCEc3 (PCEc3), vB_SeTS_UALMA_PCST1 (PCST1), and vB_VpaS_UALMA_PCVp3 (PCVp3)] and myovirus [vB_SeEM_UALMA_PCSE1 (PCSE1) and vB_AhyM_UALMA_PCAh2 (PCAh2)] morphotypes. Four phages are safe for bacterial control, with only one (PCAh2) showing potential lysogenic characteristics. All phages exhibited a narrow host range, capable of infecting up to six additional bacterial strains besides their original host, and four could infect the host bacteria of other phages. Adsorption rates ranged from 24% and 98% within 1 h. One-step growth assays revealed different latent periods, ranging from 10 to 120 min, and low to average burst sizes, ranging from 7.60 to 83.97 PFU/mL. Generally, increasing the multiplicity of infection (MOI) enhanced phage efficiency significantly. All phages effectively reduced the bacterial load of their respective hosts, achieving maximum reductions between 3.73 and 5.57 log CFU/mL within 10 h of treatment. These results suggest that phage biocontrol can be an effective alternative to combat pathogenic bacteria associated with bivalve consumption.

Evaluation of the potential of phage phSE-5 to fight Salmonella Typhimurium in milk, liquid whole egg, and eggshell

AIMS

This study aimed to evaluate the potential of phage phSE-5 to inactivate Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in milk (at 4, 10, and 25°C), liquid whole egg, and eggshell (at 25°C for both matrices).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Since the success of phage treatment in food depends on maintaining phage viability towards different food conditions, firstly the stability of phage phSE-5 at different temperatures and pHs was assessed. The effect of phage phSE-5 against S. Typhimurium was then assessed in vitro (liquid culture medium-TSB) and finally in the selected food matrices. Phage phSE-5 was stable for long storage periods (56 days) at pH 7-8 and 4-25°C. At 25°C, the efficacy of phage phSE-5 was matrix-dependent with differences in the sample, relatively to the bacterial control, of 2.7, 4.6, 1.8, and 1.3 log colony-forming units (CFU) ml-1 in TSB, milk, liquid whole egg, and eggshell, respectively. Also, phage phSE-5 led to reductions relatively to the initial bacterial concentration only in TSB and milk with 1.9 and 2.1 log CFU ml-1 reduction, respectively. Additionally, this phage was more efficient at 25°C in the tested matrices than at 10°C (no reduction and 1.7 log CFU ml-1 reduction in TSB and milk, respectively; maximum difference of 1.7 and 3.3 log CFU ml-1 in TSB and milk, respectively) and 4°C (no bacterial reduction/difference was observed in both TSB and milk). However, the decrease in temperature from 25 to 10°C slowed down bacterial regrowth after phage treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that phages are promising and environmentally friendly candidates for use as biocontrol agents against S. Typhimurium in milk, liquid whole egg, and eggshell, allowing a reduction in energy costs if carried out at 10°C.

Isolation and Characterization of Infection of Four New Bacteriophages Infecting a Vibrio parahaemolyticus Strain

Bacteria from genus Vibrio continue to be one of the most common threats to aquaculture sustainability. Vibrio spp. have been associated with infectious outbreaks in fish, shrimp, bivalves and even algae farms worldwide. Moreover, several Vibrio spp. are also pathogens that impact human health and are a threat to public health when transferred to consumers through contaminated seafood products. The use of bacteriophages is an evolving technology that could be applied in the treatment of Vibrio spp. either to protect aquaculture farms or to decontaminate seafood, namely bivalves during their depuration. In the present study, bacteriophages vB_VpS_LMAVpS1 (S1) vB_VpS_LMAVpVPP (VPP), vB_VpS_LMAVpSH (SH) and vB_VpS_LMAVpH (H) infecting V. parahaemolyticus were isolated and characterized. All phages presented fast adsorption rates and were able to control V. parahaemolyticus at all multiplicity of infections (MOIs) tested (MOI of 1, 10 and 100), with reductions of more than 4 log CFU/mL being recorded, but only in the presence of divalent cation calcium. The rate of emergence of phage-resistant mutants was very low (1.8 × 10-6 to 3.1 × 10-6). Bacterial phage resistance was not permanent and led to a loss of bacterial fitness. All four phages presented with lysins encoded in their genomes. The results presented provide valuable insights for future studies in the application of these bacteriophages in different scenarios to control, decontaminate or treat bacterial infections or contaminations of V. parahaemolyticus.

