RAB11-Mediated Trafficking and Human Cancers: An Updated Review

Enterovirus-A71 exploits RAB11 to recruit chaperones for virus morphogenesis

BACKGROUND

Enterovirus 71 (EV-A71) causes Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) in children and has been associated with neurological complications. The molecular mechanisms involved in EV-A71 pathogenesis have remained elusive.

METHODS

A siRNA screen in EV-A71 infected-motor neurons was performed targeting 112 genes involved in intracellular membrane trafficking, followed by validation of the top four hits using deconvoluted siRNA. Downstream approaches including viral entry by-pass, intracellular viral genome quantification by qPCR, Western blot analyses, and Luciferase reporter assays allowed determine the stage of the infection cycle the top candidate, RAB11A was involved in. Proximity ligation assay, co-immunoprecipitation and multiplex confocal imaging were employed to study interactions between viral components and RAB11A. Dominant negative and constitutively active RAB11A constructs were used to determine the importance of the protein's GTPase activity during EV-A71 infection. Mass spectrometry and protein interaction analyses were employed for the identification of RAB11A's host interacting partners during infection.

RESULTS

Small GTPase RAB11A was identified as a novel pro-viral host factor during EV-A71 infection. RAB11A and RAB11B isoforms were interchangeably exploited by strains from major EV-A71 genogroups and by Coxsackievirus A16, another major causative agent of HFMD. We showed that RAB11A was not involved in viral entry, IRES-mediated protein translation, viral genome replication, and virus exit. RAB11A co-localized with replication organelles where it interacted with structural and non-structural viral components. Over-expression of dominant negative (S25N; GDP-bound) and constitutively active (Q70L; GTP-bound) RAB11A mutants had no effect on EV-A71 infection outcome, ruling out RAB11A's involvement in intracellular trafficking of viral or host components. Instead, decreased ratio of intracellular mature viral particles to viral RNA copies and increased VP0:VP2 ratio in siRAB11-treated cells supported a role in provirion maturation hallmarked by VP0 cleavage into VP2 and VP4. Finally, chaperones, not trafficking and transporter proteins, were found to be RAB11A's top interacting partners during EV-A71 infection. Among which, CCT8 subunit from the chaperone complex TRiC/CCT was further validated and shown to interact with viral structural proteins specifically, representing yet another novel pro-viral host factor during EV-A71 infection.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes a novel, unconventional role for RAB11A during viral infection where it participates in the complex process of virus morphogenesis by recruiting essential chaperone proteins.

Regulation of angiogenesis by endocytic trafficking mediated by cytoplasmic dynein 1 light intermediate chain 1

Dynein cytoplasmic 1 light intermediate chain 1 (LIC1, DYNC1LI1) is a core subunit of the dynein motor complex. The LIC1 subunit also interacts with various cargo adaptors to regulate Rab-mediated endosomal recycling and lysosomal degradation. Defects in this gene are predicted to alter dynein motor function, Rab binding capabilities, and cytoplasmic cargo trafficking. Here, we have identified a dync1li1 zebrafish mutant, harboring a premature stop codon at the exon 12/13 splice acceptor site, that displays increased angiogenesis. In vitro, LIC1-deficient human endothelial cells display increases in cell surface levels of the pro-angiogenic receptor VEGFR2, SRC phosphorylation, and Rab11-mediated endosomal recycling. In vivo, endothelial-specific expression of constitutively active Rab11a leads to excessive angiogenesis, similar to the dync1li1 mutants. Increased angiogenesis is also evident in zebrafish harboring mutations in rilpl1/2, the adaptor proteins that promote Rab docking to Lic1 to mediate lysosomal targeting. These findings suggest that LIC1 and the Rab-adaptor proteins RILPL1 and 2 restrict angiogenesis by promoting degradation of VEGFR2-containing recycling endosomes. Disruption of LIC1- and RILPL1/2-mediated lysosomal targeting increases Rab11-mediated recycling endosome activity, promoting excessive SRC signaling and angiogenesis.

