The Potential Role of Extracorporeal Cytokine Removal in Hemodynamic Stabilization in Hyperinflammatory Shock

Interleukin-6 Levels During Normothermic Machine Perfusion Impact Postreperfusion Hemodynamics of Liver Graft Recipients: A Prospective Single-center Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Hemodynamic instability after liver graft reperfusion increases recipient morbidity after liver transplantation. The etiologies of hemodynamic disturbances appear to be multifactorial and are poorly understood. Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) provides an opportunity to analyze graft quality prior to transplantation. In the present study, we aim to investigate the influence of interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels during NMP on postreperfusion hemodynamics of the recipient.

METHODS

Consecutive NMP-liver transplants at a single-center were prospectively analyzed. Perfusate samples were collected at the beginning, after 6 h, and at the end of perfusion and analyzed for IL-6 levels. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and catecholamine consumption during surgery were recorded. IL-6 levels at the end of NMP were correlated to donor and perfusion characteristics as well as changes in MAP and catecholamine requirements during the anhepatic and reperfusion phase.

RESULTS

IL-6 perfusate measurements were assessed in 77 livers undergoing NMP and transplantation. Donor age, sex, cold ischemic time, and NMP time did not correlate with IL-6 levels. Perfusates of donation after circulatory death grafts showed higher IL-6 levels at the end of NMP than donation after brain death grafts. However, IL-6 levels at the end of NMP correlated with catecholamine requirements and MAP in the reperfusion phase. Per log10 increase in IL-6 levels, an increase of 42% points in administered catecholamine dose was observed, despite MAP being decreased by 3.6% points compared to baseline values.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-6 levels may be a predictor for recipient hemodynamic instability during liver reperfusion. Larger studies are needed to confirm this finding.

Ineffectiveness of hemoadsorption in large animals with abdominal sepsis: a randomized controlled porcine study

OBJECTIVES

The use of hemoadsorption (HA) has become popular in the treatment of vasoplegic states associated with massive cytokine release, including septic shock. However, this approach does not seem to be based on robust evidence, and it does not follow international guidelines. To understand the pathophysiological rationale and timing of HA, we conducted a large animal septic shock experiment.

DESIGN

Prospective randomized large-animal peritoneal septic shock experiment.

SETTING

Laboratory investigation.

SUBJECTS

Twenty-six anesthetized, mechanically ventilated, and instrumented pigs randomly assigned into (1) sham-operated group with HA (SHAM, n = 5); (2) sepsis animals without HA (SEPSIS, n = 5); (3) sepsis group with HA at norepinephrine initiation (EARLY, n = 8); and (4) sepsis group with HA initiated at norepinephrine rate reaching 0.5 μg/kg/min (LATE, n = 8).

INTERVENTIONS

Peritoneal sepsis was induced by cultivated autologous feces inoculation. A CytoSorb cartridge (200 g) with a blood flow rate of 200 mL/min and heparin anticoagulation was used to perform HA. The animals received sedation and intensive organ support up to 48 h or until they experienced cardiovascular collapse.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Systemic hemodynamics, multiple-organ functions, and immune-inflammatory response were measured at predefined periods. The HA treatment was not associated with any measurable benefit in terms of systemic hemodynamics and organ support. The systemic inflammatory markers were unaffected by any of the treatment timings. In contrast, the HA resulted in higher vasopressor load and decreased 36-h survival (5 animals in SHAM (100%), 4 (80%) in SEPSIS, 4 (57%) in EARLY, and 2 (25%) in LATE; p = 0.041). The HA exposure in healthy animals was associated with hemodynamic deterioration, systemic inflammatory response, and cytopenia.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large-animal-controlled fulminant sepsis study, the HA was unable to counteract the disease progression in the early or advanced septic shock phase. However, findings from the HA-exposed sham animals suggest potential safety concerns.

Systematic review with expert consensus on use of extracorporeal hemoadsorption in septic shock: An Indian perspective

BACKGROUND

Septic shock is a severe form of sepsis characterised by deterioration in circulatory and cellular-metabolic parameters. Despite standard therapy, the outcomes are poor. Newer adjuvant therapy, such as CytoSorb® extracorporeal haemoadsorption device, has been investigated and shown promising outcome. However, there is a lack of some guidance to make clinical decisions on the use of CytoSorb® haemoadsorption as an adjuvant therapy in septic shock in Indian Setting. Therefore, this expert consensus was formulated.

