Targeting Crosstalk between Nrf-2, NF-κB and Androgen Receptor Signaling in Prostate Cancer

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge Ameliorates Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia through Regulation of Oxidative Stress via Nrf-2/HO-1 Activation

Oxidative stress is a key factor in the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) that leads to inflammation. This study aimed to evaluate the ameliorative effects of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge extract (HLT-101) on BPH through the regulation of oxidative stress and inflammation. A testosterone propionate (TP)-induced BPH rat model was orally administered HLT-101 (20, 40, or 80 mg/kg), and its effects on oxidative stress- and inflammation-related gene expression were examined. Further, HLT-101 was assessed for its effect on reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling pathways in BPH-1 cells. HLT-101 decreased testosterone-induced excessive free radical production and inflammatory factor activation. Moreover, HLT-101 treatment significantly decreased the intracellular ROS level in the TNF-α and IFN-γ treated BPH-1 cells through the activation of Nrf-2. In addition, HLT-101 treatment inhibited the NF-κB pathway and androgen receptor (AR) signaling, which is highly linked to the pathogenesis of BPH. Therefore, HLT-101 has the potential to be an effective treatment reagent for BPH because of its ability to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress via Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling.

Antitumor Activity and Mechanism of Terpenoids in Seaweeds Based on Literature Review and Network Pharmacology

Seaweeds are a treasure trove of natural secondary metabolites. Terpenoids extracted from seaweeds are shown to possess a variety of antitumor cellular activities. However, due to the complex and diverse structures of terpenoids, their therapeutic targets and complex mechanisms of action have not been clarified. The present study summarises the research on terpenoids from seaweeds in oncological diseases over the last 20 years. Terpenoids show different degrees of inhibitory effects on different types of tumor cells, suggesting that terpenoids in seaweeds may have potential antitumor disease potential. Terpenoids with potential antitumor activity and their mechanism of action are investigated using network pharmacology. A total of 125 terpenoids and 286 targets are obtained. Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src(SRC), Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK3, MAPK1), Heat shock protein HSP 90-alpha (HSP90AA1), Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), and RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT1) are defined as core targets. According to GO function and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes(KEGG) enrichment analysis, terpenoids may affect the Phoshatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signaling pathway, Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, Prostate cancer, MAPK signaling pathway, and Proteoglycans in cancer. In addition, the molecular docking results show that the selected terpenoids are all able to bind strongly to the active protein. Terpenoids may slow down the progression of cancer by controlling apoptosis, proliferation, and protein and enzyme binding.

New fusidane-type nortriterpenoids from the Arctic marine-derived fungus Simplicillium lamellicola culture medium with their inhibitory effect on benign prostatic hyperplasia

Three new fusidane-type nortriterpenoids, simplifusinolide A, 24-epi simplifusinolide A, and simplifusidic acid L (1-3), were isolated from the EtOAc extract of the Arctic marine-derived fungus Simplicillium lamellicola culture medium, together with fusidic acid (4) and 16-O-deacetylfusicid acid (5). The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by NMR and MS analyses. The absolute configurations of compounds 1-3 were established by the quantum mechanical calculations of electronic circular dichroism and gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shifts, followed by DP4 + analysis. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a major urological disorder in men worldwide. The anti-BPH potentials of the isolated compounds were evaluated using BPH-1 and WPMY-1 cells. Treatment with simplifusidic acid L (3) and fusidic acid (4) significantly downregulated the mRNA levels of the androgen receptor (AR) and its downstream effectors, inhibiting the proliferation of BPH-1 cells. Specifically, treatment with 24-epi simplifusinolide A (2) significantly suppressed the cell proliferation of both BPH-1 and DHT-stimulated WPMY-1 cells by inhibiting AR signaling. These results suggest the potential of 24-epi simplifusinolide A (2), simplifusidic acid L (3) and fusidic acid (4) as alternative agents for BPH treatment by targeting AR signaling.

Structure based docking and biological evaluation towards exploring potential anti-cancerous and apoptotic activity of 6-Gingerol against human prostate carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

6-Gingerol (6-G) is the primary active phytocomponent of ginger and has been shown to regulate multiple targets against cancer and its treatment. Androgen receptors (ARs) remain critical in the progression of prostate cancer (PCa). This study focuses on investigating 6-G as a promising anti-cancerous agent that inhibits AR activity significantly.

METHODS

In this study, molecular docking simulation was done to investigate the binding affinity of 6-G and control drug Bicalutamide (BT) against oncogenic AR and tumor suppressor estrogen receptor β (ERβ). The crystal structure of AR and ERβ was retrieved from Protein Data Bank (PDB) and docked with 3D Pubchem structures of 6-G using iGEMDOCK and AutoDock. Further in vitro study was done to evaluate the antioxidant, anti-cancerous, apoptotic, and wound healing potential of 6-G.

RESULTS

The result displays that 6-G shows good binding affinity with AR and ERβ. Condensation of the nucleus, change in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and the ability to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) were done in human PCa PC-3 cells. Results from the MTT assay demonstrated that 6-G and control drug BT showed significant (p < 0.01) dose and time dependent inhibition of human PCa PC-3 cells. 6-G increased the ROS generation intracellularly and decreased the MMP, and cell migration in treated PCa PC-3 cells. 6-G treated cells showed fragmented, condensed chromatin and nuclear apoptotic bodies.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, this study validates 6-G as a potential drug candidate against human PCa. However, further study of the anticancer potency of 6-G has to be done before its use for PCa treatment.

Canagliflozin alleviates experimentally induced benign prostate hyperplasia in a rat model: exploring potential mechanisms involving mir-128b/EGFR/EGF and JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathways through in silico and in vivo investigations

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) poses a significant health concern amongst elderly males. Canagliflozin (Cana), a selective sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, has a powerful anti-inflammatory influence. Nevertheless, its role in treating BPH has not been clarified. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate the potential ameliorative effect of Cana on experimentally induced BPH in rats and explore the underlying mechanisms compared to the standard finasteride (Fin). The study employed histological analysis, biochemical assays using ELISA, and western blotting. Animals were categorized into four groups: Control (2.5 ml/kg CMC, orally + 3 ml/kg olive oil, subcutaneous), BPH (3 mg/kg testosterone, subcutaneous + CMC orally), Fin-treated BPH (5 mg/kg, orally), and Cana-treated BPH (5 mg/kg, orally), for 28 days. The BPH group showed obvious BPH manifestations including an increase in prostate weight (PW), prostate index (PI), dihydrotestosterone (DHT) level, and histological aberrations compared to control. Fin and Cana therapy had a comparable impact. Cana treatment significantly reduced PW and PI, besides it improved prostatic biochemical, and histopathological features compared to BPH, consistent with in silico study findings. Cana was associated with downregulation of the androgen axis, increased miR-128b expression, with a lowered expression of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and its receptor. Phosphorylation of STAT3 and its downstream proliferative markers were significantly reduced suggesting apoptotic activity. Cana markedly rescued the BPH-induced upregulation of IL-1β, and iNOS levels. Altogether, the current study demonstrates that Cana could impede BPH progression, possibly by modulating miR-128b/EGFR/EGF and JAK2/STAT3 pathways and downregulating AR, cyclin D1, and PCNA immunoreactivity.

Molecular Insight into Prostate Cancer: Preventive Role of Selective Bioactive Molecules

Prostate cancer (CaP) is one of the most prevalent male malignancies, accounting for a considerable number of annual mortalities. However, the prompt identification of early-stage CaP often faces delays due to diverse factors, including socioeconomic inequalities. The androgen receptor (AR), in conjunction with various other signaling pathways, exerts a central influence on the genesis, progression, and metastasis of CaP, with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) serving as the primary therapeutic strategy. Therapeutic modalities encompassing surgery, chemotherapy, hormonal intervention, and radiotherapy have been formulated for addressing early and metastatic CaP. Nonetheless, the heterogeneous tumor microenvironment frequently triggers the activation of signaling pathways, culminating in the emergence of chemoresistance, an aspect to which cancer stem cells (CSCs) notably contribute. Phytochemicals emerge as reservoirs of bioactive agents conferring manifold advantages against human morbidity. Several of these phytochemicals demonstrate potential chemoprotective and chemosensitizing properties against CaP, with selectivity exhibited towards malignant cells while sparing their normal counterparts. In this context, the present review aims to elucidate the intricate molecular underpinnings associated with metastatic CaP development and the acquisition of chemoresistance. Moreover, the contributions of phytochemicals to ameliorating CaP initiation, progression, and chemoresistance are also discussed.