A game of resistance: War between bacteria and phages and how phage cocktails can be the solution

While phages hold promise as an antibiotic alternative, they encounter significant challenges in combating bacterial infections, primarily due to the emergence of phage-resistant bacteria. Bacterial defence mechanisms like superinfection exclusion, CRISPR, and restriction-modification systems can hinder phage effectiveness. Innovative strategies, such as combining different phages into cocktails, have been explored to address these challenges. This review delves into these defence mechanisms and their impact at each stage of the infection cycle, their challenges, and the strategies phages have developed to counteract them. Additionally, we examine the role of phage cocktails in the evolving landscape of antibacterial treatments and discuss recent studies that highlight the effectiveness of diverse phage cocktails in targeting essential bacterial receptors and combating resistant strains.

Depletion of m6A-RNA in Escherichia coli reduces the infectious potential of T5 bacteriophage

N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant internal modification of mRNA in eukaryotes that plays, among other mechanisms, an essential role in virus replication. However, the understanding of m6A-RNA modification in prokaryotes, especially in relation to phage replication, is limited. To address this knowledge gap, we investigated the effects of m6A-RNA modifications on phage replication in two model organisms: Vibrio campbellii BAA-1116 (previously Vibrio harveyi BB120) and Escherichia coli MG1655. An m6A-RNA-depleted V. campbellii mutant (ΔrlmFΔrlmJ) did not differ from the wild type in the induction of lysogenic phages or in susceptibility to the lytic Virtus phage. In contrast, the infection potential of the T5 phage, but not that of other T phages or the lambda phage, was reduced in an m6A-RNA-depleted E. coli mutant (ΔrlmFΔrlmJ) compared to the wild type. This was shown by a lower plaquing efficiency and a higher percentage of surviving cells. There were no differences in the T5 phage adsorption rate, but the mutant exhibited a 5-min delay in the rise period during the one-step growth curve. This is the first report demonstrating that E. coli cells with lower m6A-RNA levels have a higher chance of surviving T5 phage infection.

IMPORTANCE

The importance of RNA modifications has been thoroughly studied in the context of eukaryotic viral infections. However, their role in bacterial hosts during phage infections is largely unexplored. Our research delves into this gap by investigating the effect of host N6-methyladenosine (m6A)-RNA modifications during phage infection. We found that an Escherichia coli mutant depleted of m6A-RNA is less susceptible to T5 infection than the wild type. This finding emphasizes the need to further investigate how RNA modifications affect the fine-tuned regulation of individual bacterial survival in the presence of phages to ensure population survival.

Advances in the applications of Bacteriophages and phage products against food-contaminating bacteria

Food-contaminating bacteria pose a threat to food safety and the economy by causing foodborne illnesses and spoilage. Bacteriophages, a group of viruses that infect only bacteria, have the potential to control bacteria throughout the "farm-to-fork continuum". Phage application offers several advantages, including targeted action against specific bacterial strains and minimal impact on the natural microflora of food. This review covers multiple aspects of bacteriophages applications in the food industry, including their use as biocontrol and biopreservation agents to fight over 20 different genera of food-contaminating bacteria, reduce cross-contamination and the risk of foodborne diseases, and also to prolong shelf life and preserve freshness. The review also highlights the benefits of using bacteriophages in bioprocesses to selectively inhibit undesirable bacteria, such as substrate competitors and toxin producers, which is particularly valuable in complex microbial bioprocesses where physical or chemical methods become inadequate. Furthermore, the review briefly discusses other uses of bacteriophages in the food industry, such as sanitizing food processing environments and detecting specific bacteria in food products. The review also explores strategies to enhance the effectiveness of phages, such as employing multi-phage cocktails, encapsulated phages, phage products, and synergistic hurdle approaches by combining them with antimicrobials.

The Potential of Phage Treatment to Inactivate Planktonic and Biofilm-Forming Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of hospital-acquired infections and exhibits a strong resistance to antibiotics. An alternative treatment option for bacterial infections is the use of bacteriophages (or phages). In this study, two distinct phages, VB_PaD_phPA-G (phPA-G) and VB_PaN_phPA-Intesti (phPA-Intesti), were used as single suspensions or in a phage cocktail to inactivate the planktonic cells and biofilms of P. aeruginosa. Preliminary experiments in culture medium showed that phage phPA-Intesti (reductions of 4.5-4.9 log CFU/mL) outperformed phPA-G (reductions of 0.6-2.6 log CFU/mL) and the phage cocktail (reduction of 4.2 log CFU/mL). Phage phPA-Intesti caused a maximum reduction of 5.5 log CFU/cm2 in the P. aeruginosa biofilm in urine after 4 h of incubation. The combination of phage phPA-Intesti and ciprofloxacin did not improve the efficacy of bacterial inactivation nor reduce the development of resistant mutants. However, the development of resistant bacteria was lower in the combined treatment with the phage and the antibiotic compared to treatment with the antibiotic alone. This phage lacks known toxins, virulence, antibiotic resistance, and integrase genes. Overall, the results suggest that the use of phage phPA-Intesti could be a potential approach to control urinary tract infections (UTIs), namely those caused by biofilm-producing and multidrug-resistant strains of P. aeruginosa.