AIM

To formulate/establish specific consensus statements on the use of CytoSorb® haemoadsorption treatment based on the best available evidence and contextualised to the Indian scenario.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive literature on CytoSorb® haemoadsorption in sepsis, septic shock in PubMed selecting papers published between January 2011 and March 2023 2021 in English language. The statements for a consensus document were developed based on the summarised literature analysis and identification of knowledge gaps. Using a modified Delphi approach combining evidence appraisal and expert opinion, the following topics related to CytoSorb® in septic shock were addressed: need for adjuvant therapy, initiation timeline, need for Interleukin -6 levels, duration of therapy, change of adsorbers, safety, prerequisite condition, efficacy endpoints and management flowchart. Eleven expert members from critical care, emergency medicine, and the intensive care participated and voted on nine statements and one open-ended question.

RESULTS

Eleven expert members from critical care, emergency medicine, and the intensive care participated and voted on nine statements and one open-ended question. All 11 experts in the consensus group (100%) participated in the first, second and third round of voting. After three iterative voting rounds and adapting two statements, consensus was achieved on nine statements out of nine statements. The consensus expert panel also recognised the necessity to form an association or society that can keep a registry regarding the use of CytoSorb® for all indications in the open-ended question (Q10) focusing on "future recommendations for CytoSorb® therapy".

CONCLUSION

This Indian perspective consensus statement supports and provides guidance on the use of CytoSorb® haemoadsorption as an adjuvant treatment in patients with septic shock to achieve optimal outcomes.

Identifying hub genes of sepsis-associated and hepatic encephalopathies based on bioinformatic analysis-focus on the two common encephalopathies of septic cirrhotic patients in ICU

BACKGROUND

In the ICU ward, septic cirrhotic patients are susceptible to suffering from sepsis-associated encephalopathy and/or hepatic encephalopathy, which are two common neurological complications in such patients. However, the mutual pathogenesis between sepsis-associated and hepatic encephalopathies remains unclear. We aimed to identify the mutual hub genes, explore effective diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the two common encephalopathies and provide novel, promising insights into the clinical management of such septic cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

The precious human post-mortem cerebral tissues were deprived of the GSE135838, GSE57193, and GSE41919 datasets, downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Furthermore, we identified differentially expressed genes and screened hub genes with weighted gene co-expression network analysis. The hub genes were then subjected to Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway functional enrichment analyses, and protein-protein interaction networks were constructed. Receiver operating characteristic curves and correlation analyses were set up for the hub genes. Finally, we explored principal and common signaling pathways by using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and the association between the hub genes and immune cell subtype distribution by using CIBERSORT algorithm.

RESULTS

We identified seven hub genes-GPR4, SOCS3, BAG3, ZFP36, CDKN1A, ADAMTS9, and GADD45B-by using differentially expressed gene analysis and weighted gene co-expression network analysis method. The AUCs of these genes were all greater than 0.7 in the receiver operating characteristic curves analysis. The Gene Set Enrichment Analysis results demonstrated that mutual signaling pathways were mainly enriched in hypoxia and inflammatory response. CIBERSORT indicated that these seven hub genes were closely related to innate and adaptive immune cells.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified seven hub genes with promising diagnostic value and therapeutic targets in septic cirrhotic patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy and/or hepatic encephalopathy. Hypoxia, inflammatory, and immunoreaction responses may share the common downstream pathways of the two common encephalopathies, for which earlier recognition and timely intervention are crucial for management of such septic cirrhotic patients in ICU.

Hemoadsorption in Organ Preservation and Transplantation: A Narrative Review

Cytokine adsorption can resolve different complications characteristic of transplantation medicine, such as cytokine storm activation and blood ABO and immune incompatibilities. Cytokine adsorption is also performed for the treatment of various life-threatening conditions, such as endotoxic septic shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and cardiogenic shock, all potentially leading to adverse clinical outcomes during transplantation. After surgery, dysmetabolism and stress response limit successful graft survival and can lead to primary or secondary graft dysfunction. In this clinical context, and given that a major problem in transplant medicine is that the demand for organs far exceeds the supply, a technological innovation such as a hemoadsorption system could greatly contribute to increasing the number of usable organ donors. The objectives of this review are to describe the specific advantages and disadvantages of the application of cytokine adsorption in the context of transplantation and examine, before and/or after organ transplantation, the benefits of the addition of a cytokine adsorption therapy protocol.