6-Aminoflavone Activates Nrf2 to Inhibit the Phospho-JNK/TNF-α Signaling Pathway to Reduce Amyloid Burden in an Aging Mouse Model

In the current study, we examined the antioxidant activity and anti-amyloidogenic potential of 6-aminoflavone in an adult mice model of d-galactose-induced aging. Male albino eight-week-old mice were assigned into four groups: 1. the control group (saline-treated), 2. d-galactose-treated mice (100 mg/kg/day, intravenously) for eight weeks, 3. d-galactose-treated mice (100 mg/kg/day, intravenously for eight weeks) and 6-AF-treated mice (30 mg/kg/day, intravenously for the final four weeks), and 4. 6-AF-treated mice (30 mg/kg/day i.p. for four weeks). We conducted many assays for antioxidant enzymes, including lipid peroxidation, catalase, glutathione (GSH), peroxidase (POD), and sulfoxide dismutase (SOD) (LPO). Western blotting was used to assess protein expression while the Morris water maze (MWM) and Y-maze (YM) were used to study behavior. The findings show that 6-AF greatly improved neuronal synapse and memory impairment brought on by d-galactose and it significantly inhibited BACE1 to reduce the amyloidogenic pathway of A (both amyloid β production and aggregation) by upregulating Nrf2 proteins (validated through molecular docking studies) and suppressing phosphorylated JNK and TNF-α proteins in adult albino mice's brain homogenates. These findings suggest that 6-AF, through the Nrf2/p-JNK/TNF-α signaling pathway, can diminish the oxidative stress caused by d-galactose, as well as the amyloidogenic route of A formation and memory impairment.

Ferroptosis landscape in prostate cancer from molecular and metabolic perspective

Prostate cancer is a major disease that threatens men's health. Its rapid progression, easy metastasis, and late castration resistance have brought obstacles to treatment. It is necessary to find new effective anticancer methods. Ferroptosis is a novel iron-dependent programmed cell death that plays a role in various cancers. Understanding how ferroptosis is regulated in prostate cancer will help us to use it as a new way to kill cancer cells. In this review, we summarize the regulation and role of ferroptosis in prostate cancer and the relationship with AR from the perspective of metabolism and molecular pathways. We also discuss the feasibility of ferroptosis in prostate cancer treatment and describe current limitations and prospects, providing a reference for future research and clinical application of ferroptosis.

Androgen Receptor Upregulates Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue 1 to Induce NF-κB Activity via Androgen-Dependent and -Independent Pathways in Prostate Carcinoma Cells

The androgen-dependent or -independent pathways are regarded as primary therapeutic targets for the neoplasm of the prostate. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue 1 (MALT1) acting as a paracaspase in the regulation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signal transduction plays a central role in inflammation and oncogenesis in cancers. This study confirmed the potential linkages between androgen and NF-κB activation by inducing MALT1 in the androgen receptor-full length (ARFL)-positive LNCaP and 22Rv1 prostate cancer cells. Although androgen did not stimulate MALT1 expression in AR-null or ectopic ARFL-overexpressed PC-3 cells, the ectopic overexpression of the AR splicing variant 7 (ARv7) upregulated MALT1 to activate NF-κB activities in 22Rv1 and PC-3 cells. Since the nuclear translocation of p50 and p65 was facilitated by ARv7 to motivate NF-κB activity, the expressions of MALT1, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and N-myc downstream regulated 1 (NDRG1) were therefore induced in ectopic ARv7-overexpressed prostate cancer cells. Ectopic ARv7 overexpression not only enhanced 22Rv1 or PC-3 cell growth and invasion in vitro but also the tumor growth of PC-3 cells in vivo. These results indicate that an androgen receptor induces MALT1 expression androgen-dependently and -independently in ARFL- or ARv7-overexpressed prostate cancer cells, suggesting a novel ARv7/MALT1/NF-κB-signaling pathway may exist in the cells of prostate cancer.

Qi Gong Wan ameliorates adipocyte hypertrophy and inflammation in adipose tissue in a PCOS mouse model through the Nrf2/HO-1/Cyp1b1 pathway: Integrating network pharmacology and experimental validation in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Initially recorded in Yifang Jijie (an ancient Chinese text), Qi Gong Wan (QGW) is used to treat obese women with infertility. QGW can help promote follicular development and maturation, regulate the balance of serum hormones between testosterone and estradiol, enhance endometrial receptivity, improve waist circumference, and ameliorate insulin resistance. It contains eight herbs: Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Makino (Banxia), Citrus maxima (Burm.) (Juhong), Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf. (Fuling), Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (Baizhu), Cyperus rotundus L. (Xiangfu), Conioselinum anthriscoides 'Chuanxiong' (Chuanxiong), Massa Medicata Fermentata (Shenqu), and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. (Gancao). However, the underlying mechanism of how QGW affects women with PCOS remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

QGW has been widely used to treat PCOS patients with obesity clinically. This study was designed to identify its chemical and pharmacological properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology was used to predict the active compounds, potential targets, and pathways of QGW. Female C57BL/6J mice were injected with letrozole and fed a high-fat diet to establish a PCOS-insulin resistance (PCOS-IR) model. Body weight, estrous cycles, ovarian pathology, and serum insulin resistance were measured. qRT-PCR was used to examine the inflammation-related and steroid hormone biosynthesis-related mRNA expression in adipose tissue. Western blotting was used to determine the protein levels of Nrf2, HO-1, and Cyp1b1 in adipose tissue. Molecular docking was used to reveal the key chemical compounds of QGW.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology revealed a total of 91 active ingredients in QGW that were associated with 167 targets. QGW could potentially treat PCOS-IR via nitrogen metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and ovarian steroidogenesis pathways. In the PCOS-IR mouse model, we found that QGW decreased the mean diameter of adipocytes and the total adipocyte area. Furthermore, QGW was found to significantly lower the expression of inflammation-related genes including Tnfɑ and C4a/b and the steroid hormone biosynthesis-related gene Cyp1b1. QGW showed a tendency to improve cystic follicles, fasting insulin, and HOMA-IR index in the PCOS-IR mouse model. Combining these findings with the results of KEGG analysis, we conclude that QGW promotes the Nrf2/HO-1/Cyp1b1 pathway to protect adipose tissue under conditions of PCOS. Molecular docking revealed that rutin, nicotiflorin, and baicalein may be the key chemical compounds of QGW through which it improves adipocyte hypertrophy and inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

QGW improved adipocyte hypertrophy and inflammation in the PCOS-IR mouse model by activating the Nrf2/HO-1/Cyp1b1 pathway to protect adipose tissue. Our work thus provides a new research avenue for the study of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of PCOS.

Role of Metabolism and Metabolic Pathways in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the common cause of death in men. The pathophysiological factors contributing to PCa are not well known. PCa cells gain a protective mechanism via abnormal lipid signaling and metabolism. PCa cells modify their metabolism in response to an excessive intake of nutrients to facilitate advancement. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is inextricably linked to the carcinogenic progression of PCa, which heightens the severity of the disease. It is hypothesized that changes in the metabolism of the mitochondria contribute to the onset of PCa. The studies of particular alterations in the progress of PCa are best accomplished by examining the metabolome of prostate tissue. Due to the inconsistent findings written initially, additional epidemiological research is required to identify whether or not MetS is an aspect of PCa. There is a correlation between several risk factors and the progression of PCa, one of which is MetS. The metabolic symbiosis between PCa cells and the tumor milieu and how this type of crosstalk may aid in the development of PCa is portrayed in this work. This review focuses on in-depth analysis and evaluation of the metabolic changes that occur within PCa, and also aims to assess the effect of metabolic abnormalities on the aggressiveness status and metabolism of PCa.

[Low level laser therapy: molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects]

Laser therapy as a physiotherapeutic method has been successfully used for a long time in the treatment of various pathologies, but the action mechanisms of low level laser therapy (LLLT) remain understudied.

OBJECTIVE

To perform the analysis of published results of LLLT investigations, to describe the physical principles of photobiomodulation, its action mechanisms on various cells and tissues, therapeutic intervention and efficiency of the technique.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The search of articles was done for the period from 2014 to 2022. The preference was given to the articles for the last 5 years in the PubMed database depending on keywords: low level laser therapy, photobiomodulation, exosomes, monocytes, macrophages.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This article represents the current conceptions about the action mechanisms and reproduced effects of low level laser therapy, the photobiomodulation influence on the inflammation and reparative processes in human body by intervention on cells and their signal pathways. The discussion of research results and probable causes of conflicting data are performed, as well as the efficacy assessment of laser irradiation in different conditions and diseases is made.