CASC4/GOLM2 drives high grade serous carcinoma anoikis resistance through the recycling of EGFR

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecological malignancy, and accounts for over 150,000 deaths per year worldwide. The high grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSC) subtype accounts for almost 70% of ovarian cancers and is the deadliest. HGSC originates in the fimbria of the fallopian tube and disseminates through the peritoneal cavity. HGSC survival in peritoneal fluid requires cells to resist anoikis (anchorage-independent apoptosis). Most anoikis resistant mechanisms are dependent on microenvironment interactions with cell surface-associated proteins, such as integrins and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). We previously identified the gene CASC4 as a driver of anoikis resistance. CASC4 is predicted to be a Golgi-associated protein that may regulate protein trafficking to the plasma membrane, but CASC4 is largely uncharacterized in literature; thus, we sought to determine how CASC4 confers anoikis resistance to HGSC cells. Mining of publicly available ovarian cancer datasets (TCGA) showed that CASC4 is associated with worse overall survival and increased resistance to platinum-based chemotherapies. For experiments, we cultured three human HGSC cell lines (PEO1, CaOV3, OVCAR3), and a murine HGSC cell line, (ID8) with shRNA-mediated CASC4 knockdowns (CASC4 KD) in suspension, to recapitulate the peritoneal fluid environment in vitro. CASC4 KD significantly inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation ability, and increased apoptosis. A Reverse Phase Protein Assay (RPPA) showed that CASC4 KD resulted in a broad re-programming of membrane-associated proteins. Specifically, CASC4 KD led to decreased protein levels of the RTK Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), an initiator of several oncogenic signaling pathways, leading us to hypothesize that CASC4 drives HGSC survival through mediating recycling and trafficking of EGFR. Indeed, loss of CASC4 led to a decrease in both EGFR membrane localization, reduced turnover of EGFR, and increased EGFR ubiquitination. Moreover, a syngeneic ID8 murine model of ovarian cancer showed that knocking down CASC4 leads to decreased tumor burden and dissemination.

RAB11A and RAB11B control mitotic spindle function in intestinal epithelial progenitor cells

RAB11 small GTPases and associated recycling endosome have been localized to mitotic spindles and implicated in regulating mitosis. However, the physiological significance of such regulation has not been observed in mammalian tissues. We have used newly engineered mouse models to investigate intestinal epithelial renewal in the absence of single or double isoforms of RAB11 family members: Rab11a and Rab11b. Comparing with single knockouts, mice with compound ablation demonstrate a defective cell cycle entry and robust mitotic arrest followed by apoptosis, leading to a total penetrance of lethality within 3 days of gene ablation. Upon Rab11 deletion ex vivo, enteroids show abnormal mitotic spindle formation and cell death. Untargeted proteomic profiling of Rab11a and Rab11b immunoprecipitates has uncovered a shared interactome containing mitotic spindle microtubule regulators. Disrupting Rab11 alters kinesin motor KIF11 function and impairs bipolar spindle formation and cell division. These data demonstrate that RAB11A and RAB11B redundantly control mitotic spindle function and intestinal progenitor cell division, a mechanism that may be utilized to govern the homeostasis and renewal of other mammalian tissues.

Distinct role of TGN-resident clathrin adaptors for Vps21p activation in the TGN-endosome trafficking pathway

Clathrin-mediated vesicle trafficking plays central roles in post-Golgi transport. In yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the AP-1 complex and GGA adaptors are predicted to generate distinct transport vesicles at the trans-Golgi network (TGN), and the epsin-related proteins Ent3p and Ent5p (collectively Ent3p/5p) act as accessories for these adaptors. Recently, we showed that vesicle transport from the TGN is crucial for yeast Rab5 (Vps21p)-mediated endosome formation, and that Ent3p/5p are crucial for this process, whereas AP-1 and GGA adaptors are dispensable. However, these observations were incompatible with previous studies showing that these adaptors are required for Ent3p/5p recruitment to the TGN, and thus the overall mechanism responsible for regulation of Vps21p activity remains ambiguous. Here, we investigated the functional relationships between clathrin adaptors in post-Golgi-mediated Vps21p activation. We show that AP-1 disruption in the ent3Δ5Δ mutant impaired transport of the Vps21p guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vps9p transport to the Vps21p compartment and severely reduced Vps21p activity. Additionally, GGA adaptors, the phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase Pik1p and Rab11 GTPases Ypt31p and Ypt32p were found to have partially overlapping functions for recruitment of AP-1 and Ent3p/5p to the TGN. These findings suggest a distinct role of clathrin adaptors for Vps21p activation in the TGN-endosome trafficking pathway.