The potential role of extracorporeal cytokine removal with CytoSorb® as an adjuvant therapy in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Management of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) represents one of the greatest challenges in intensive care and despite all efforts mortality remains high. One common phenotype of ARDS is that of a secondary injury to a dysregulated inflammatory host response resulting in increased capillary congestion, interstitial lung edema, atelectasis, pulmonary embolism, muscle wasting, recurring infectious episodes, and multiple organ failure. In cases of hyperinflammation, immunomodulation by extracorporeal cytokine removal such as the CytoSorb hemoadsorption cartridge could conceptually enhance lung recovery during the early course of the disease. The aim of this narrative review is to summarize the currently available data in this field and to provide an overview of pathophysiology and rationale for the use of CytoSorb hemoadsorption in patients with hyperinflammatory ARDS.

Hemoadsorption as Adjuvant Therapy in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is often a consequence of a dysregulated immune response; therefore, immunomodulation by extracorporeal cytokine removal has been increasingly used as an adjuvant therapy, but convincing data are still missing. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of adjunctive hemoadsorption (HA) on clinical and laboratory outcomes in patients with ARDS.

METHODS

We performed a systematic literature search in PubMed, Embase, CENTRAL, Scopus, and Web of Science (PROSPERO: CRD42022292176). The population was patients receiving HA therapy for ARDS. The primary outcome was the change in PaO2/FiO2 before and after HA therapy. Secondary outcomes included the before and after values for C-reactive protein (CRP), lactate, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and norepinephrine (NE) doses.

RESULTS

We included 26 publications, with 243 patients (198 undergoing HA therapy and 45 controls). There was a significant improvement in PaO2/FiO2 ratio following HA therapy (MD = 68.93 [95%-CI: 28.79 to 109.06] mmHg, p = 0.005) and a reduction in CRP levels (MD = -45.02 [95%-CI: -82.64; -7.39] mg/dL, p = 0.026) and NE dose (MD = -0.24 [95%-CI: -0.44 to -0.04] μg/kg/min, p = 0.028).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our findings, HA resulted in a significant improvement in oxygenation and a reduction in NE dose and CRP levels in patients treated with ARDS. Properly designed RCTs are still needed.

Pharmacokinetics of immunosuppressive agents during hemoperfusion in a sheep model

Introduction

Hemoadsorption shows promising signals in organ preservation and post lung transplantation. However, its potential impact on the pharmacokinetics of immunosuppressant drugs (ID) is still unknown.

Methods

In this interventional study, CytoSorb® hemoperfusion was tested in healthy sheep (n = 5) against a sham extracorporeal circuit (n = 3). Seven different ID (tacrolimus (TAC), cyclosporin A (CYA), mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), everolimus (EVER), basiliximab (BAS), methylprednisolone (MP) and prednisolone (PRED)) were administered in clinically relevant doses and combinations. Their levels were measured repeatedly in blood samples from the extracorporeal circulation over 6 h following administration. Population pharmacokinetic modeling analysis (NONMEM® 7.5) was performed.

Results

Negligible clearance was observed for PRED and BAS. For all other substances, a saturable adsorption sub-model with linear decrease of the adsorption effect over the adsorbed amount best described the measured concentrations. The maximum absolute adsorbed amounts (95% CI) for TAC, CYA, MMF, EVER, and MP were 0.040 (0.028-0.053), 1.15 (0.39-1.91), 4.17 (2.00-6.35), 0.0163 (0.007-0.026), and 53.4 mg (20.9-85.9), respectively, indicating an adsorption of less than 5% of the daily administered dosages for all investigated substances.

Discussion

In this large animal model, CytoSorb® hemoperfusion appears to have a limited effect on the clearance of tested ID.

Successful Extracorporeal Cytokine Hemoadsorption in a Marfan Syndrome Patient with COVID-19 Undergoing Redo Bentall Procedure