Bacteriophages to control Vibrio alginolyticus in live feeds prior to their administration in larviculture

AIMS

This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of two phages [VB_VaC_TDDLMA (phage TDD) and VB_VaC_SRILMA (phage SRI)] alone and in a cocktail to control Vibrio alginolyticus in brine shrimp before their administration in larviculture.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Phages were isolated from seawater samples and characterized by host spectrum, growth parameters, adsorption rate, genomic analysis, and inactivation efficiency. Both phages belong to the Caudoviricetes class and lack known virulence or antibiotic-resistance genes. They exhibit specificity, infecting only their host, V. alginolyticus CECT 521. Preliminary experiments in a culture medium showed that phage TDD (reduction of 5.8 log CFU ml-1 after 10 h) outperformed phage SRI (reduction of 4.6 log CFU ml-1 after 6 h) and the cocktail TDD/SRI (reduction of 5.2 log CFU ml-1 after 8 h). In artificial marine water experiments with Artemia franciscana, both single phage suspensions and the phage cocktail, effectively inactivated V. alginolyticus in culture water (reduction of 4.3, 2.1, and 1.9 log CFU ml-1 for phages TDD, SRI, and the phage cocktail, respectively, after 12 h) and in A. franciscana (reduction of 51.6%, 87.3%, and 85.3% for phages TDD, SRI, and the phage cocktail, respectively, after 24 h). The two phages and the phage cocktail did not affect A. franciscana natural microbiota or other Vibrio species in the brine shrimp.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that phages can safely and effectively control V. alginolyticus in A. franciscana prior to its administration in larviculture.

Harnessing black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae against Aeromonas hydrophila: Fermentation-based fatty acids production and its bioinformatic assessment

Background

Aeromonas hydrophila (A. hydrophila) is a bacterium with zoonotic potential and is multidrug-resistant. It utilizes hemolysin and aerolysin to spread infection. Black soldier flies (BSFs) can be antibacterial because of the fatty acids it contains.

Aims

This study aimed to investigate and compare the fatty acid profiles of BSF prepupae grown in fermented and nonfermented media using bioinformatics tools and assess their potential as antibacterial agents against A. hydrophila.

Methods

The study used BSF prepupae reared on various organic substrates. BSF prepupae grown in fermented or nonfermented substrate were observed against fatty acid. The fatty acid analysis was performed using GC-MS. Fatty acids were analyzed statistically using the one-way ANOVA test with a 95% confidence level. Fatty acid bioactivity was predicted using the online PASS-two-way drug program. Molecular docking on BSF fatty acid compounds was analyzed with PyMol 2.2 and discovery Studio version 21.1.1.

Results

The molecular docking test showed the strongest bond was oleic acid with aerolysin and linoleic acid with hemolysin. BSF prepupae grown on fermented media showed higher crude fat and saturated fatty acids (SFAs) but lower unsaturated fatty acids than nonfermented media.

Conclusion

Black soldier fly prepupae, particularly those grown on fermented media, possess antibacterial activity against A. hydrophila through potential fatty acid-mediated inhibition of crucial virulence factors.

Potential of an Isolated Bacteriophage to Inactivate Klebsiella pneumoniae: Preliminary Studies to Control Urinary Tract Infections

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae can lead to severe clinical complications and even death. An alternative treatment option for infected patients is using bacteriophages. In the present study, we isolated phage VB_KPM_KP1LMA (KP1LMA) from sewage water using a K. pneumoniae strain as a host. Whole-genome analysis indicated that the genome was a double-stranded linear 176,096-bp long DNA molecule with 41.8% GC content and did not contain virulence or antibiotic resistance genes. The inactivation potential of phage KP1LMA was assessed in broth at an MOI of 1 and 10, and a maximum inactivation of 4.9 and 5.4 log CFU/mL, respectively, was observed after 9 h. The efficacy at an MOI of 10 was also assessed in urine to evaluate the phage's performance in an acidic environment. A maximum inactivation of 3.8 log CFU/mL was observed after 9 h. The results suggest that phage KP1LMA could potentially control a UTI caused by this strain of K. pneumoniae, indicating that the same procedure can be used to control UTIs caused by other strains if new specific phages are isolated. Although phage KP1LMA has a narrow host range, in the future, efforts can be made to expand its spectrum of activity and also to combine this phage with others, potentially enabling its use against other K. pneumoniae strains involved in UTIs.