Effectors of anterior morphogenesis in C. elegans embryos

During embryogenesis the nascent Caenorhabditis elegans epidermis secretes an apical extracellular matrix (aECM) that serves as an external stabilizer, preventing deformation of the epidermis by mechanical forces exerted during morphogenesis. At present, the factors that contribute to aECM function are mostly unknown, including the aECM components themselves, their posttranslational regulators, and the pathways required for their secretion. Here we showed that two proteins previously linked to aECM function, SYM-3/FAM102A and SYM-4/WDR44, colocalize to intracellular and membrane-associated puncta and likely function in a complex. Proteomics experiments also suggested potential roles for SYM-3/FAM102A and SYM-4/WDR44 family proteins in intracellular trafficking. Nonetheless, we found no evidence to support a critical function for SYM-3 or SYM-4 in the apical deposition of two aECM components, NOAH-1 and FBN-1. Moreover, loss of a key splicing regulator of fbn-1, MEC-8/RBPMS2, had surprisingly little effect on the abundance or deposition of FBN-1. Using a focused screening approach, we identified 32 additional proteins that likely contribute to the structure and function of the embryonic aECM. We also characterized morphogenesis defects in embryos lacking mir-51 microRNA family members, which display a similar phenotype to mec-8; sym double mutants. Collectively, these findings add to our knowledge of factors controlling embryonic morphogenesis.

The Caenorhabditis elegans anchor cell transcriptome: ribosome biogenesis drives cell invasion through basement membrane

Cell invasion through basement membrane (BM) barriers is important in development, immune function and cancer progression. As invasion through BM is often stochastic, capturing gene expression profiles of actively invading cells in vivo remains elusive. Using the stereotyped timing of Caenorhabditis elegans anchor cell (AC) invasion, we generated an AC transcriptome during BM breaching. Through a focused RNAi screen of transcriptionally enriched genes, we identified new invasion regulators, including translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP). We also discovered gene enrichment of ribosomal proteins. AC-specific RNAi, endogenous ribosome labeling and ribosome biogenesis analysis revealed that a burst of ribosome production occurs shortly after AC specification, which drives the translation of proteins mediating BM removal. Ribosomes also enrich near the AC endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Sec61 translocon and the endomembrane system expands before invasion. We show that AC invasion is sensitive to ER stress, indicating a heightened requirement for translation of ER-trafficked proteins. These studies reveal key roles for ribosome biogenesis and endomembrane expansion in cell invasion through BM and establish the AC transcriptome as a resource to identify mechanisms underlying BM transmigration.

Pathways that affect anterior morphogenesis in C. elegans embryos

During embryogenesis the nascent Caenorhabditis elegans epidermis secretes an apical extracellular matrix (aECM) that serves as an external stabilizer, preventing deformation of the epidermis by mechanical forces exerted during morphogenesis. We showed that two conserved proteins linked to this process, SYM-3/FAM102A and SYM-4/WDR44, colocalize to intracellular and membrane-associated puncta and likely function together in a complex. Proteomics data also suggested potential roles for FAM102A and WDR44 family proteins in intracellular trafficking, consistent with their localization patterns. Nonetheless, we found no evidence to support a clear function for SYM-3 or SYM-4 in the apical deposition of two aECM components, FBN-1 and NOAH. Surprisingly, loss of MEC-8/RBPMS2, a conserved splicing factor and regulator of fbn-1 , had little effect on the abundance or deposition of FBN-1 to the aECM. Using a focused screening approach, we identified 32 additional proteins that likely contribute to the structure and function of the embryonic aECM. Lastly, we examined morphogenesis defects in embryos lacking mir-51 microRNA family members, which display a related embryonic phenotype to mec-8; sym double mutants. Collectively, our findings add to our knowledge of pathways controlling embryonic morphogenesis.

SUMMARY STATEMENT

We identify new proteins in apical ECM biology in C. elegans and provide evidence that SYM-3/FAM102A and SYM-4/WDR44 function together in trafficking but do not regulate apical ECM protein deposition.