BACKGROUND Patients with COVID-19 undergoing emergency or complex surgical procedures are at increased risk of developing perioperative complications. CytoSorb is a blood purification therapy used to remove circulating cytokines in conditions of hyperinflammation. This report is of a patient with COVID-19 requiring redo replacement of the aortic valve and aorta due to aortic aneurysm of the ascending aorta (Bentall procedure) associated with Marfan syndrome. The patient was successfully treated with extracorporeal cytokine hemoadsorption. CASE REPORT A 34-year-old man with Marfan syndrome, who had undergone a Bentall procedure in 2018, was admitted with symptoms of worsening dyspnea, tachycardia, fever, and confirmed COVID-19. Further diagnostic workup revealed dehiscence of the aortic root as well as moderate aortic regurgitation, in the context of a hyperinflammatory state. Anti-infective treatment was initiated. Given the severity of symptoms, COVID-19, echocardiography findings, and risk of aortic rupture, urgent Bentall surgery was performed. Additionally, a CytoSorb hemoadsorber was integrated into the cardiopulmonary bypass circuit to attenuate the anticipated systemic hyperinflammation. Intraoperatively, several blood products were administered due to excessive bleeding from the friable tissues and the pre-existing anemia and thrombocytopenia. Treatment was associated with marked improvements in vital parameters and inflammatory markers, and weaning from the ventilator and inotropes was possible after 48 hours. The remaining time in hospital was uneventful. CONCLUSIONS This report supports the findings from recent studies and reports that extracorporeal cytokine hemoadsorption has a role to play in reducing the systemic effects of cytokine storm associated with complex surgery involving cardiopulmonary bypass alongside severe infections, including COVID-19.

Continuous renal replacement therapy with oXiris® in patients with hematologically malignant septic shock: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

The mortality rate from septic shock in patients with hematological malignancies (HMs) remains significantly higher than that in patients without HMs. A longer resuscitation time would definitely be harmful because of the irreversibly immunocompromised status of the patients. Shortening the resuscitation time through continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) with oXiris® would be an attractive strategy in managing such patients.

AIM

To explore the effects of CRRT and oXiris® in shortening the resuscitation time and modifying the host response by reducing inflammation mediator levels.

METHODS

Forty-five patients with HM were diagnosed with septic shock and underwent CRRT between 2018 and 2022. Patients were divided into two groups based on the hemofilter used for CRRT (oXiris® group, n = 26; M150 group, n = 19). We compared the number of days of negative and total fluid balance after 7 d of CRRT between the groups. The heart rate, norepinephrine dose, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, and blood lactic acid levels at different time points in the two groups were also compared. Blood levels of inflammatory mediators in the 26 patients in the oXiris® group were measured to further infer the possible mechanism.

RESULTS

The average total fluid balance after 7 d of CRRT in the oXiris® group was significantly lower than that of patients in the M150 hemofilter group. The SOFA scores of patients after CRRT with oXiris® therapy were significantly lower than those before treatment on day 1 (d1), d3 and d7 after CRRT; these parameters were also significantly lower than those of the control group on d7. The lac level after oXiris® therapy was significantly lower than that before treatment on d3 and d7 after CRRT. There were no significant differences in the above parameters between the two groups at the other time points. In the oXiris® group, procalcitonin levels decreased on d7, whereas interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor levels decreased significantly on d3 and d7 after treatment.

CONCLUSION

CRRT with oXiris® hemofilter may improve hemodynamics by reducing inflammatory mediators and playing a role in shortening the resuscitation period and decreasing total fluid balance in the resuscitation phases.

Impact of CytoSorb and CKRT on hemodynamics in pediatric patients with septic shock: the PedCyto study

Background

There is a lack of data to support the use of hemoadsorption in pediatric septic shock. The aim of our study was to assess the effectiveness and safety of CytoSorb therapy in this setting.

Methods

Phase II interventional single arm pilot study in which 17 consecutive children admitted with septic shock who required continuous kidney replacement therapy (CKRT) and weighed ≥10 kg were included. A CytoSorb (CytoSorbents Inc, New Jersey, USA) hemoadsorption cartridge was added to the CKRT every 24 h for a maximum of 96 h. A control group of 13 children with septic shock treated with CKRT but not hemoadsorption at Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù and enrolled in the EuroAKId register was selected as an historical cohort. The primary outcome of the study was a reduction in vasopressor or inotrope dose of >50% from baseline by the end of CytoSorb therapy. Secondary outcomes included hemodynamic and biological changes, changes in severity scores, and 28-day mortality.

Results

There were significant decreases in the Vasoactive Inotropic Score (VIS) and the Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction 2 (PELOD-2) score at 72 and 96 h from the start of the CytoSorb therapy compared to baseline; the reductions were larger in the hemoadsorption group than in the control group (historical cohort). 28-day mortality was lower, although not significantly, in the hemoadsorption group when compared to the control group (5/17 [29%] vs. 8/13 [61%] OR 0.26 [95% CI: 0.05-1.2]; p = 0.08).