CONCLUSION

Laser therapy has certain variety of advantages, among which: non-invasiveness and availability, long-term service of equipment, stable intensity of light radiation and the ability to use in various wavelength ranges. The technique efficacy was proven for a large number of diseases. However, for the successful application of photobiomodulation in clinical practice in current evidence-based medicine, additional investigations are necessary to determine the best dosimetric radiation parameters, as well as further study of action mechanisms on various human cells and tissues.

Tissue remodeling in adult vernal keratoconjunctivitis

Our aim is to describe local tissue remodeling in a cohort of adult VKC patients. Male patients diagnosed with active VKC were enrolled in an open pilot study into two groups according disease onset: childhood classic VKC and adult VKC. Visual acuity and ocular surface clinical examination focusing on chronic inflammatory sequelae and impression cytology were performed in all enrolled subjects. Conjunctival imprints were processed for molecular, biochemical and immunofluorescent analysis for tissue remodeling (TGFβ1,2,3 and αSMA) and epigenetic (DNMT3a, Keap1; Nrf2) markers as well as androgen receptors were investigated and compared between groups. Clinical assessment showed increased conjunctival scarring in adult VKC compared to classic VKC. Immunoreactivity for αSMA and expression of TGFβ were higher in adult VKC group. Significantly higher levels of TGFβ3 (3.44 ± 1.66; p < 0.05) were detected in adult VKC compared to childhood VKC, associated with an increasing trend of TGFβ1 (1.58 ± 0.25) and TGFβ2 (1.65 ± 0.20) isoforms levels. Molecular analysis showed a relative increase in tissue remodeling/fibrogenic transcripts (TGFβ isoforms and αSMA) associated to a significant increase of selective epigenetic targets (DNMT3, Nrf2 and keap1) in adult VKC phenotype. Increased local conjunctival androgen receptors was detected in patients with adult variants compared to classic childhood VKC and healthy subjects. Finally, a direct correlation between TGFβ and androgen receptor expression was also detected. A pro-fibrotic clinical and biomolecular trait was unveiled in adult variant of VKC, which causes ocular surface disease and visual impairment.

The ERα-NRF2 signalling axis promotes bicalutamide resistance in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Bicalutamide is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen widely used as a first-line clinical treatment for advanced prostate cancer (PCa). Although patients initially show effective responses to bicalutamide treatment, resistance to bicalutamide frequently occurs and leads to the development of castration-resistant PCa (CRPC). This research investigated the roles of the oestrogen receptor α (ERα)-nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signalling pathway in bicalutamide resistance in PCa cells.

METHODS

We performed bioinformatic analysis and immunohistochemical staining on normal and cancerous prostate tissue to evaluate ERα and NRF2 expression and their correlation. Gene expression and localization in PCa cell lines were further investigated using real-time reverse transcription PCR/Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. We treated PCa cells with the ER inhibitor tamoxifen and performed luciferase reporter assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays to understand ERα-dependent NRF2 expression. Overexpression and knockdown of ERα and NRF2 were used to explore the potential role of the ERα-NRF2 signalling axis in bicalutamide resistance in PCa cells.

RESULTS

We found that the expression of ERα and NRF2 was positively correlated and was higher in human CRPC tissues than in primary PCa tissues. Treatment with oestrogen or bicalutamide increased the expression of ERα and NRF2 as well as NRF2 target genes in PCa cell lines. These effects were blocked by pretreatment with tamoxifen. ChIP assays demonstrated that ERα directly binds to the oestrogen response element (ERE) in the NRF2 promoter. This binding led to increased transcriptional activity of NRF2 in a luciferase reporter assay. Activation of the ERα-NRF2 signalling axis increased the expression of bicalutamide resistance-related genes. Inhibition of this signalling axis by knockdown of ERα or NRF2 downregulated the expression of bicalutamide resistance-related genes and inhibited the proliferation and migration of PCa cells.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated the transcriptional interaction between ERα and NRF2 in CRPC tissues and cell lines by showing the direct binding of ERα to the ERE in the NRF2 promoter under oestrogen treatment. Activation of the ERα-NRF2 signalling axis contributes to bicalutamide resistance in PCa cells, suggesting that the ERα-NRF2 signalling axis is a potential therapeutic target for CRPC. Video Abstract.

Disturbing NLRP3 acetylation and inflammasome assembly inhibits androgen receptor-promoted inflammatory responses and prostate cancer progression

Chronic inflammation is one of the definite factors leading to the occurrence and development of tumors, including prostate cancer (PCa). The androgen receptor (AR) pathway is essential for PCa tumorigenesis and inflammatory response. However, little is known about the AR-regulated NACHT, LRR, and PYD domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway in human PCa. In this study, we explored the expression of inflammatory cytokine and AR in high-grade PCa and observed that NLRP3 inflammasome-associated genes were upregulated in high-grade PCa compared with that in low-grade PCa and benign prostatic hyperplasia and were associated with AR expression. In addition, we identified circAR-3-a circRNA derived from the AR gene-which is involved in the AR-regulated inflammatory response and cell proliferation by activating the NLRP3 inflammatory pathway. While circAR-3 overexpression promoted cell proliferation and the inflammatory response, its depletion induced opposite effects. Mechanistically, we noted that circAR-3 mediated the acetylation modification of NLRP3 by KAT2B and then promoted NLRP3 inflammasome complex subcellular distribution and assembly. Disturbing NLRP3 acetylation or blocking inflammasome assembly with an inhibitor suppressed the progression of PCa xenograft tumors. Our findings provide the first evidence that targeting NLRP3 acetylation or inflammasome assembly may be effective in inhibiting PCa progression.

AR-regulated ZIC5 contributes to the aggressiveness of prostate cancer

The mechanisms by which prostate cancer (PCa) progresses to the aggressive castration-resistant stage remain uncertain. Zinc finger of the cerebellum 5 (ZIC5), a transcription factor belonging to the ZIC family, is involved in the pathology of various cancers. However, the potential effect of ZIC5 on PCa malignant progression has not been fully defined. Here, we show that ZIC5 is upregulated in PCa, particularly in metastatic lesions, in positive association with poor prognosis. Genetic inhibition of ZIC5 in PCa cells obviously attenuated invasion and metastasis and blunted the oncogenic properties of colony formation. Mechanistically, ZIC5 functioned as a transcription factor to promote TWIST1-mediated EMT progression or as a cofactor to strengthen the β-catenin-TCF4 association and stimulate Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Importantly, ZIC5 and the androgen receptor (AR) form a positive feed-forward loop to mutually stimulate each other’s expression. AR, in cooperation with its steroid receptor coactivator 3 (SRC-3), increased ZIC5 expression through binding to the miR-27b-3p promoter and repressing miR-27b-3p transcription. In turn, ZIC5 potentiated AR, AR-V7, and AR targets’ expression. Besides, ZIC5 inhibition reduced AR and AR-V7 protein expression and enhanced the sensitivity of PCa to enzalutamide (Enz) treatment, both in vitro and in vivo. These findings indicate that the reciprocal activation between AR and ZIC5 promotes metastasis and Enz resistance of PCa and suggest the therapeutic value of cotargeting ZIC5 and AR for the treatment of advanced PCa.

Phytochemicals in Inhibition of Prostate Cancer: Evidence from Molecular Mechanisms Studies

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of death for men worldwide. The development of resistance, toxicity, and side effects of conventional therapies have made prostate cancer treatment become more intensive and aggressive. Many phytochemicals isolated from plants have shown to be tumor cytotoxic. In vitro laboratory studies have revealed that natural compounds can affect cancer cell proliferation by modulating many crucial cellular signaling pathways frequently dysregulated in prostate cancer. A multitude of natural compounds have been found to induce cell cycle arrest, promote apoptosis, inhibit cancer cell growth, and suppress angiogenesis. In addition, combinatorial use of natural compounds with hormone and/or chemotherapeutic drugs seems to be a promising strategy to enhance the therapeutic effect in a less toxic manner, as suggested by pre-clinical studies. In this context, we systematically reviewed the currently available literature of naturally occurring compounds isolated from vegetables, fruits, teas, and herbs, with their relevant mechanisms of action in prostate cancer. As there is increasing data on how phytochemicals interfere with diverse molecular pathways in prostate cancer, this review discusses and emphasizes the implicated molecular pathways of cell proliferation, cell cycle control, apoptosis, and autophagy as important processes that control tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. In conclusion, the elucidation of the natural compounds' chemical structure-based anti-cancer mechanisms will facilitate drug development and the optimization of drug combinations. Phytochemicals, as anti-cancer agents in the treatment of prostate cancer, can have significant health benefits for humans.