Effect of Bacteriophages against Biofilms of Escherichia coli on Food Processing Surfaces

The bacterial adhesion to food processing surfaces is a threat to human health, as these surfaces can serve as reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria. Escherichia coli is an easily biofilm-forming bacterium involved in surface contamination that can lead to the cross-contamination of food. Despite the application of disinfection protocols, contamination through food processing surfaces continues to occur. Hence, new, effective, and sustainable alternative approaches are needed. Bacteriophages (or simply phages), viruses that only infect bacteria, have proven to be effective in reducing biofilms. Here, phage phT4A was applied to prevent and reduce E. coli biofilm on plastic and stainless steel surfaces at 25 °C. The biofilm formation capacity of phage-resistant and sensitive bacteria, after treatment, was also evaluated. The inactivation effectiveness of phage phT4A was surface-dependent, showing higher inactivation on plastic surfaces. Maximum reductions in E. coli biofilm of 5.5 and 4.0 log colony-forming units (CFU)/cm2 after 6 h of incubation on plastic and stainless steel, respectively, were observed. In the prevention assays, phage prevented biofilm formation in 3.2 log CFU/cm2 after 12 h. Although the emergence of phage-resistant bacteria has been observed during phage treatment, phage-resistant bacteria had a lower biofilm formation capacity compared to phage-sensitive bacteria. Overall, the results suggest that phages may have applicability as surface disinfectants against pathogenic bacteria, but further studies are needed to validate these findings using phT4A under different environmental conditions and on different materials.

Characterization and Comparative Genomic Analysis of Three Virulent E. coli Bacteriophages with the Potential to Reduce Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in the Environment

The emerging global crisis of antibiotic resistance demands new alternative antibacterial solutions. Although bacteriophages have been used to combat bacterial infections for over a century, a dramatic boost in phage studies has recently been observed. In the development of modern phage applications, a scientific rationale is strongly required and newly isolated phages need to be examined in detail. In this study, we present the full characterization of bacteriophages BF9, BF15, and BF17, with lytic activity against extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs)- and AmpC β-lactamases (AmpC)-producing Escherichia coli, the prevalence of which has increased significantly in livestock in recent decades, representing a great hazard to food safety and a public health risk. Comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis indicated that BF9, BF15, and BF17 represent the genera Dhillonvirus, Tequatrovirus, and Asteriusvirus, respectively. All three phages significantly reduced in vitro growth of their bacterial host and retained the ability to lyse bacteria after preincubation at wide ranges of temperature (−20–40 °C) and pH (5–9). The results described herein indicate the lytic nature of BF9, BF15, and BF17, which, along with the absence of genes encoding toxins and bacterial virulence factors, represents an undoubted asset in terms of future phage application.

Exploring the potential efficacy of phage therapy for biocontrol of foodborne pathogenic extensively drug-resistant Escherichia coli in gastrointestinal tract of rat model

AIM

The emergence of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Escherichia coli leaves little or no therapeutic options for the control of these foodborne pathogens. The goal is to isolate, characterize, and assess the potential efficacy of a bacteriophage in the treatment of an induced gastrointestinal tract infection.

MAIN METHODS

Sewage water was used to isolate phage phPE42. Transmission electron microscope was used for the visualization of phage morphology. Lysis profile, growth kinetics, and stability studies were determined. The ability of phage to eradicate biofilms was assessed by crystal violet staining, resazurin assay, compound bright field microscope, and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). Moreover, the efficacy of phage phPE42 as a potential therapy was evaluated in a rat model.

KEY FINDINGS

A newly lytic Myoviridae phage phPE42 was isolated and exhibited broad coverage activity (48.6 %) against E. coli clinical isolates. It demonstrated favorable growth kinetics and relative stability under a variety of challenging conditions. The resazurin colorimetric assay and CLSM provided evidence of phage potential's ability to significantly (P < 0.05) decrease the viability of biofilm-embedded cells. The bacterial burden in animal faeces was effectively eradicated (P < 0.05) by oral administration of phage phPE42. Phage-treated rats exhibited a significant decrease in tissue damage with no signs of inflammation, necrosis, or erosion. Furthermore, phage therapy significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the expression level of the apoptotic marker caspase-3 and the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α.