Conclusions

CytoSorb therapy may have some benefits in pediatric patients with septic shock. Future larger randomized trials are needed in this setting.

Clinical Trial Registration

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05658588, identifier (Clinicaltrials.gov NCT05658588).

Intraoperative Hemoadsorption (Cytosorb™) during Open Thoracoabdominal Aortic Repair: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of cytokine adsorption in controlling the early inflammation cascade after open thoracoabdominal aortic (TAAA) repair has not been investigated. The aim of this pilot randomized controlled trial was to assess the feasibility and effect of perioperative hemoadsorption during open TAAA repair.

METHODS

Patients scheduled for open TAAA repair with the use of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) were included. The patients were randomized the day before surgery to either intraoperative hemoadsorption during CPB or standard of care.

RESULTS

A total of 10 patients were randomly assigned to the intervention group, whereas the control group consisted of 17 patients (mean age of the total cohort, 51.1 ± 11.2 years, 67% male, 3 patients not randomized). The majority of baseline and perioperative characteristics were similar, and no device-related adverse events were reported. A trend to shorter ventilation times in the intervention group was observed (median 88 h vs. 510 h, p = 0.08, Δ422). Severe acute respiratory distress syndrome was significantly less in the intervention patients (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first pilot study showing that the intraoperative use of hemoadsorption in open TAAA repair patients may be feasible and safe, yet larger trials are needed to evaluate whether intraoperative hemoadsorption is associated with improved clinical outcomes.

Use of CytoSorb© Hemoadsorption in Patients on Veno-Venous ECMO Support for Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: A Systematic Review

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Adjunct hemoadsorption is increasingly utilized to target underlying hyperinflammation derived from ARDS. This article aims to review available data on the use of CytoSorb© therapy in combination with V-V ECMO in severe ARDS, and to assess the effects on inflammatory, laboratory and clinical parameters, as well as on patient outcomes. A systematic literature review was conducted and reported in compliance with principles derived from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. When applicable, a before-and-after analysis for relevant biomarkers and clinical parameters was carried out. CytoSorb© use was associated with significant reductions in circulating levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 (p = 0.039 and p = 0.049, respectively). Increases in PaO2/FiO2 reached significance as well (p = 0.028), while norepinephrine dosage reductions showed a non-significant trend (p = 0.067). Mortality rates in CytoSorb© patients tended to be lower than those of control groups of most included studies, which, however, were characterized by high heterogeneity and low power. In an exploratory analysis on 90-day mortality in COVID-19 patients supported with V-V ECMO, the therapy was associated with a significantly reduced risk of death. Based on the reviewed data, CytoSorb© therapy is able to reduce inflammation and potentially improves survival in ARDS patients treated with V-V ECMO. Early initiation of CytoSorb© in conjunction with ECMO might offer a new approach to enhance lung rest and promote recovery in patients with severe ARDS.

Immunomodulation by Hemoadsorption—Changes in Hepatic Biotransformation Capacity in Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Prospective Study

Background: Sepsis is often associated with liver dysfunction, which is an indicator of poor outcomes. Specific diagnostic tools that detect hepatic dysfunction in its early stages are scarce. So far, the immune modulatory effects of hemoadsorption with CytoSorb^® on liver function are unclear. Method: We assessed the hepatic function by using the dynamic LiMAx^® test and biochemical parameters in 21 patients with sepsis or septic shock receiving CytoSorb^® in a prospective, observational study. Points of measurement: T₁: diagnosis of sepsis or septic shock; T₂ and T₃: 24 h and 48 h after the start of CytoSorb^®; T₄: 24 h after termination of CytoSorb^®. Results: The hepatic biotransformation capacity measured by LiMAx^® was severely impaired in up to 95 % of patients. Despite a rapid shock reversal under CytoSorb^®, a significant improvement in LiMAx^® values appeared from T₃ to T₄. This decline and recovery of liver function were not reflected by common parameters of hepatic metabolism that remained mostly within the normal range. Conclusions: Hepatic dysfunction can effectively and safely be diagnosed with LiMAx^® in ventilated ICU patients under CytoSorb^®. Various static liver parameters are of limited use since they do not adequately reflect hepatic dysfunction and impaired hepatic metabolism.