Combinatorial approaches of nanotherapeutics for inflammatory pathway targeted therapy of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) is the most prevalent male urogenital cancer worldwide. PC patients presenting an advanced or metastatic cancer succumb to the disease, even after therapeutic interventions including radiotherapy, surgery, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), and chemotherapy. One of the hallmarks of PC is evading immune surveillance and chronic inflammation, which is a major challenge towards designing effective therapeutic formulations against PC. Chronic inflammation in PC is often characterized by tumor microenvironment alterations, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and extracellular matrix modifications. The inflammatory events are modulated by reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Major signaling pathways in PC includes androgen receptor, PI3K and NF-κB pathways and targeting these inter-linked pathways poses a major therapeutic challenge. Notably, many conventional treatments are clinically unsuccessful, due to lack of targetability and poor bioavailability of the therapeutics, untoward toxicity and multidrug resistance. The past decade witnessed an advancement of nanotechnology as an excellent therapeutic paradigm for PC therapy. Modern nanovectorization strategies such as stimuli-responsive and active PC targeting carriers offer controlled release patterns and superior anti-cancer effects. The current review initially describes the classification, inflammatory triggers and major inflammatory pathways of PC, various PC treatment strategies and their limitations. Subsequently, recent advancement in combinatorial nanotherapeutic approaches, which target PC inflammatory pathways, and the mechanism of action are discussed. Besides, the current clinical status and prospects of PC homing nanovectorization, and major challenges to be addressed towards the advancement PC therapy are also addressed.

A renewed concept on the MAPK signaling pathway in cancers: Polyphenols as a choice of therapeutics

Abnormalities in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway are a key contributor to the carcinogenesis process and have therefore been implicated in several aspects of tumorigenesis, including cell differentiation, proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and metastasis. This pathway offers multiple molecular targets that may be modulated for anticancer activity and is of great interest for several malignancies. Polyphenols from various dietary sources have been observed to interfere with certain aspects of this pathway and consequently play a substantial role in the development and progression of cancer by suppressing cell growth, inactivating carcinogens, blocking angiogenesis, causing cell death, and changing immunity. A good number of polyphenolic compounds have shown promising outcomes in numerous pieces of research and are currently being investigated clinically to treat cancer patients. The current study concentrates on the role of the MAPK pathway in the development and metastasis of cancer, with particular emphasis on dietary polyphenolic compounds that influence the different MAPK sub-pathways to obtain an anticancer effect. This study aims to convey an overview of the various aspects of the MAPK pathway in cancer development and invasion, as well as a review of the advances achieved in the development of polyphenols to modulate the MAPK signaling pathway for better treatment of cancer.

Combination of the NRF2 Inhibitor and Autophagy Inhibitor Significantly Inhibited Tumorigenicity of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequent cancer in men. Developing new treatment methods for CRPC will be a significant challenge in the clinical treatment of PCa. In conclusion, the results of this study show that NRF2 is downregulated in untreated PCa samples compared to normal PCa samples; however, it was upregulated in mCRPC samples compared to HSPC samples. These results demonstrated that NRF2 may serve as a tumor suppressor in tumorigenesis but promote PCa androgen-independent transferring after ADT treatment. Bioinformatics analysis showed that NRF2 was related to multiple signaling, such as the AGE-RAGE pathway, MAPK pathway, NF-kappa B signaling, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and VEGF signaling pathway. Moreover, we revealed that the NRF2 inhibitor significantly inhibited tumorigenicity of CRPC cells in vitro. Of note, combination of the NRF2 inhibitor and autophagy inhibitor had a more significantly suppressive role than either ML385 or CQ, indicating that combination of CQ (autophagy inhibitor) and ML385 (NRF2 inhibitor) is a potential treatment of CRPC. Finally, we conformed that high levels of autophagy regulators LC3B, ULK1, and beclin1 significantly correlated to longer PSA recurrence-free survival time. We think that this study could provide more evidence to confirm that NRF2 is a crucial regulator and targeting NRF2 and autophagy is a potential therapy option for CRPC.

Oxidative Stress and Redox-Dependent Signaling in Prostate Cancer

Tumor emergence and progression is complicated by the dual role of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Low concentrations of ROS are essential for many intracellular metabolic processes and cell proliferation, while excessive ROS generation disrupts the mechanisms of cancer suppression, leading to the cell damage and death. A long-term imbalance in the ROS/antioxidant ratio and upregulation of the ROS generation due to the reduced efficacy of the antioxidant defense system cause chronic oxidative stress resulting in the damage of proteins, lipid, and DNA molecules and cancer development. Numerous data demonstrate that prostate cancer (the most common cancer in males) is associated with the development of oxidative stress. However, the reasons for the emergence of prostate cancer, as well as changes in the redox signaling and cellular redox homeostasis in this disease, are still poorly understood. The review examines the role of prooxidant and antioxidant enzyme systems, the imbalance in their activity leading to the oxidative stress development, changes in the key components of redox signaling, and the role of microRNAs in the modulation of redox status of cancer cells in prostate cancer.

Marein Prevented LPS-Induced Osteoclastogenesis by Regulating the NF-κB Pathway In Vitro

Many bone diseases such as osteolysis, osteomyelitis, and septic arthritis are caused by gram-negative bacterial infection, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial product, plays an essential role in this process. Drugs that inhibit LPS-induced osteoclastogenesis are urgently needed to prevent bone destruction in infective bone diseases. Marein, a major bioactive compound of Coreopsis tinctoria, possesses anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-diabetic effects. In this study, we measured the effect of marein on RAW264.7 cells by CCK-8 assay and used TRAP staining to determine osteoclastogenesis. The levels of osteoclast-related genes and NF-κB-related proteins were then analyzed by western blot, and the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were quantified by ELISA. Our results showed that marein inhibited LPS-induced osteoclast formation by osteoclast precursor RAW264.7 cells. The effect of marein was related to its inhibitory function on expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines and osteoclast-related genes containing RANK, TRAF6, MMP-9, CK, and CAII. Additionally, marein leads to markedly inhibited NF-κB signaling pathway activation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Concurrently, when the NF-κB signaling pathway was inhibited, osteoclast formation and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression were decreased. Collectively, marein could inhibit LPS-induced osteoclast formation in RAW264.7 cells via regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway. Our data demonstrate that marein might be a potential drug for bacteria-induced bone destruction disease. Our findings provide new insights into LPS-induced bone disease.

Oxidative Stress and Gender Disparity in Cancer

Oxidative stress is caused by homeostasis disrupted by excessively increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to intrinsic or extrinsic causes. Among diseases caused by the abnormal induction of ROS, cancer is a representative disease that shows gender specificity in the development and malignancy. Females have the advantage of longer life expectancy than males because of the genetic advantages derived from X chromosomes, the antioxidant protective function by estrogen, and the decrease in exposure to extrinsic risk factors such as alcohol and smoking. This study first examines the ordinary biological responses to oxidative stress and the effects of ROS on the cancer progression and describes the differences in cancer incidence and mortality by gender and the differences in oxidative stress affected by sex hormones. This paper summarized how several important transcription factors regulate ROS-induced stress and in vivo responses, and how their expression is changed by sex hormones. Estrogen is associated with disease resistance and greater mitochondrial function, and reduces mitochondrial damage and ROS production in females than in males. In addition, estrogen affects the activation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor (NRF) 2 and the regulation of other antioxidant-related transcription factors through NRF2, leading to benefits in females. Because ROS have a variety of molecular targets in cells, the effective cancer treatment requires understanding the potential of ROS and focusing on the characteristics of the research target such as patient's gender. Therefore, this review intends to emphasize the necessity of discussing gender specificity as a new therapeutic approach for efficient regulation of ROS considering individual specificity.

Impact of Serum γ-Glutamyltransferase on Overall Survival in Men with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Treated with Docetaxel

Simple Summary

γ-Glutamyltransferase (GGT) is a biomarker of oxidative stress and its elevation in the serum is linked to poor survival in various malignancies; however, reports on metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) are scarce. Moreover, the source of serum GGT in men with mCRPC is largely unknown. The aims of this study were to determine the impact of serum GGT on overall survival in men with mCRPC receiving docetaxel therapy, and to examine the association between systemic and local GGT levels using immunohistochemistry. Of note, high serum GGT was associated with adverse overall survival as were low hemoglobin and high prostate-specific antigen levels. Additionally, tissue GGT expression status in prostate specimens was moderately positively associated with serum GGT. We demonstrated that pre-therapeutic serum GGT was an independent prognosticator in men with mCRPC receiving docetaxel therapy, and that overexpression of GGT in cancer cells might be responsible for the elevation of serum GGT.

