The Urokinase Plasminogen Activation System in Pancreatic Cancer: Prospective Diagnostic and Therapeutic Targets

Investigating the influence of taurochenodeoxycholic acid (TCDCA) on pancreatic cancer cell behavior: An RNA sequencing approach

Pancreatic cancer (PC) poses a substantial global health challenge, ranking as the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths due to its high mortality rate. Late-stage diagnoses are common due to the absence of specific symptoms. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) accounts for the majority of PC cases. Recent research has suggested a potential link between elevated serum levels of bile acids (BAs) and tumorigenesis of PDAC. This study aims to understand how taurochenodeoxycholic acid (TCDCA), a secondary BA, influences PDAC using RNA sequencing techniques on the Capan-1 cell line. We identified 2,950 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) following TCDCA treatment, with 1,597 upregulated and 1,353 downregulated genes. These DEGs were associated with critical PDAC pathways, including coagulation, angiogenesis, cell migration, and signaling regulation. Furthermore, we reviewed relevant literature highlighting genes like DKK-1, KRT80, UPLA, and SerpinB2, known for their roles in PDAC tumorigenesis and metastasis. Our study sheds light on the complex relationship between BAs and PDAC, offering insights into potential diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets. Further research is needed to unravel these findings' precise mechanisms and clinical implications, potentially improving PDAC diagnosis and treatment.

Micro RNA Dysregulation in Keratinocyte Carcinomas: Clinical Evidence, Functional Impact, and Future Directions

The keratinocyte carcinomas, basal cell carcinoma (BCC), and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), are the most common cancers in humans. Recently, an increasing body of literature has investigated the role of miRNAs in keratinocyte carcinoma pathogenesis, progression and their use as therapeutic agents and targets, or biomarkers. However, there is very little consistency in the literature regarding the identity of and/or role of individual miRNAs in cSCC (and to a lesser extent BCC) biology. miRNA analyses that combine clinical evidence with experimental elucidation of targets and functional impact provide far more compelling evidence than studies purely based on clinical findings or bioinformatic analyses. In this study, we review the clinical evidence associated with miRNA dysregulation in KCs, assessing the quality of validation evidence provided, identify gaps, and provide recommendations for future studies based on relevant studies that investigated miRNA levels in human cSCC and BCC. Furthermore, we demonstrate how miRNAs contribute to the regulation of a diverse network of cellular functions, and that large-scale changes in tumor cell biology can be attributed to miRNA dysregulation. We highlight the need for further studies investigating the role of miRNAs as communicators between different cell types in the tumor microenvironment. Finally, we explore the clinical benefits of miRNAs as biomarkers of keratinocyte carcinoma prognosis and treatment.

Ion Transport and Inhibitor Binding by Human NHE1: Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Free Energy Calculations

The human Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE1) plays a crucial role in maintaining intracellular pH by regulating the electroneutral exchange of a single intracellular H+ for one extracellular Na+ across the plasma membrane. Understanding the molecular mechanisms governing ion transport and the binding of inhibitors is of importance in the development of anticancer therapeutics targeting NHE1. In this context, we performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations based on the recent cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of outward- and inward-facing conformations of NHE1. These simulations allowed us to explore the dynamics of the protein, examine the ion-translocation pore, and confirm that Asp267 is the ion-binding residue. Our free energy calculations did not show a significant difference between Na+ and K+ binding at the ion-binding site. Consequently, Na+ over K+ selectivity cannot be solely explained by differences in ion binding. Our MD simulations involving NHE1 inhibitors (cariporide and amiloride analogues) maintained stable interactions with Asp267 and Glu346. Our study highlights the importance of the salt bridge between the positively charged acylguanidine moiety and Asp267, which appears to play a role in the competitive inhibitory mechanism for this class of inhibitors. Our computational study provides a detailed mechanistic interpretation of experimental data and serves the basis of future structure-based inhibitor design.