Screening and Identification of a Prognostic Model of Ovarian Cancer by Combination of Transcriptomic and Proteomic Data

The integration of transcriptome and proteome analysis can lead to the discovery of a myriad of biological insights into ovarian cancer. Proteome, clinical, and transcriptome data about ovarian cancer were downloaded from TCGA's database. A LASSO-Cox regression was used to uncover prognostic-related proteins and develop a new protein prognostic signature for patients with ovarian cancer to predict their prognosis. Patients were brought together in subgroups using a consensus clustering analysis of prognostic-related proteins. To further investigate the role of proteins and protein-coding genes in ovarian cancer, additional analyses were performed using multiple online databases (HPA, Sangerbox, TIMER, cBioPortal, TISCH, and CancerSEA). The final resulting prognosis factors consisted of seven protective factors (P38MAPK, RAB11, FOXO3A, AR, BETACATENIN, Sox2, and IGFRb) and two risk factors (AKT_pS473 and ERCC5), which can be used to construct a prognosis-related protein model. A significant difference in overall survival (OS), disease-free interval (DFI), disease-specific survival (DSS), and progression-free interval (PFI) curves were found in the training, testing, and whole sets when analyzing the protein-based risk score (p < 0.05). We also illustrated a wide range of functions, immune checkpoints, and tumor-infiltrating immune cells in prognosis-related protein signatures. Additionally, the protein-coding genes were significantly correlated with each other. EMTAB8107 and GSE154600 single-cell data revealed that the genes were highly expressed. Furthermore, the genes were related to tumor functional states (angiogenesis, invasion, and quiescence). We reported and validated a survivability prediction model for ovarian cancer based on prognostic-related protein signatures. A strong correlation was found between the signatures, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, and immune checkpoints. The protein-coding genes were highly expressed in single-cell RNA and bulk RNA sequencing, correlating with both each other and tumor functional states.

COMMD3-Mediated Endosomal Trafficking of HER2 Inhibits the Progression of Ovarian Carcinoma

The dysregulated endocytic traffic of oncogenic receptors, such as the EGFR family especially HER2, contributes to the uncontrolled activation of the downstream oncogenic signaling and progression of various carcinomas, including 90% of ovarian carcinoma. However, the key regulators in the intracellular trafficking of HER2 and their impacts for cancer progression remain largely unknown. In this study, through a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screening for key genes affecting the peritoneal disseminated metastasis of ovarian carcinoma, we identified a member of COMMD family, that is, COMMD3, as a key regulator in the endosomal trafficking of HER2. In the patients with high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC), the expression of COMMD3 is dramatically decreased in the peritoneal disseminated ovarian carcinoma cells comparing with that in the primary ovarian carcinoma cells. COMMD3 greatly inhibits the proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of HGSOC cells, and dramatically suppresses the tumor growth, the formation of malignant ascites, and the peritoneal dissemination of cancer cells in the orthotopic murine model of HGSOC. Further transcriptome analysis reveals that silencing COMMD3 boosts the activation of HER2 downstream signaling. As a component in the Retriever-associated COMMD/CCDC22/CCDC93 complex responsible for the recognition and recycling of membrane receptors, COMMD3 physically interacts with HER2 for directing it to the slow recycling pathway, leading to the attenuated downstream tumor-promoting signaling.

IMPLICATIONS

Collectively, this study reveals a novel HER2 inactivation mechanism with a high value for the clinic diagnosis of new ovarian carcinoma types and the design of new therapeutic strategy.

RAB11A Promotes Cell Malignant Progression and Tumor Formation of Prostate Cancer via Activating FAK/AKT Signaling Pathway

Background

RAB11A, a member of the GTPase family, acts as a regulator in diverse cancers development. The dysregulation of the FAK/AKT signaling pathway is mainly related to tumorigenesis. This study aimed to investigate the possible effect of RAB11A in prostate cancer and further explore the potential mechanisms.

