1
|
Montembeault M, Farley R, Ouellet J, Brando E, Tremblay A, Charest K, Roger É, Scherzer P, Duquette P, Rouleau I. Cognitive and affective theory of mind in young and elderly patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neuropsychol 2024. [PMID: 38982586 DOI: 10.1111/jnp.12382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Theory of mind (ToM) deficits have been reported in persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). However, most studies have used pictures or written scenarios as stimuli without distinguishing between cognitive and affective ToM, and no studies have investigated older pwMS. We recruited 13 young healthy controls (HC), 14 young pwMS, 14 elderly HC and 15 elderly pwMS. ToM was measured using an adaptation of the Conversations and Insinuations task (Ouellet et al., J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc., 16, 2010, 287). In this ecological video-based task, participants watch four 2-minute videos of social interactions, which are interrupted by multiple choice questions about either the emotional state (affective ToM) or the intention (cognitive ToM) of the characters. They also underwent a short neuropsychological battery including cognitive, executive and social cognition tasks and questionnaires. We observed a significant interaction between the ToM conditions and the groups regarding ToM performance. Elderly pwMS scored significantly lower than elderly HC and young pwMS in cognitive ToM, but not in affective ToM. They also showed the largest discrepancy between their cognitive and affective ToM. Young pwMS showed relatively preserved ToM in both conditions. Both cognitive and affective ToM correlated with global cognition and executive abilities, but not with social cognitive measures (emotion recognition, real-life empathy). This study suggests that decline in cognitive ToM might be accentuated by advancing age in pwMS. These impairments are most likely underlied by cognitive and executive difficulties, but not by core social cognitive impairments. Future studies should investigate the real-life impacts of ToM impairments in pwMS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Montembeault
- Douglas Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Romane Farley
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Julie Ouellet
- Institut de réadaptation Gingras-Lindsay-de-Montréal, CIUSS du Centre-Sud, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Estefania Brando
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alexandra Tremblay
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Kim Charest
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Élaine Roger
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Peter Scherzer
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Pierre Duquette
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Isabelle Rouleau
- Psychology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ogurcakova V, Kajsova M, Marusic P, Amlerova J. Social cognition in Idiopathic generalised epilepsies. Behav Brain Res 2024; 469:115044. [PMID: 38734033 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Social cognition is a set of mental skills necessary to create satisfactory interpersonal relationships and feel a sense of belonging to a social group. Its deficits significantly reduce the quality of life in people with epilepsy. Studies on social cognition and its impairments focus predominantly on people with focal epilepsies. Idiopathic generalised epilepsies are a group of diseases that share similar clinical, prognostic and electrographic characteristics. Despite their typically normal intelligence, people with Idiopathic generalised epilepsies can suffer from learning disabilities and executive dysfunctions. Current studies also suggest social cognition impairments, but their results are inconsistent. This review offers the latest knowledge of social cognition in adults with Idiopathic generalised epilepsies. In addition, we provide an overview of the most frequently used assessment methods. We explain possible reasons for different outcomes and discuss future research perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Ogurcakova
- Department of Neurology, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, ERN EpiCARE, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Michaela Kajsova
- Department of Neurology, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, ERN EpiCARE, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Marusic
- Department of Neurology, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, ERN EpiCARE, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Amlerova
- Department of Neurology, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, ERN EpiCARE, Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tao MX, Hu JP, Zhang ZQ, Chen YQ. The effects of implicit emotion on the use of theory of mind among college students in China. Cogn Process 2024; 25:267-279. [PMID: 38064117 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-023-01173-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
This research aims to study the impact of implicit emotion on the use of theory of mind and enrich the research on emotions and the use of theory of mind, thus allowing adults to apply theory of mind more effectively in the context of social interaction. This study includes 120 college students as participants. A two (level of theory of mind: high vs. low) * three (implicit emotional state: implicit positive emotion, implicit neutral emotion, or implicit negative emotion) * two (private knowledge: endowed vs. unendowed) between-subjects three-factor design was employed. This study obtained the following results: (1) The main effect of different implicit emotional states on college students' use of theory of mind is significant. College students with implicit positive emotions use theory of mind much less than those with implicit neutral and negative emotions. (2) In cases of implicit positive emotions, college students with a low level of theory of mind use theory of mind substantially less than students with a high level of theory of mind. In cases of implicit neutral and negative emotions, college students with the high and low theory of mind do not exhibit substantial differences in their use of theory of mind. This study concludes that different emotional states affect college students' use of theory of mind.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Xin Tao
- Mental Health Education Center, Anhui Broadcasting Movie And Television College, Hefei, 230011, China.