Abstract

Background: Reports on the prognostic significance of serum γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) are limited. In addition, GGT expression status in cancer tissues has not been well characterized regardless of cancer types. Methods: This retrospective study included 107 consecutive men with mCRPC receiving docetaxel therapy. The primary endpoints were associations of serum GGT with overall survival (OS) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) response. The secondary endpoint was an association of serum GGT with progression-free survival (PFS). Additionally, GGT expression status was immunohistochemically semi-quantified using tissue microarrays. Results: A total of 67 (63%) men died during follow-up periods (median 22.5 months for survivors). On multivariable analysis, high Log GGT was independently associated with adverse OS (HR 1.49, p = 0.006) as were low hemoglobin (HR 0.79, p = 0.002) and high PSA (HR 1.40, p < 0.001). In contrast, serum GGT was not significantly associated with PSA response or PFS. Moreover, incorporation of serum GGT into established prognostic models (i.e., Halabi and Smaletz models) increased their C-indices for predicting OS from 0.772 to 0.787 (p = 0.066) and from 0.777 to 0.785 (p = 0.118), respectively. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between serum and tissue GGT levels (ρ = 0.53, p = 0.003). Conclusions: Serum GGT may be a prognostic biomarker in men with mCRPC receiving docetaxel therapy. GGT overexpression by prostate cancer cells appears to be responsible for the elevation of GGT in the serum.

Nepetoidin B from Salvia plebeia R. Br. Inhibits Inflammation by Modulating the NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Pathways in Macrophage Cells

Salvia plebeia has been used to treat a variety of inflammatory diseases, as well as colds and bronchitis. Macrophages have antioxidant defense mechanisms to cope with the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced as part of the immune response. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase (HO)-1 pathway in inflamed macrophages is an appealing target due to its protective effect against ROS-induced cell damage. In this study, nepetoidin B (NeB) was first isolated from S. plebeia and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. NeB reduced pro-inflammatory mediators (nitric oxide and prostaglandin E₂) and cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β) in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. In the NeB-treated group, catalase and superoxide dismutase levels were significantly higher, and ROS expression decreased. By activating Nrf2 signaling, NeB enhanced HO-1 expression. Furthermore, when the cells were pretreated with tin protoporphyrin (an HO-1 inhibitor), the anti-inflammatory effects of NeB were reduced. Therefore, NeB may activate the Nrf2/ HO-1 pathway. These results reveal the NeB isolated from S. plebeia exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating NF-κB signaling and activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

β-elemonic acid inhibits growth and triggers apoptosis in human castration-resistant prostate cancer cells through the suppression of JAK2/STAT3/MCL-1 and NF-ĸB signal pathways

Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) has become a significant problem in the current treatment of prostate cancer (PCa) with the characteristics of high metastatic potential, resistance and easy recurrence. The abnormal activation of JAK2/STAT3/MCL-1 and NF-κB has been confirmed as the main reason for the development of CRPC. We previously found that β-elemonic acid (β-EA) as a natural triterpene has potential anti-inflammatory and anti-osteosarcoma effects with lower toxicity. But it remains unknown whether it had effects on CRPC. The present research in vitro and in vivo systematically investigates anti-cancer effects and mechanisms of β-EA on human CRPC. β-EA treatment resulted in apoptotic cell death in human PCa cells by mitochondrial apoptotic pathways (including up-regulation of cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP, and Bax or down-regulation of Bcl-2). Besides, β-EA at relatively lower levels inhibited colony-forming, the migration and invasion potential of PCa cells, indicating its anti-proliferation and anti-metastasis activities. After exploring the potential mechanism, our results suggested that it subsequently inhibited the activation of JAK2/STAT3/MCL-1 and NF-κB signaling pathway by the administration of β-EA. The silencing of NF-κB/p65, JAK2 and STAT3, respectively, increased the sensitivity of the PCa cells to β-EA induced apoptosis. Moreover, β-EA exhibited a strong affinity with its essential proteins JAK2, RELA/p65, NF-κBIα/IκBα by molecular docking analysis. Importantly, β-EA retards tumor growth in a murine xenograft model, consistent with our study in vitro. Taken together, findings from this study reveal for the first time the potential role and mechanisms of β-EA on CRPC.

The roles of strawberry and honey phytochemicals on human health: A possible clue on the molecular mechanisms involved in the prevention of oxidative stress and inflammation

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and inflammation contribute to the etiopathogenesis of several human chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic syndrome. Besides classic stimuli, such as reactive oxidant species, endotoxins (i.e., bacteria lipopolysaccharide), cytokines or carcinogens, oxidative stress and inflammation can be triggered by a poor diet and an excess of body fat and energy intake. Strawberry and honey are common rich sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds, widely studied for their roles exerted in health maintenance and disease prevention.

PURPOSE

This review aims to summarize and update the effects of strawberry and honey against oxidative stress and inflammation, with emphasis on metabolism and on the main molecular mechanisms involved in these effects.

METHODS

A wide range of literature, published in the last 10 years, elucidating the effects of strawberry and honey in preventing oxidative stress and inflammation both in vitro (whole matrix and digested fractions) and in vivo was collected from online electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science) and reviewed.

RESULTS

Strawberry and honey polyphenols may potentially prevent the chronic diseases related to oxidative stress and inflammation. Several in vitro and in vivo studies reported the effects of these foods in suppressing the oxidative stress, by decreasing ROS production and oxidative biomarkers, restoring the antioxidant enzyme activities, ameliorating the mitochondrial antioxidant status and functionality, among others, and the inflammatory process, by modulating the mediators of acute and chronic inflammation essential for the onset of several human diseases. These beneficial properties are mediated in part through their ability to target multiple signaling pathways, such as p38 MAPK, AMPK, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB and Nrf2.

CONCLUSIONS

Available scientific literature show that strawberry and honey may be effective in preventing oxidative stress and inflammation. The deep evaluation of the factors that affect their metabolism as well as the assessment of the main molecular mechanisms involved are of extreme importance for the possible therapeutic and preventive benefit against the most common human diseases. However, published literature is still scarce so that deeper studies should be performed in order to evaluate the bioavailability of these food matrices and their effects after digestion.

hTERT Promotes CRC Proliferation and Migration by Recruiting YBX1 to Increase NRF2 Expression

High human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) expression is related to severe Colorectal Cancer (CRC) progression and negatively related to CRC patient survival. Previous studies have revealed that hTERT can reduce cancer cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and accelerate cancer progression; however, the mechanism remains poorly understood. NFE2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a molecule that plays a significant role in regulating cellular ROS homeostasis, but whether there is a correlation between hTERT and NRF2 remains unclear. Here, we showed that hTERT increases CRC proliferation and migration by inducing NRF2 upregulation. We further found that hTERT increases NRF2 expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. Our data also revealed that hTERT primarily upregulates NRF2 by increasing NRF2 promoter activity rather than by regulating NRF2 mRNA or protein stability. Using DNA pull-down/MS analysis, we found that hTERT can recruit YBX1 to upregulate NRF2 promoter activity. We also found that hTERT/YBX1 may localize to the P2 region of the NRF2 promoter. Taken together, our results demonstrate that hTERT facilitates CRC proliferation and migration by upregulating NRF2 expression through the recruitment of the transcription factor YBX1 to activate the NRF2 promoter. These results provide a new theoretical basis for CRC treatment.

Beyond direct Nrf2 activation; reinvestigating 1,2,4-oxadiazole scaffold as a master key unlocking the antioxidant cellular machinery for cancer therapy

Harnessing the antioxidant cellular machinery has sparked considerable interest as an efficient anticancer strategy. Activating Nrf2, the master switch of the cellular redox system, suppresses ROS, alleviates oxidative stress, and halts cancer progression. 1,2,4-oxadiazoles are iconic direct Nrf2 activators that disrupt Nrf2 interaction with its endogenous repressor Keap1. This study introduces rationally designed 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives that inhibit other Nrf2 suppressors (TrxR1, IKKα, and NF-kB) thus enhancing Nrf2 activation for preventing oxidative stress and carcinogenesis. Preliminary screening showed that the phenolic oxadiazoles 11, 15, and 19 were comparable to ascorbic acid (ROS scavenging) and EDTA (iron chelation), and superior to doxorubicin against HepG-2, MDA-MB231, and Caco-2 cells. They suppressed ROS by 3 folds and activated Nrf2 by 2 folds in HepG-2 cells. Mechanistically, they inhibited TrxR1 (IC₅₀; 13.19, 17.89, and 9.21 nM) and IKKα (IC₅₀; 11.0, 15.94, and 19.58 nM), and downregulated NF-κB (7.6, 1.4 and 1.9 folds in HepG-2), respectively. They inhibited NADPH oxidase (IC₅₀; 16.4, 21.94, and 10.71 nM, respectively) that potentiates their antioxidant activities. Docking studies predicted their important structural features. Finally, they recorded drug-like in silico physicochemical properties, ADMET, and ligand efficiency metrics.