Plasminogen deficiency suppresses pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma disease progression

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly fatal metastatic disease associated with robust activation of the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems. However, the potential contribution of the primary fibrinolytic protease plasminogen to PDAC disease progression has remained largely undefined. Mice bearing C57Bl/6-derived KPC (KRasG12D , TRP53R172H ) tumors displayed evidence of plasmin activity in the form of high plasmin-antiplasmin complexes and high plasmin generation potential relative to mice without tumors. Notably, plasminogen-deficient mice (Plg- ) had significantly diminished KPC tumor growth in subcutaneous and orthotopic implantation models. Moreover, the metastatic potential of KPC cells was significantly diminished in Plg- mice, which was linked to reduced early adhesion and/or survival of KPC tumor cells. The reduction in primary orthotopic KPC tumor growth in Plg- mice was associated with increased apoptosis, reduced accumulation of pro-tumor immune cells, and increased local proinflammatory cytokine production. Elimination of fibrin(ogen), the primary proteolytic target of plasmin, did not alter KPC primary tumor growth and resulted in only a modest reduction in metastatic potential. In contrast, deficiencies in the plasminogen receptors Plg-RKT or S100A10 in tumor cells significantly reduced tumor growth. Plg-RKT reduction in tumor cells, but not reduced S100A10, suppressed metastatic potential in a manner that mimicked plasminogen deficiency. Finally, tumor growth was also reduced in NSG mice subcutaneously or orthotopically implanted with patient-derived PDAC tumor cells in which circulating plasminogen was pharmacologically reduced. Collectively, these studies suggest that plasminogen promotes PDAC tumor growth and metastatic potential, in part through engaging plasminogen receptors on tumor cells.

Effects of copy number variations on longevity in late-onset Alzheimer's disease patients: insights from a causality network analysis

Alzheimer's disease (AD), particularly late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), is a prevalent form of dementia that significantly affects patients' cognitive and behavioral capacities and longevity. Although approximately 70 genetic risk factors linked with AD have been identified, their influence on patient longevity remains unclear. Further, recent studies have associated copy number variations (CNVs) with the longevity of healthy individuals and immune-related pathways in AD patients. This study aims to investigate the role of CNVs on the longevity of AD patients by integrating the Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) and transcriptomics data from the Religious Orders Study/Memory and Aging Project (ROSMAP) cohort through causality network inference. Our comprehensive analysis led to the construction of a CNV-Gene-Age of Death (AOD) causality network. We successfully identified three key CNVs (DEL5006, mCNV14192, and DUP42180) and seven AD-longevity causal genes (PLGRKT, TLR1, PLAU, CALB2, SYTL2, OTOF, and NT5DC1) impacting AD patient longevity, independent of disease severity. This outcome emphasizes the potential role of plasminogen activation and chemotaxis in longevity. We propose several hypotheses regarding the role of identified CNVs and the plasminogen system on patient longevity. However, experimental validation is required to further corroborate these findings and uncover precise mechanisms. Despite these limitations, our study offers promising insights into the genetic influence on AD patient longevity and contributes to paving the way for potential therapeutic interventions.

A niche-mimicking polymer hydrogel-based approach to identify molecular targets for tackling human pancreatic cancer stem cells

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is one of the most fatal human cancers, but effective therapies remain to be established. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are highly resistant to anti-cancer drugs and a deeper understanding of their microenvironmental niche has been considered important to provide understanding and solutions to cancer eradication. However, as the CSC niche is composed of a wide variety of biological and physicochemical factors, the development of multidisciplinary tools that recapitulate their complex features is indispensable. Synthetic polymers have been studied as attractive biomaterials due to their tunable biofunctionalities, while hydrogelation technique further renders upon them a diversity of physical properties, making them an attractive tool for analysis of the CSC niche.

METHODS

To develop innovative materials that recapitulate the CSC niche in pancreatic cancers, we performed polymer microarray analysis to identify niche-mimicking scaffolds that preferentially supported the growth of CSCs. The niche-mimicking activity of the identified polymers was further optimized by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogelation. To reveal the biological mechanisms behind the activity of the optimized hydrogels towards CSCs, proteins binding onto the hydrogel were analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and the potential therapeutic targets were validated by looking at gene expression and patients' outcome in the TCGA database.

RESULTS

PA531, a heteropolymer composed of 2-methoxyethyl methacrylate (MEMA) and 2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DEAEMA) (5.5:4.5) that specifically supports the growth and maintenance of CSCs was identified by polymer microarray screening using the human PAAD cell line KLM1. The polymer PA531 was converted into five hydrogels (PA531-HG1 to HG5) and developed to give an optimized scaffold with the highest CSC niche-mimicking activities. From this polymer that recapitulated CSC binding and control, the proteins fetuin-B and angiotensinogen were identified as candidate target molecules with clinical significance due to the correlation between gene expression levels and prognosis in PAAD patients and the proteins associated with the niche-mimicking polymer.