SIGNIFICANCE

Treatment with phage phPE42 is considered a promising alternative therapy for the control of severe foodborne infections spurred by pathogenic XDR E. coli.

Characterization and Genomic Analysis of a Bacteriophage with Potential in Lysing Vibrio alginolyticus

Vibrio alginolyticus is one of the major pathogens causing vibriosis to a variety of aquatic animals as well as bringing about severe food safety concerns. Nowadays, phage therapy has received increasing attention as an alternative to the antibiotics that have being limited for use in aquaculture industries. In this work, a potent bacteriophage, vB_ValM_PVA23 (PVA23), which efficiently infects pathogenic strains of V. alginolyticus, was isolated from sewage water and characterized by microbiological and genomic analyses. Based on the transmission electronic observation, the phage was characterized to be the Myoviridae family. It has a latent period of 10 min and a burst size of 203 PFUs/infected bacterium, and was stable over a broad pH range (5.0−11.0) and a wide temperature span (−80 °C to 60 °C), respectively. Genome sequencing results show that PVA23 has a 246,962-bp double-stranded DNA with a G + C content of 41.25%. The lab and plant shrimp farming trials demonstrated that phage preparation derived from PVA23 out-performed the chemical disinfectant iodine treatment in the prevention of V. alginolyticus propagation, and the phage application could rapidly yet significantly reduce the level of V. alginolyticus in the pond within 12 h, with negligible rebound observed. These results suggests that phage PVA23 has the potential to be used as an anti-V. alginolyticus agent in aquaculture industries.

Bacteriophages in the Control of Aeromonas sp. in Aquaculture Systems: An Integrative View

Aeromonas species often cause disease in farmed fish and are responsible for causing significant economic losses worldwide. Although vaccination is the ideal method to prevent infectious diseases, there are still very few vaccines commercially available in the aquaculture field. Currently, aquaculture production relies heavily on antibiotics, contributing to the global issue of the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistance genes. Therefore, it is essential to develop effective alternatives to antibiotics to reduce their use in aquaculture systems. Bacteriophage (or phage) therapy is a promising approach to control pathogenic bacteria in farmed fish that requires a heavy understanding of certain factors such as the selection of phages, the multiplicity of infection that produces the best bacterial inactivation, bacterial resistance, safety, the host’s immune response, administration route, phage stability and influence. This review focuses on the need to advance phage therapy research in aquaculture, its efficiency as an antimicrobial strategy and the critical aspects to successfully apply this therapy to control Aeromonas infection in fish.

Phage Therapy as a Focused Management Strategy in Aquaculture

Therapeutic bacteriophages, commonly called as phages, are a promising potential alternative to antibiotics in the management of bacterial infections of a wide range of organisms including cultured fish. Their natural immunogenicity often induces the modulation of a variated collection of immune responses within several types of immunocytes while promoting specific mechanisms of bacterial clearance. However, to achieve standardized treatments at the practical level and avoid possible side effects in cultivated fish, several improvements in the understanding of their biology and the associated genomes are required. Interestingly, a particular feature with therapeutic potential among all phages is the production of lytic enzymes. The use of such enzymes against human and livestock pathogens has already provided in vitro and in vivo promissory results. So far, the best-understood phages utilized to fight against either Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacterial species in fish culture are mainly restricted to the Myoviridae and Podoviridae, and the Siphoviridae, respectively. However, the current functional use of phages against bacterial pathogens of cultured fish is still in its infancy. Based on the available data, in this review, we summarize the current knowledge about phage, identify gaps, and provide insights into the possible bacterial control strategies they might represent for managing aquaculture-related bacterial diseases.

Phages and Enzybiotics in Food Biopreservation

Presently, biopreservation through protective bacterial cultures and their antimicrobial products or using antibacterial compounds derived from plants are proposed as feasible strategies to maintain the long shelf-life of products. Another emerging category of food biopreservatives are bacteriophages or their antibacterial enzymes called "phage lysins" or "enzybiotics", which can be used directly as antibacterial agents due to their ability to act on the membranes of bacteria and destroy them. Bacteriophages are an alternative to antimicrobials in the fight against bacteria, mainly because they have a practically unique host range that gives them great specificity. In addition to their potential ability to specifically control strains of pathogenic bacteria, their use does not generate a negative environmental impact as in the case of antibiotics. Both phages and their enzymes can favor a reduction in antibiotic use, which is desirable given the alarming increase in resistance to antibiotics used not only in human medicine but also in veterinary medicine, agriculture, and in general all processes of manufacturing, preservation, and distribution of food. We present here an overview of the scientific background of phages and enzybiotics in the food industry, as well as food applications of these biopreservatives.