Dual stimuli-responsive polypeptide-calcium phosphate hybrid nanoparticles for co-delivery of multiple drugs in cancer therapy

In this study, a new type of polypeptide, crosslinked methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-g-poly(aspartic acid)-g-tyrosine (CPPT), was synthesized via a green and simple one-pot polymerization method. With the disulfide-crosslinked interlayer and the CaP shell, the pH and redox dual-sensitive polypeptide-based organic-inorganic hybrid nanoparticles encapsulated curcumin (Cur) into the hydrophobic core of micelles and loaded doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) on the hydrophilic segment of micelles as well as CaP shell. The spherical Cur- and DOX-loaded nanoparticles (CPPT@CaP-CD) showed a hydrodynamics size of about 157.9 ± 3.9 nm. The premature leakage of drugs from the nanoparticles at physiological pH was efficiently restrained because of the enhanced structure integrity, whereas at acidic and hypoxia microenvironment the release of both drugs was promoted due to the rapid dissolution of the CaP shell and the break of the disulfide crosslinked network, facilitating the stimuli-responsive controllable drugs release. In vitro anticancer activity evaluation revealed that the co-loaded nanoparticles presented higher cytotoxicity against A549 cells compared with that of the free combination of Cur + DOX. Confocal laser scanning microscopy observation indicated that more DOX and Cur were released into the nucleus triggered by the up-regulated intracellular glutathione (GSH) concentration and decreased pH, displaying enhanced cell uptake. The self-assembling polypeptide-based dual-sensitive drug co-delivery system could be a promising platform for efficient chemotherapy.

Comparation of Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidantactivities of Curcumin, Tetrahydrocurcuminand Octahydrocurcuminin LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Macrophages

Curcumin (CUR) possesses pronounced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Generally, the clinical application of CUR is restricted due to its apparent unstability and poor absorption, and the biological activities of CUR may be closely associated with its metabolites. Tetrahydrocurcumin (THC) and octahydrocurcumin (OHC) are two major hydrogenated metabolites of CUR with appreciable biological potentials. Here, we comparatively explored the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of CUR, THC, and OHC in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced RAW264.7 macrophages. The results revealed that CUR, THC, and OHC dose-dependently inhibited the generation of NO and MCP-1 as well as the gene expression of MCP-1 and iNOS. Additionally, CUR, THC, and OHC significantly inhibited NF-κB activation and p38MAPK and ERK phosphorylation, while substantially upregulated the Nrf2 target gene expression (HO-1, NQO-1, GCLC, and GCLM). Nevertheless, zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP), a typical HO-1 inhibitor, significantly reversed the alleviative effect of CUR, THC, and OHC on LPS-stimulated ROS generation. These results demonstrated that CUR, THC, and OHC exerted beneficial effect on LPS-stimulated inflammatory and oxidative responses, at least partially, through inhibiting the NF-κB and MAPKs pathways and activating Nrf2-regulated antioxidant gene expression. Particularly, THC and OHC might exert superior antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities to CUR in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, which can be further explored to be a promising novel effective agent for inflammatory treatment.

Omaveloxolone: potential new agent for Friedreich ataxia

Friedreich ataxia is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disorder leading to ataxia, dyscoordination, dysarthria and in many individuals vision and hearing loss. It is associated with cardiomyopathy, the leading cause of death in Friedreich ataxia (FRDA), diabetes and scoliosis. There are no approved therapies, but elucidation of the pathophysiology of FRDA suggest that agents that increase the activity of the transcription factor Nrf2 may provide a mechanism for ameliorating disease progression or severity. In this work, we review the evidence for use of omaveloxolone in FRDA from recent clinical trials. Though not at present approved for any indication, the present data suggest that this agent acting though increases in Nrf2 activity may provide a novel therapy for FRDA.

Upregulation of potential regulatory signaling molecules correlate with androgen receptor splice variants AR-V7 and AR-V567es in prostate cancer metastasis

AIM

Androgen receptor splice variants (AR-Vs) produced by alternative splicing of the AR play an important role in the treatment resistance and progression of prostate cancer (PCa). In this study, two most common AR variants and how they associate with the inflammatory response (NF-Kβ) and regulatory transcriptional activity (HSP-27) genes were investigated in patients with PCa and metastatic PCa (Met-PCa).

METHODS

Our study was carried out with the whole blood obtained from 25 healthy control subjects, 25 PCa patients and 39 Met-PCa patients. We examined the expression levels of AR, AR-V7 and AR-V567es genes via Real-time PCR and those of HSP-27 and NF-Kβ via ELISA method.

RESULTS

AR, AR-V7 and AR-V567es expressions were observed in 84.61%, 64.1%, 23.07% of Met-PCa patients respectively. The expression levels of full-length AR and variants (AR-V7 and AR-V567es) were associated with the prostate cancer stage. In the Met-PCa, the expression levels of AR, AR-V7 and AR-V567es were associated with the Gleason Scores but not with the PSA levels. AR-V7 expression levels in stage T4 patients significantly increased. NF-Kβ and HSP-27 protein levels were significantly higher in Met-PCa patients.

DISCUSSION

Our findings highlight the targeting of the proteostasis and inflammation pathways through inhibiting HSP-27 and NF-Kβ. This might be a valuable strategy to overcome anti-androgen resistance and improve drug therapy in Met-PCa patients whose gene expression levels of AR-V7 and AR-V567es variants are high.

Effect of Parecoxib Sodium on Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Rats

BACKGROUND We aimed to explore the effect of parecoxib sodium on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury rats and its mechanism. MATERIAL AND METHODS The coronary artery of Sprague-Dawley rats was occluded for 6 h of myocardial ischemia, followed by reperfusion for 30 min (I/R group). Before ischemia, parecoxib sodium (10 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected twice a day for 3 consecutive days, followed by reperfusion for 6 h (I/R+Pare group). The cardiac function and changes in the infarction area were evaluated via echocardiography in each group. The differences in the expressions of apoptosis-related proteins were determined via immunohistochemistry and western blotting. Then, the percentage of reactive oxygen species (ROS)⁺ cells and the content of lipid peroxide were detected, based on which the degree of oxidative stress was evaluated. Next, the expressions of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) signaling pathways and downstream target genes were determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS After treatment with parecoxib sodium, the cardiac function of I/R injury rats was restored, and the infarction area and apoptosis level were reduced (P<0.05). Parecoxib sodium reduced the levels of ROS and lipid peroxidation in myocardial I/R injury rats, thereby weakening oxidative stress. It also regulated the redox imbalance caused by I/R injury through regulating NF-kappaB and Nrf-2 (P<0.01). In addition, after treatment with parecoxib sodium, NF-kappaB was significantly downregulated, while Nrf-2 was upregulated, and the content of proinflammatory cytokines was obviously reduced (P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS Parecoxib sodium exerts a protective effect against myocardial I/R injury through regulating antioxidant and inflammatory mechanisms.