CONCLUSION

This study screened for biofunctional polymers suitable for recapitulation of the pancreatic CSC niche and one hydrogel with high niche-mimicking abilities was successfully fabricated. Two soluble factors with clinical significance were identified as potential candidates for biomarkers and therapeutic targets in pancreatic cancers. Such a biomaterial-based approach could be a new platform in drug discovery and therapy development against CSCs, via targeting of their niche.

Stage-Dependent Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 in the Prognosis of Colorectal Cancer

PURPOSE

The development of sensitive and non-invasive biomarkers for the early detection of CRC and determination of their role in the individual stages of CRC.

METHODS

MMP-9 expression in serum and tissue, and BDNF expression in plasma were detected using the ELISA method. MMP-9 and BDNF in the tissue were also determined by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

To assess the balance between changes in survival and tumor progression, we compared BDNF/MMP-9 ratios in tissues of living and deceased individuals. The tissue BDNF/MMP-9 ratio (evaluated immunohistochemically) decreased significantly with the progression of the disease in living patients. The BDNF/MMP-9 ratio was statistically significantly reduced in stages II and III compared to the benign group. However, in deceased individuals, the ratio showed an opposite tendency.

CONCLUSION

The determination of the tissue BDNF/MMP9 ratio can be used as a prognostic biomarker of CRC.

Recent Advances in Targeting the Urokinase Plasminogen Activator with Nanotherapeutics

The aberrant proteolytic landscape of the tumor microenvironment is a key contributor of cancer progression. Overexpression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and/or its associated cell-surface receptor (uPAR) in tumor versus normal tissue is significantly associated with worse clinicopathological features and poorer patient survival across multiple cancer types. This is linked to mechanisms that facilitate tumor cell invasion and migration, via direct and downstream activation of various proteolytic processes that degrade the extracellular matrix─ultimately leading to metastasis. Targeting uPA has thus long been considered an attractive anticancer strategy. However, poor bioavailability of several uPA-selective small-molecule inhibitors has limited early clinical progress. Nanodelivery systems have emerged as an exciting method to enhance the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of existing chemotherapeutics, allowing increased circulation time, improved bioavailability, and targeted delivery to tumor tissue. Combining uPA inhibitors with nanoparticle-based delivery systems thus offers a remarkable opportunity to overcome existing PK challenges associated with conventional uPA inhibitors, while leveraging potent candidates into novel targeted nanotherapeutics for an improved anticancer response in uPA positive tumors.

Recent advances in targeted therapy for pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a fatal disease with a 5-year survival rate of 8% and a median survival of 6 mo. In PDAC, several mutations in the genes are involved, with Kirsten rat sarcoma oncogene (90%), cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A (90%), and tumor suppressor 53 (75%–90%) being the most common. Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4 represents 50%. In addition, the self-preserving cancer stem cells, dense tumor microenvironment (fibrous accounting for 90% of the tumor volume), and suppressive and relatively depleted immune niche of PDAC are also constitutive and relevant elements of PDAC. Molecular targeted therapy is widely utilized and effective in several solid tumors. In PDAC, targeted therapy has been extensively evaluated; however, survival improvement of this aggressive disease using a targeted strategy has been minimal. There is currently only one United States Food and Drug Administration-approved targeted therapy for PDAC – erlotinib, but the absolute benefit of erlotinib in combination with gemcitabine is also minimal (2 wk). In this review, we summarize current targeted therapies and clinical trials targeting dysregulated signaling pathways and components of the PDAC oncogenic process, analyze possible reasons for the lack of positive results in clinical trials, and suggest ways to improve them. We also discuss emerging trends in targeted therapies for PDAC: combining targeted inhibitors of multiple pathways. The PubMed database and National Center for Biotechnology Information clinical trial website (www.clinicaltrials.gov) were queried to identify completed and published (PubMed) and ongoing (clinicaltrials.gov) clinical trials (from 2003-2022) using the keywords pancreatic cancer and targeted therapy. The PubMed database was also queried to search for information about the pathogenesis and molecular pathways of pancreatic cancer using the keywords pancreatic cancer and molecular pathways.