Blood purification therapy in patients with severe COVID-19 requiring veno-venous ECMO therapy: A retrospective study

OBJECTIVE

Patients with severe manifestations of COVID-19 might exhibit characteristics of a sepsis-like syndrome that can progress to multiple organ failure and ultimately death. Underlying mechanism have been explored and suggest a profound dysregulation of the immune system associated with hyperinflammation, hemodynamic instability and respiratory failure. Besides standard intensive care treatment, approaches modulating the dysregulated immune response, such as CytoSorb hemoadsorption, have been used. However, data of ECMO-dependent patients in comparison to a control cohort remain scarce.

METHODS

Included were 26 critically ill COVID-19 patients requiring high-flow veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (high-flow VV ECMO) therapy due to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), of whom 16 were additionally treated with an extracorporeal hemoadsorption device, and compared to a control group of 10 patients. Assessed were levels of inflammatory markers, vasopressor requirements, oxygenation parameters, as well as clinically relevant outcome variables. Data were prospectively recorded and retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

Treatment with the applied multimodal therapy approach resulted in a stabilization in hemodynamics, a control of the hyperinflammatory response as evidenced by a significant reduction in inflammatory mediators, as well as a marked improvement in lung function. No device related adverse events were observed while treatment appeared safe and feasible.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of a critically ill COVID-19 ARDS patients with combined VV ECMO support and hemoadsorption therapy led to a rapid and sustained hemodynamic stabilization, a control of the uncontrolled inflammatory response and an improvement in oxygenation. Given these signals pointing toward a patient-oriented benefit of extracorporeal hemoadsorption therapy in those patients, future controlled, randomized studies should focus on the investigation of the appropriate timing and dosing of this promising treatment modality.

Application of Adsorptive Blood Purification Techniques during Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Cardiac Surgery

By reason of surgical demand, the majority of cardiovascular procedures still depend on the use of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). Due to the nonphysiological state of CPB, it can cause complex and unpredictable inflammatory response, which may lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, the pharmacological and mechanical strategies that currently exist do not offer significant advantages in controlling inflammatory response and improving patient outcomes. The best strategy to reduce inflammation in CPB is still uncertain. In recent years, adsorptive blood purification techniques (BPTs) have emerged, among which CytoSorb is the latest representative device. Currently, the primary application area of adsorptive BPTs is in the control and treatment of systemic hyperinflammatory states, such as refractory septic shock patients. However, the evidences on efficacy and safety of adsorptive BPTs application during CPB surgery are still inconclusive, so we summarize the relevant evidences here and suggest future potential research areas.

The Effects of Hemoadsorption on the Kinetics of Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents

The extracorporeal elimination of a pathogen or damage-associated molecular pattern via blood purification techniques is increasingly being used in patients with septic shock and other clinical conditions characterized by a life-threatening inflammatory response. The removal of these substances can be accomoplished by means of ultrafiltration or hemoadsorption. Independently from the blood putification technique used, they could also affect the clearance of antibacterial and antifungal agents with a potentially significant clinical impact. In our review, we describe the basic principles of ultrafiltration and hemoadsorption, the available devices for this latter and the existing experimental and clinical studies; the final paragraph is dedicated to practical considerations that can help clinicians to consider the clearance of antibiotics and antifungals attributable to these techniques to minimize the risk of a iatrogenic underdosage.

Effects of the timing and intensity of treatment on septic shock patients treated with CytoSorb®: Clinical experience

INTRODUCTION

A group of adult septic shock patients treated with hemoperfusion (HA) with the Cytosorb^® associated with CVVHD were studied to determine (a) the effects of this technique on different clinical variables; and (b) the impact of the pre CytoSorb^® interval and its intensity on the outcome.

METHODS

The catecholamine index (CI) and the pressure-catecholamine Index (PCAI) were used to assess the amount of catecholamine administered at baseline and during the procedure, respectively. The pre-treatment time was calculated since the onset of the septic-shock related hypotension and the initiation of the first session and the intensity was assessed considering either the total volume of blood processed and the duration of the HA.

RESULTS

Overall, 51 patients with septic shock (30 m, 21 f), age 68 years (IQR 59-76) were retrospectively enrolled in the study; 26 were discharged alive form the ICU (S) and 25 died in ICU (NS); in the S group either CI and PCAI decreased significantly but in NS the CI increased and the PCAI remained stable in NS. In S, the time elapsing from the onset of symptoms and the start of Cytosorb^® was shorter than in NS; the duration of the treatment and the volume of blood processed were significantly higher in S than in NS.

CONCLUSIONS

In this group of septic shock patients, the earlier initiation of Cytosorb^®, its longer duration and the higher volume of blood processed were associated with a better survival.