The inflammation and reactive oxygen species regulated by Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways in 630-nm light-emitting diode irradiation treated THP-1 monocytes/macrophages

Because of a large number of macrophages and its secreted pro-inflammatory factors in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, the present study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of 630-nm LED exposure on monocytes/macrophages and its anti-inflammatory effect. The THP-1 monocytes and PMA-induced THP-1 macrophages (THP-1 macrophages) were employed and irradiated by 630-nm LED for different time and times, and then measure the pro-inflammatory cytokines production by RT-qPCR and Milliplex MAP Multiplex assay, the proteins involved in inflammation pathway and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in the cells were detected by Western blot and DCFH-DA method. The exposure dose of red LED (15.3 J/cm², 30.6 J/cm²) were determined as no-influence on the cell proliferation, the pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β mRNAs, and secretions in supernatant of THP-1 macrophages were significantly decreased after LED exposure. The ROS production was blocked in THP-1 monocytes and THP-1 macrophages after treatment of LED. Finally, the phosphorylated NF-κB proteins which involved in inflammation pathway significantly decreased, and its inhibitors Nrf2 were slightly upregulated. The effects of LED anti-inflammation response are dependent on the mechanism of inhibiting ROS level and regulating NF-κB signaling pathways by increasing Nrf2 expression in the cells. It is suggested that 630-nm LED could decrease pro-inflammation in immune cells, and it may be a beneficial adjunct therapy in relieving inflammation of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

Association of Monoamine Oxidase A with Tumor Burden and Castration Resistance in Prostate Cancer

BACKGROUND

Metastatic burden and aggressive behavior determine severity stratification and guide treatment decisions in prostate cancer (PCa). Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) may promote tumor burden and drug/castration resistance in PCa. A positive association will pave the way for MAOA inhibitors such as moclobemide for PCa therapy.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze MAOA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells qualitatively and p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, nuclear factor kappa B, and their phosphorylated forms, vascular endothelial growth factor (angiogenesis), transforming growth factor beta, interleukin 6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (cytokines), Bcl-2 associated X, B-cell lymphoma 2, and P53 (apoptosis), prostate-specific membrane antigen, and epithelial cell adhesion molecules (surface markers) in plasma of patients with PCa.

METHODS

This was a 1-year pilot study in which patients with PCa were recruited and stratified into 2 groups and subgroups: treatment-naive with (M1) (n = 23) or without (M0) (n = 23) bone metastasis; hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (n = 26) or hormone/castration-resistant prostate cancer (n = 26). MAOA was detected using ELISA and other proteins were detected using immunoblotting technique.

RESULTS

MAOA was detected in 8.6% of M0 compared with 30.4% of M1 patients, and in 7.7% of hormone-sensitive compared with 27% of hormone/castration resistant PCa patients, associating it with bone metastasis and castration resistance. Multivariable regression analysis showed a correlation of MAOA with serum prostate-specific antigen, a marker for progression in PCa (Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.30; P < 0.01). In patients with positive MAOA, there was overexpression of p38, phosphorylated-p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinases, nuclear factor kappa B, phosphorylated nuclear factor kappa B, transforming growth factor beta, vascular endothelial growth factor, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, Bcl-2 associated X, B-cell lymphoma 2, prostate-specific membrane antigen, and epithelial cell adhesion molecule in M1 compared with M0 group patients, associating these proteins with tumor burden. Overexpression of Bcl-2 associated X, tumor protein 53, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, nuclear factor kappa B, transforming growth factor beta, vascular endothelial growth factor, and prostate-specific membrane antigen and underexpression of B-cell lymphoma 2 and phosphorylated nuclear factor kappa B were observed in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer compared with hormone/castration-resistant prostate cancer, associating these proteins with castration resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

Association of key molecules of oncogenesis and metastasis with MAOA suggests that MAOA inhibitors such as moclobemide might be effective in the management of PCa.

Imperatorin Relieved Ulcerative Colitis by Regulating the Nrf-2/ARE/HO-1 Pathway in Rats

Ulcerative colitis is a common intestinal inflammatory disease. Imperatorin (IMP) has been reported to alleviate mast cell-mediated allergic responses by suppressing the expression of Nrf-2, ARE, and HO-1. However, whether IMP can relieve ulcerative colitis by regulating Nrf-2/ARE/HO-1 pathway is unclear. Thus, this study aims to investigate the effect of IMP on ulcerative colitis in rats and elucidate the potential mechanism. In our study, rats were treated with 2,4,6-trinitro-benzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) to induce the animal model of ulcerative colitis. Next, these rats were treated with diverse doses of IMP (15 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, and 60 mg/kg) and sacrificed at different time points (3 days, 7 days, and 14 days). The levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α and IL-6) in colon tissues were detected with ELISA kits. H&E staining was performed to observe the pathologic changes of the colon tissues. The expression of Nrf-2, ARE, and HO-1 in colon tissues was determined with the immunofluorescence and Western blotting. The results showed that application of IMP alleviated the symptoms of ulcerative colitis and inhibited the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6. Besides, treatment of IMP promoted the expression of Nrf-2, ARE, and HO-1 in the early stage of this disease (the third day), but suppressed the expression of Nrf-2, ARE, and HO-1 in the advanced stage of the ulcerative colitis (the fourteenth day). Collectively, IMP relieved the symptoms of ulcerative colitis by regulating the Nrf-2/ARE/HO-1 pathway, which might provide a new therapeutic drug to support the clinical treatment of ulcerative colitis.

Determining the prognostic significance of IKKα in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

As the survival of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains poor, and the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways play key roles in prostate cancer (PC) progression, several studies have focused on inhibiting the NF-κB pathway through generating inhibitory κB kinase subunit α (IKKα) small molecule inhibitors. However, the identification of prognostic markers able to discriminate which patients could benefit from IKKα inhibitors is urgently required. The present study investigated the prognostic value of IKKα, IKKα phosphorylated at serine 180 (p-IKKα S180) and threonine 23 (p-IKKα T23), and their relationship with the androgen receptor (AR) and Ki67 proliferation index to predict patient outcome.

METHODS

A cohort of 115 patients with hormone-naïve PC (HNPC) and CRPC specimens available were used to assess tumor cell expression of proteins within both the cytoplasm and the nucleus by immunohistochemistry. The expression levels were dichotomized (low vs high) to determine the associations between IKKα, AR, Ki67, and patients'Isurvival. In addition, an analysis was performed to assess potential IKKα associations with clinicopathological and inflammatory features, and potential IKKα correlations with other cancer pathways essential for CRPC growth.

RESULTS

High levels of cytoplasmic IKKα were associated with a higher cancer-specific survival in HNPC patients with low AR expression (hazards ratio [HR], 0.33; 95% confidence interval [CI] log-rank, 0.11-0.98; P = .04). Furthermore, nuclear IKKα (HR, 2.60; 95% CI, 1.27-5.33; P = .01) and cytoplasmic p-IKKα S180 (HR, 2.10; 95% CI, 1.17-3.76; P = .01) were associated with a lower time to death from recurrence in patients with CRPC. In addition, high IKKα expression was associated with high levels of T-cells (CD3+ P = .01 and CD8+ P = .03) in HNPC; however, under castration conditions, high IKKα expression was associated with high levels of CD68+ macrophages (P = .04), higher Gleason score (P = .01) and more prostate-specific antigen concentration (P = .03). Finally, we identified crosstalk between IKKα and members of the canonical NF-κB pathway in the nucleus of HNPC. Otherwise, IKKα phosphorylated by noncanonical NF-κB and Akt pathways correlated with members of the canonical NF-κB pathway in CRPC.

CONCLUSION

The present study reports that patients with CRPC expressing high levels of nuclear IKKα or cytoplasmic p-IKKα S180, which associated with a lower time to death from recurrence, may benefit from IKKα inhibitors.

Roles of Reactive Oxygen Species in Biological Behaviors of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa), known as a heterogenous disease, has a high incidence and mortality rate around the world and seriously threatens public health. As an inevitable by-product of cellular metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS) exhibit beneficial effects by regulating signaling cascades and homeostasis. More and more evidence highlights that PCa is closely associated with age, and high levels of ROS are driven through activation of several signaling pathways with age, which facilitate the initiation, development, and progression of PCa. Nevertheless, excessive amounts of ROS result in harmful effects, such as genotoxicity and cell death. On the other hand, PCa cells adaptively upregulate antioxidant genes to detoxify from ROS, suggesting that a subtle balance of intracellular ROS levels is required for cancer cell functions. The current review discusses the generation and biological roles of ROS in PCa and provides new strategies based on the regulation of ROS for the treatment of PCa.