Investigation of the Compatibility between Warheads and Peptidomimetic Sequences of Protease Inhibitors-A Comprehensive Reactivity and Selectivity Study

Covalent peptidomimetic protease inhibitors have gained a lot of attention in drug development in recent years. They are designed to covalently bind the catalytically active amino acids through electrophilic groups called warheads. Covalent inhibition has an advantage in terms of pharmacodynamic properties but can also bear toxicity risks due to non-selective off-target protein binding. Therefore, the right combination of a reactive warhead with a well-suited peptidomimetic sequence is of great importance. Herein, the selectivities of well-known warheads combined with peptidomimetic sequences suited for five different proteases were investigated, highlighting the impact of both structure parts (warhead and peptidomimetic sequence) for affinity and selectivity. Molecular docking gave insights into the predicted binding modes of the inhibitors inside the binding pockets of the different enzymes. Moreover, the warheads were investigated by NMR and LC-MS reactivity assays against serine/threonine and cysteine nucleophile models, as well as by quantum mechanics simulations.

The uPA/uPAR System Orchestrates the Inflammatory Response, Vascular Homeostasis, and Immune System in Fibrosis Progression

Fibrotic diseases, such as systemic sclerosis (SSc), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, renal fibrosis and liver cirrhosis are characterized by tissue overgrowth due to excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Fibrosis progression is caused by ECM overproduction and the inhibition of ECM degradation due to several events, including inflammation, vascular endothelial dysfunction, and immune abnormalities. Recently, it has been reported that urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and its receptor (uPAR), known to be fibrinolytic factors, orchestrate the inflammatory response, vascular homeostasis, and immune homeostasis system. The uPA/uPAR system may show promise as a potential therapeutic target for fibrotic diseases. This review considers the role of the uPA/uPAR system in the progression of fibrotic diseases.

MIF promotes cell invasion by the LRP1-uPAR interaction in pancreatic cancer cells

Introduction

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by high aggressiveness and a hypoxic tumour microenvironment. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a hypoxia-related pleiotropic cytokine that plays important roles in cancer. However, its role in PDAC progression has not been fully elucidated.

Methods

The clinical significance of MIF and hypoxia inducible factor 1 subunit alpha (HIF1A) in PDAC was analysed using immunohistochemical staining on PDAC tissues and data from KM-Plotter database. Spatial distribution of MIF and HIF1A gene expression was visualized by spatial transcriptomics in PDAC cell xenografts. To monitor the role of MIF in PDAC cell malignancy, immunostaining, lentivirus shRNA, migration assays, flow cytometry, transcriptomics and in vivo tumorigenicity were performed.

Results

The spatial distribution of MIF and HIF1A was highly correlated and that high MIF expression was associated with poor prognosis of PDAC patients. MIF knockdown impaired cell invasion, with a decrease in the expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR). Although PLAUR transcript was not reduced, a uPAR endocytic receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), was upregulated at both the mRNA and protein levels after MIF knockdown. The LRP1 antagonist RAP restored uPAR expression and invasiveness. MIF attenuated the nuclear translocation of p53, a transcriptional regulator of LRP1. Furthermore, MIF downregulation blunted the growth of PDAC cell xenografts and inhibited cell proliferation under normoxia and hypoxia. Transcriptome analysis also provided evidence for the role of MIF in cancer-associated pathways.

Discussion

We demonstrate a novel link between the two pro-invasive agents MIF and uPAR and explain how MIF increases PDAC cell invasion capability. This finding provides a basis for therapeutic intervention of MIF in PDAC progression.

The role of matrix metalloproteinases in pathogenesis, diagnostics, and treatment of human prostate cancer