- Institute of Psychology, St. Paul University Philippines, Tuguegarao, Philippines.
| | - Jin-Ping Hu
- Mental Health Education Center, Anhui Broadcasting Movie And Television College, Hefei, 230011, China
| | - Zu-Qiang Zhang
- Mental Health Education Center, Anhui Broadcasting Movie And Television College, Hefei, 230011, China
| | - You-Qing Chen
- Institute of Psychology, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fu IN, Chen CT, Chen KL, Liu MR, Hsieh CL. Development and validation of the newly developed Preschool Theory of Mind Assessment (ToMA-P). Front Psychol 2024; 15:1274204. [PMID: 38650906 PMCID: PMC11033484 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1274204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Theory of mind (ToM) refers to the ability to understand and attribute mental states to oneself and others. A ToM measure is warranted for preschool children to assess their ToM development from a multidimensional perspective (i.e., cognitive and affective dimensions). This study aimed to develop the Preschool Theory of Mind Assessment (ToMA-P) and to evaluate its construct validity and applicability. Methods The ToMA-P was developed based on comprehensive literature review and revised with expert panel feedback. Its psychometric properties were evaluated in 205 typically developing preschoolers with Rasch analysis for its dimensionality, item difficulties, and convergent validity. Results The results indicated that all ToMA-P items, except for one, fit the hypothesized two-dimensional construct. The item difficulties in the cognitive and affective dimensions followed developmental sequences. The ToMA-P scores exhibited good convergent validity, as evidenced by its significant correlations with age, verbal comprehension, adaptive functions, and daily ToM performance (p < 0.05). Children's responses and behaviors also showed that the ToMA-P has good applicability. Discussion This study provides empirical evidence that the ToMA-P measures cognitive and affective ToM following developmental sequences, and that it has potential as a clinical tool for assessing ToM in preschool children.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I-Ning Fu
- Child Developmental Assessment and Intervention Center, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Te Chen
- Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Lin Chen
- Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Ru Liu
- Child Developmental Assessment and Intervention Center, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Lin Hsieh
- School of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mazza M, Donne IL, Vagnetti R, Attanasio M, Paola Greco M, Chiara Pino M, Valenti M. Normative values and diagnostic optimisation of three social cognition measures for autism and schizophrenia diagnosis in a healthy adolescent and adult sample. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:511-529. [PMID: 37129426 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231175613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Awareness of the importance of assessing social cognition skills under conditions showing atypical social behaviours has increased over the years. However, the evaluation of the psychometric properties of the measures and the availability of normative values for the clinical context are still limited. This study aims to revise, provide normative values, and evaluate the clinical validity of the Italian version of three social cognition measures: Advanced Theory of Mind (A-ToM) task, the Emotion Attribution Task (EAT), and the Social Situation Task (SST). Measures were administered to 580 adolescents and adult healthy controls (age range 14-50). We performed differential item functioning and Rasch analysis to revise each task, so normative data of the revised measures were calculated. Moreover, the revised measures were administered to 38 individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 35 individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD): ASD and SSD were matched by age, gender, and IQ with a control sample to evaluate clinical validity. ROC analysis showed that the SST is the best measure differentiating between healthy and clinical groups, compared to the A-ToM (AUCASD = 0.70; AUCSSD = 0.65) and EAT (AUCASD = 0.67; AUCSSD = 0.50), which showed poorer performance. For SSD diagnosis, two SST subscales (Violation and Gravity score) indicated the best accuracy (AUCs of 0.88 and 0.84, respectively); for the ASD diagnosis, we propose a combined score between the SST subscale and A-ToM (AUC = 0.86). The results suggest that the proposed measures can be used to support the diagnostic process and clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mazza
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Ilenia Le Donne
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Roberto Vagnetti