Results

In this study, we illustrated the tumor-promoting effects of RAB11A based on in vivo and in vitro experiments. RAB11A expression was upregulated in prostate cancer cells. RAB11A knockdown decreased the prostate cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. RAB11A also induced the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. PF562271 suppressed the malignant characteristics of prostate cancer cells caused by RAB11A knockdown. Furthermore, the interference of RAB11A reduced the tumor growth and the protein levels of p-FAK/FAK and p-AKT/AKT in vivo.

Conclusion

RAB11A promotes cell malignant progression and tumor formation in prostate cancer via activating FAK/AKT signaling pathway.

Linking Late Endosomal Cholesterol with Cancer Progression and Anticancer Drug Resistance

Cancer cells undergo drastic metabolic adaptions to cover increased bioenergetic needs, contributing to resistance to therapies. This includes a higher demand for cholesterol, which often coincides with elevated cholesterol uptake from low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and overexpression of the LDL receptor in many cancers. This implies the need for cancer cells to accommodate an increased delivery of LDL along the endocytic pathway to late endosomes/lysosomes (LE/Lys), providing a rapid and effective distribution of LDL-derived cholesterol from LE/Lys to other organelles for cholesterol to foster cancer growth and spread. LDL-cholesterol exported from LE/Lys is facilitated by Niemann–Pick Type C1/2 (NPC1/2) proteins, members of the steroidogenic acute regulatory-related lipid transfer domain (StARD) and oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP) families. In addition, lysosomal membrane proteins, small Rab GTPases as well as scaffolding proteins, including annexin A6 (AnxA6), contribute to regulating cholesterol egress from LE/Lys. Here, we summarize current knowledge that links upregulated activity and expression of cholesterol transporters and related proteins in LE/Lys with cancer growth, progression and treatment outcomes. Several mechanisms on how cellular distribution of LDL-derived cholesterol from LE/Lys influences cancer cell behavior are reviewed, some of those providing opportunities for treatment strategies to reduce cancer progression and anticancer drug resistance.

Alteration in Rab11-mediated endocytic trafficking of LDL receptor contributes to angiotensin II-induced cholesterol accumulation and injury in podocytes

Objectives

Exposure of podocytes to angiotensin II (Ang II) enhances the abundance of the cell surface glycoprotein, low‐density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and promotes significant changes in the cellular cholesterol content. Recent investigation provides evidence that the small GTPase Rab11 is involved in the regulation of LDLR, but the exact mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, the role of Rab11 in post‐transcriptional regulation of LDLR was evaluated to investigate potential mechanisms of podocyte cholesterol dysregulation in chronic kidney disease.

Materials and Methods

Cholesterol content, LDLR and Rab11 expression were assessed in podocytes from Ang II‐infused mice. In vitro, the intracellular localization of LDLR was detected under different conditions. Rab11 expression was modulated and we then explored the effect of anti‐lipid cytotoxicity by detecting LDLR expression and trafficking, cholesterol content and apoptosis in podocytes.

Results

Cholesterol accumulation, upregulated expression of LDLR and Rab11 were discovered in podocytes from Ang II‐infused mice. Ang II enhanced the co‐precipitation of LDLR with Rab11 and accelerated the endocytic recycling of LDLR to the plasma membrane. Additionally, silencing Rab11 promoted lysosomal degradation of LDLR and alleviated Ang II‐induced cholesterol accumulation and apoptosis in podocytes. Conversely, overexpression of Rab11 or inhibition of lysosomal degradation up‐regulated the abundance of LDLR and aggravated podocyte cholesterol deposition.

Conclusions

Rab11 triggers the endocytic trafficking and recycling of LDLR; overactivation of this pathway contributes to Ang II‐induced podocyte cholesterol accumulation and injury.

Dance of The Golgi: Understanding Golgi Dynamics in Cancer Metastasis

The Golgi apparatus is at the center of protein processing and trafficking in normal cells. Under pathological conditions, such as in cancer, aberrant Golgi dynamics alter the tumor microenvironment and the immune landscape, which enhances the invasive and metastatic potential of cancer cells. Among these changes in the Golgi in cancer include altered Golgi orientation and morphology that contribute to atypical Golgi function in protein trafficking, post-translational modification, and exocytosis. Golgi-associated gene mutations are ubiquitous across most cancers and are responsible for modifying Golgi function to become pro-metastatic. The pharmacological targeting of the Golgi or its associated genes has been difficult in the clinic; thus, studying the Golgi and its role in cancer is critical to developing novel therapeutic agents that limit cancer progression and metastasis. In this review, we aim to discuss how disrupted Golgi function in cancer cells promotes invasion and metastasis.