The prostate gland is highly susceptible to oncogenic transformation, many times more than other sex tissues, such as seminal vesicles. In fact, prostate cancer (PCa) will be diagnosed in one in seven lifetime patients, making PCa the subject of intense research aimed at clarifying its biology and providing adequate treatment. PCa is the fourth most common cancer in the world in terms of the overall population and the second most common cancer for the male population. It is postulated that the development of PCa may be influenced by dietary factors, physical and sexual activity, androgens, obesity, and inflammation, but their role in the development of prostate cancer still remains unclear. Extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue metalloproteinase inhibitors (TIMPs) play an important role in many physiological and pathological processes, including proliferation, migration, invasion, cell differentiation, participation in inflammatory processes and angiogenesis. Numerous studies point to a direct relationship between MMPs and both local tumor invasion and the formation of distant metastases. High activity of MMPs is observed in solid tumors of various origins, which positively correlates with a poor overall survival rate. Although biochemical diagnostic markers of PCa are currently available, from the point of view of clinical practice, it seems particularly important to develop new and more sensitive markers allowing for early diagnosis and long-term monitoring of patients after PCa treatment, and the assessment of MMP activity in urine and serum of patients are potential factors that could play such a role.

Metastatic phenotype and immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Key role of the urokinase plasminogen activator (PLAU)

Background

Previous studies have revealed the role of dysregulated urokinase plasminogen activator (encoded by PLAU) expression and activity in several pathways associated with cancer progression. However, systematic investigation into the association of PLAU expression with factors that modulate PDAC (pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma) progression is lacking, such as those affecting stromal (pancreatic stellate cell, PSC)-cancer cell interactions, tumour immunity, PDAC subtypes and clinical outcomes from potential PLAU inhibition.

Methods

This study used an integrated bioinformatics approach to identify prognostic markers correlated with PLAU expression using different transcriptomics, proteomics, and clinical data sets. We then determined the association of dysregulated PLAU and correlated signatures with oncogenic pathways, metastatic phenotypes, stroma, immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment (TME) and clinical outcome. Finally, using an in vivo orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer, we confirmed the predicted effect of inhibiting PLAU on tumour growth and metastasis.

Results

Our analyses revealed that PLAU upregulation is not only associated with numerous other prognostic markers but also associated with the activation of various oncogenic signalling pathways, aggressive phenotypes relevant to PDAC growth and metastasis, such as proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), stemness, hypoxia, extracellular cell matrix (ECM) degradation, upregulation of stromal signatures, and immune suppression in the tumour microenvironment (TME). Moreover, the upregulation of PLAU was directly connected with signalling pathways known to mediate PSC-cancer cell interactions. Furthermore, PLAU upregulation was associated with the aggressive basal/squamous phenotype of PDAC and significantly reduced overall survival, indicating that this subset of patients may benefit from therapeutic interventions to inhibit PLAU activity. Our studies with a clinically relevant orthotopic pancreatic model showed that even short-term PLAU inhibition is sufficient to significantly halt tumour growth and, importantly, eliminate visible metastasis.

Conclusion

Elevated PLAU correlates with increased aggressive phenotypes, stromal score, and immune suppression in PDAC. PLAU upregulation is also closely associated with the basal subtype type of PDAC; patients with this subtype are at high risk of mortality from the disease and may benefit from therapeutic targeting of PLAU.

A tEMTing target? Clinical and experimental evidence for epithelial-mesenchymal transition in the progression of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (a scoping systematic review)

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a disease with globally rising incidence and poor prognosis for patients with advanced or metastatic disease. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a driver of metastasis in many carcinomas, and cSCC is no exception. We aimed to provide a systematic overview of the clinical and experimental evidence for EMT in cSCC, with critical appraisal of type and quality of the methodology used. We then used this information as rationale for potential drug targets against advanced and metastatic cSCC. All primary literature encompassing clinical and cell-based or xenograft experimental studies reporting on the role of EMT markers or related signalling pathways in the progression of cSCC were considered. A screen of 3443 search results yielded 86 eligible studies comprising 44 experimental studies, 22 clinical studies, and 20 studies integrating both. From the clinical studies a timeline illustrating the alteration of EMT markers and related signalling was evident based on clinical progression of the disease. The experimental studies reveal connections of EMT with a multitude of factors such as genetic disorders, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and matrix remodelling via matrix metalloproteinases and urokinase plasminogen activator. Additionally, EMT was found to be closely tied to environmental factors as well as to stemness in cSCC via NFκB and β-catenin. We conclude that the canonical EGFR, canonical TGF-βR, PI3K/AKT and NFκB signalling are the four signalling pillars that induce EMT in cSCC and could be valuable therapeutic targets. Despite the complexity, EMT markers and pathways are desirable biomarkers and drug targets for the treatment of advanced or metastatic cSCC.