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Margherita Attanasio
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Greco
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Pino
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Marco Valenti
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
- Abruzzo Region Health System, Reference Regional Centre for Autism, L'Aquila, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Florkin AL, Rosi A, Lecce S, Cavallini E. Cognitive Functions, Theory of Mind Abilities, and Personality Dispositions as Potential Predictors of the Detection of Reciprocity in Deceptive and Cooperative Contexts through Different Age Groups. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:1007. [PMID: 38131863 PMCID: PMC10741168 DOI: 10.3390/bs13121007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Reciprocity is a fundamental element in social interactions and implies an adequate response to the previous actions of our interactant. It is thus crucial to detect if a person is cooperating, deceiving, or cheating, to properly respond. However, older adults have been shown to have a lower ability to detect reciprocity compared to younger adults, partially tying this decline to cognitive functions. Another likely association to reciprocity in literature is made with personality dispositions, i.e., agreeableness, altruism, and empathic concern, and Theory of Mind (ToM). Consequently, the present study investigated age-related differences in the detection of the different components of reciprocity, as well as examined the predictors of reciprocity, such as cognitive measures, personality dispositions, and true and false beliefs in young (n = 98; 20-39 years), middle-aged (n = 106; 40-64 years), and older adults (n = 103; 65-96 years). The Mind Picture Story-Theory of Mind Questionnaire was used to measure the reciprocity components and true and false beliefs in each group. This study reported a significant decline in reciprocity detection from adults aged 65 years old and over. Additionally, the ability to detect reciprocity was significantly linked to cognitive functioning and ToM across all age groups, especially in older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alessia Rosi
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (A.-L.F.); (S.L.); (E.C.)
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhou P, Ma H, Zou B, Zhang X, Zhao S, Lin Y, Wang Y, Feng L, Wang G. A conceptual framework of cognitive-affective theory of mind: towards a precision identification of mental disorders. NPJ MENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2023; 2:12. [PMID: 38609486 PMCID: PMC10955940 DOI: 10.1038/s44184-023-00031-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
To explore the minds of others, which is traditionally referred to as Theory of Mind (ToM), is perhaps the most fundamental ability of humans as social beings. Impairments in ToM could lead to difficulties or even deficits in social interaction. The present study focuses on two core components of ToM, the ability to infer others' beliefs and the ability to infer others' emotions, which we refer to as cognitive and affective ToM respectively. Charting both typical and atypical trajectories underlying the cognitive-affective ToM promises to shed light on the precision identification of mental disorders, such as depressive disorders (DD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, most prior studies failed to capture the underlying processes involved in the cognitive-affective ToM in a fine-grained manner. To address this problem, we propose an innovative conceptual framework, referred to as visual theory of mind (V-ToM), by constructing visual scenes with emotional and cognitive meanings and by depicting explicitly a four-stage process of how humans make inferences about the beliefs and emotions of others. Through recording individuals' eye movements while looking at the visual scenes, our model enables us to accurately measure each stage involved in the computation of cognitive-affective ToM, thereby allowing us to infer about potential difficulties that might occur in each stage. Our model is based on a large sample size (n > 700) and a novel audio-visual paradigm using visual scenes containing cognitive-emotional meanings. Here we report the obtained differential features among healthy controls, DD and ASD individuals that overcome the subjectivity of conventional questionnaire-based assessment, and therefore could serve as valuable references for mental health applications based on AI-aided digital medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhou
- School of International Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huimin Ma
- School of Computer and Communication Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China.