Persistent cell migration emerges from a coupling between protrusion dynamics and polarized trafficking

Migrating cells present a variety of paths, from random to highly directional ones. While random movement can be explained by basal intrinsic activity, persistent movement requires stable polarization. Here, we quantitatively address emergence of persistent migration in (hTERT)–immortalizedRPE1 (retinal pigment epithelial) cells over long timescales. By live cell imaging and dynamic micropatterning, we demonstrate that the Nucleus-Golgi axis aligns with direction of migration leading to efficient cell movement. We show that polarized trafficking is directed toward protrusions with a 20-min delay, and that migration becomes random after disrupting internal cell organization. Eventually, we prove that localized optogenetic Cdc42 activation orients the Nucleus-Golgi axis. Our work suggests that polarized trafficking stabilizes the protrusive activity of the cell, while protrusive activity orients this polarity axis, leading to persistent cell migration. Using a minimal physical model, we show that this feedback is sufficient to recapitulate the quantitative properties of cell migration in the timescale of hours.

Mitochondrial respiration restricts Listeria monocytogenes infection by slowing down host cell receptor recycling

Mutations in mitochondrial genes impairing energy production cause mitochondrial diseases (MDs), and clinical studies have shown that MD patients are prone to bacterial infections. However, the relationship between mitochondrial (dys)function and infection remains largely unexplored, especially in epithelial cells, the first barrier to many pathogens. Here, we generate an epithelial cell model for one of the most common mitochondrial diseases, Leigh syndrome, by deleting surfeit locus protein 1 (SURF1), an assembly factor for respiratory chain complex IV. We use this genetic model and a complementary, nutrient-based approach to modulate mitochondrial respiration rates and show that impaired mitochondrial respiration favors entry of the human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, a well-established bacterial infection model. Reversely, enhanced mitochondrial energy metabolism decreases infection efficiency. We further demonstrate that endocytic recycling is reduced in mitochondrial respiration-dependent cells, dampening L. monocytogenes infection by slowing the recycling of its host cell receptor c-Met, highlighting a previously undescribed role of mitochondrial respiration during infection.

•

Enhanced mitochondrial respiration decreases L. monocytogenes infection

•

Bacterial entry is affected by the host cell metabolism

•

Mitochondrial respiration restricts host cell receptor recycling and thus infection

Deliver on Time or Pay the Fine: Scheduling in Membrane Trafficking

Membrane trafficking is all about time. Automation in such a biological process is crucial to ensure management and delivery of cellular cargoes with spatiotemporal precision. Shared molecular regulators and differential engagement of trafficking components improve robustness of molecular sorting. Sequential recruitment of low affinity protein complexes ensures directionality of the process and, concomitantly, serves as a kinetic proofreading mechanism to discriminate cargoes from the whole endocytosed material. This strategy helps cells to minimize losses and operating errors in membrane trafficking, thereby matching the appealed deadline. Here, we summarize the molecular pathways of molecular sorting, focusing on their timing and efficacy. We also highlight experimental procedures and genetic approaches to robustly probe these pathways, in order to guide mechanistic studies at the interface between biochemistry and quantitative biology.

Extracellular Vesicles: Emerging Players in Plant Defense Against Pathogens

Communication between plants and interacting microorganisms requires functional molecule trafficking, which is essential for host defense and pathogen virulence. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are single membrane-bound spheres that carry complex cargos, including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. They mediate cell-to-cell communication via the transfer of molecules between cells. Plant EVs have been isolated from many plant species and play a prominent role in immune system modulation and plant defense response. Recent studies have shown that plant EVs are emerging players in cross-kingdom regulation and contribute to plant immunity by mediating the trafficking of regulatory small RNA into pathogens, leading to the silencing of pathogen virulence-related genes. This review summarizes the current understanding of plant EV isolation technologies, the role of plant EVs in plant immunity, and the mechanism of plant EV biogenesis, as well as approaches for how these findings can be developed into innovative strategies for crop protection.