| | - Bochao Zou
- School of Computer and Communication Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaowen Zhang
- Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuyan Zhao
- Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxin Lin
- School of Computer and Communication Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Yidong Wang
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Feng
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Gang Wang
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders & Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhu T, Zhang L, Wang P, Xiang M, Wu X. The influence of in-groups and out-groups on the theory-of-mind processing: evidence from different ethnic college students. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2023; 8:5. [PMID: 36690778 PMCID: PMC9871151 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-023-00461-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
According to previous studies of theory of mind (ToM), social environment and cultural background affect individuals' cognitive ability to understand other people's minds. There are cross-group differences in ToM. The present study aimed to examine whether social environment and culture affect the ToM in Uygur and Han groups and whether the individual's cognitive ToM and affective ToM show in-group advantages. Han and Uygur college students were recruited as participants. The "self/other differentiation task" was used to measure cognitive ToM (Study 1), and the "Yoni task" was used to measure both cognitive and affective ToM (Study 2). We found that Han participants processed the cognitive and affective states of others faster and more accurately than Uygur ones. Uygur and Han participants processed in-group members' cognitive and affective states faster and more accurately. Furthermore, Uygur participants were more accurate in the cognitive ToM processing of in-group members, while Han participants were faster in the affective ToM processing of in-group members. The findings indicated that ethnic culture and group identify might influence ToM processing. Strengthening exchanges between ethnic groups may enable individuals to better process out-group members' psychological states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingyu Zhu
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, No. 199, Chang'an South Road, Yanta District, Xi'an, 710062, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Lijin Zhang
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, No. 199, Chang'an South Road, Yanta District, Xi'an, 710062, Shaanxi Province, China.
- Shaanxi Provincial Key Research Center of Child Mental and Behavioral Health, Xi'an, China.
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, Xi'an, China.
| | - Ping Wang
- School of Educational Science, Liupanshui Normal University, Liupanshui, China
| | - Meiqiu Xiang
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, No. 199, Chang'an South Road, Yanta District, Xi'an, 710062, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xiujuan Wu
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, No. 199, Chang'an South Road, Yanta District, Xi'an, 710062, Shaanxi Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Canino S, Raimo S, Boccia M, Di Vita A, Palermo L. On the Embodiment of Social Cognition Skills: The Inner and Outer Body Processing Differently Contributes to the Affective and Cognitive Theory of Mind. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12111423. [PMID: 36358350 PMCID: PMC9688437 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12111423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
A specific interpretation of embodiment assigns a central role to the body representations (BR) in cognition. In the social cognition domain, BR could be pivotal in representing others’ actions and states. However, empirical evidence on the relationship between different BR and social cognition, in terms of Theory of Mind (ToM), in the same sample of participants is missing. Here, this relationship was explored considering individual differences in the action-oriented BR (aBR), nonaction-oriented BR (NaBR), and subjective predisposition toward internal bodily sensations (interoceptive sensibility, ISe). Eighty-two healthy adults were given behavioral measures probing aBR, NaBR, ISe, and affective/cognitive ToM. The results suggest that NaBR, which mainly relies on exteroceptive signals, predicts individual differences in cognitive ToM, possibly because it can allow differentiating between the self and others. Instead, the negative association between affective ToM and ISe suggests that an alteration of the internal body state representation (i.e., over-reporting interoceptive sensations) can affect emotional processing in social contexts. The finding that distinct aspects of the body processing from within (ISe) and from the outside (NaBR) differently contribute to ToM provides empirical support to the BR role in social cognition and can be relevant for developing interventions in clinical settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Canino
- Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (L.P.)
| | - Simona Raimo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Maddalena Boccia
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, 00179 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Di Vita
- Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Liana Palermo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (L.P.)
| |
Collapse
|