Immunomodulatory effect of diallyl sulfide on experimentally-induced benign prostate hyperplasia via the suppression of CD4+T/IL-17 and TGF-β1/ERK pathways

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a nonmalignant enlargement of the prostate common in older men. Diallyl sulfide (DAS), a major component of garlic, has been reported to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative effects. However, the underlying protective immunomodulatory mechanism of DAS on BPH remains vague. Herein, experimental BPH was induced in rats by daily subcutaneous injection of testosterone propionate (TP) (3 mg/kg, s.c.) for 4 weeks. In parallel, finasteride (Fin) (5 mg/kg, p.o) or DAS (50 mg/kg, p.o.) was administered orally during BPH induction. TP-induced histological alterations and the immune-inflammatory cascade. On the other hand, DAS or Fin administration alleviated all abnormalities induced testosterone. Fin and DAS administration markedly reduced prostate weight by 53% with Fin, and by 60% with DAS. Moreover, serum testosterone and DHT were reduced by 55% and 52%, respectively, with Fin and by 68% and 75%, respectively, with DAS, in concordance with decreased protein expression of androgen receptor (AR), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Furthermore, both regime lessen immune-inflammatory milieu, as evidenced by decrease CD4+ T-cells protein expression and associated inflammatory cytokines. Concomitantly, Fin and DAS exhibited marked mitigation in insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1), and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling. Besides alleviating oxidative stress by 53% and 68% in prostatic MDA and by 27% and 7% in prostatic iNOS with Fin and DAS, respectively. In conclusion, this work highlighted a potential therapeutic approach of DAS as a dietary preventive agent against BPH via its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effect along with suppression of the ERK pathway.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Carpesium cernuum L. Methanolic Extract in LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophages

A hypernomic reaction or an abnormal inflammatory process could cause a series of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, and cancer. Additionally, oxidative stress has been identified to induce severe tissue injury and inflammation. Carpesium cernuum L. (C. cernuum) is a Chinese folk medicine used for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and detoxifying properties. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of C. cernuum in inflammatory and oxidative stress conditions remains largely unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a methanolic extract of C. cernuum (CLME) on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages and a sepsis mouse model. The data presented in this study indicated that CLME inhibited LPS-induced production of proinflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in RAW 264.7 cells. CLME treatment also reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein in a dose-dependent manner in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, CLME treatment abolished the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), enhanced the activation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and reduced the expression of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) and ERK kinase (MEK) phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. These outcomes implied that CLME could be a potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.

Upregulation of miRNA‑301a‑3p promotes tumor progression in gastric cancer by suppressing NKRF and activating NF‑κB signaling

MicroRNA‑301a (miRNA/miR‑301a) and nuclear factor (NF)‑κB signaling play important roles in tumor invasion, migration and progression. However, the role of miRNA‑301a‑3p in human gastric cancer (GC), and specifically in the activation of NF‑κB signaling, remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate miRNA‑301a‑3p expression in GC progression and the molecular mechanisms as regards the regulation of NF‑κB signaling. Reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‑qPCR) was used to detect miRNA‑301a‑3p expression in GC and paired normal tissues. The association between the expression of miRNA‑301a‑3p and patient pathological parameters and the prognosis of GC was statistically analyzed using an in situ hybridization (ISH) assay. An MTS assay and a Transwell assay were performed to evaluate the effects of miRNA‑301a‑3p on the proliferation, invasion and migration of GC cells. RT‑qPCR and western blot analysis were used to analyze the association between miRNA‑301a‑3p and nuclear factor‑κB repressing factor (NKRF) expression and the corresponding downstream NF‑κB signaling molecules. A luciferase assay was used to verify the target effect of miRNA‑301a‑3p and NKRF. It was found that miRNA‑301a‑3p expression was significantly higher in 30 cases of primary GC compared with matched normal tissues. Additionally, the ISH assay indicated that the high expression of miRNA‑301a‑3p in GC was associated with tumor invasion depth, lymph node metastasis, lymph node invasion and tumor metastasis stage. Patients whose tumors had a higher miRNA‑301a‑3p expression level exhibited a poorer prognosis. The in vitro assay indicated that miRNA‑301a‑3p affected the proliferative and invasive ability of GC cells by targeting the expression of NKRF, which then affected NF‑κB signaling. Therefore, it was hypothesize that miRNA‑301a‑3p promotes GC progression and affects the prognosis of patients with GC by targeting NKRF, which in turn, directly influences NF‑κB activation.

Structural characterization of a polysaccharide from Suillellus luridus and its antidiabetic activity via Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB pathways

A heteropolysaccharide designated SLPC-1S with the Mw of 9.4 kDa was purified from the caps of Suillellus luridus. Monosaccharide composition analysis revealed that SLPC-1S was composed of galactose, glucose, arabinose and mannose in a molar ratio of 44.9:27.6:14.7:12.8. Structural characterization indicated that SLPC-1S had a backbone principally composed of 1,3 linked α-D-Galp, 1,3 linked β-D-Glcp and 1,6 linked β-D-Glcp with the branches mainly composed of 1,3 linked β-D-Glcp, 1,3 linked α-L-Arap, 1,3 linked α-D-Manp and T-linked α-D-Galp. Furthermore, SLPC-1S exhibited excellent antidiabetic activities in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Protein expression and mRNA levels in NF-kB and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways were detected by western blots and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), respectively. The results strongly proved that SLPC-1S can be treated as a potential agent for preventing and treating diabetes via regulating Nrf2-mediated oxidative stress and NF-κB-mediated inflammatory responses.

Effect of estrogen-active compounds on the expression of RACK1 and immunological implications

We previously demonstrated the existence of a balance among steroid hormones, i.e. glucocorticoids and androgens, in RACK1 (receptor for activated C kinase 1) expression and innate immunity activation, which may offer the opportunity to use RACK1 expression as marker to evaluate immunotoxicity of hormone-active substances. Because of the existence of close interconnections between the different steroid hormone receptors with overlapping ligand specificities and signaling pathways, in this study, we wanted to investigate a possible effect of estrogenic active compounds, namely 17β-estradiol, diethylstilbestrol, and zearalenone, on RACK-1 expression and innate immune responses using THP-1 cells as experimental model. All compounds increased RACK1 transcriptional activity as evaluated by reporter luciferase activity, mRNA expression as assessed by real time-PCR and protein expression by western blot analysis, which paralleled an increase in LPS-induced IL-8, TNF-α production, and CD86 expression, which we previously demonstrated to be dependent on RACK1/PKCβ activation. As the induction of RACK1 expression can be blocked by the antagonist G15, induced by the agonist G1 and by the non-cell permeable 17β-estradiol conjugated with BSA, a role of GPER (previously named GPR30) activation in estrogen-induced RACK1 expression could be demonstrated. In addition, a role of androgen receptor (AR) in RACK1 transcription was also demonstrated by the ability of flutamide, a nonsteroidal antiandrogen, to completely prevent diethylstilbestrol-induced RACK1 transcriptional activity and protein expression. Altogether, our data suggest that RACK1 may represent an interesting target of steroid-active compounds, and its evaluation may offer the opportunity to screen the immunotoxic potential of hormone-active substances.

ERβ and NFκB-Modulators of Zearalenone-Induced Oxidative Stress in Human Prostate Cancer Cells

Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) is commonly expressed in prostate cancer (PCa) cells and is associated with increased proliferation, metastases and androgen independence. Zearalenone (ZEA) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating food, which might mimic estrogens and bind to estrogen receptors (ERs). The ratio of androgens to estrogens in men decreases physiologically with age, and is believed to participate in prostate carcinogenesis. In this study, we evaluated the role of NFκB and ERβ in the induction of oxidative stress in human PCa cells by ZEA. As observed, ZEA at a dose of 30 µM induces oxidative stress in PCa cells associated with DNA damage and G2/M cell cycle arrest. We also observed that the inhibition of ERβ and NFΚB via specific inhibitors (PHTPP and BAY 117082) significantly increased ZEA-induced oxidative stress, although the mechanism seems to be different for androgen-dependent and androgen-independent cells. Based on our findings, it is possible that the activation of ERβ and NFΚB in PCa might protect cancer cells from ZEA-induced oxidative stress. We therefore shed new light on the mechanism of ZEA toxicity in human cells.

GSTP1 rs1138272 Polymorphism Affects Prostate Cancer Risk

Background and Objectives: One of the most frequent genetic alterations reported to date in prostate cancer (PC) is aberrant methylation of glutathione transferase P1 (GSTP1). Taking into consideration the involvement of oxidative stress in PC pathogenesis and recent advances in scientific understanding of the role of GSTP1*Ala114Val rs1138272 polymorphism in carcinogenesis, we hypothesized that this single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) influences the risk of PC independently of, or in combination with, other GST polymorphisms, including GSTP1*IIe105Val rs1695 or GSTM1 and GSTT1 deletion polymorphisms. Materials and Methods: Genotyping was performed in 237 PC cases and in 236 age-matched controls by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for deletion of GST polymorphisms and by quantitative PCR for SNPs. Results: We found that carriers of either GSTP1*Val (rs1138272) or GSTP1*Val (rs1695) variant alleles had a PC risk compared to individuals with both referent alleles (OR = 4.93, 95%CI: 2.89–8.40, p < 0.001 and OR = 1.8, 95%CI: 1.19–2.73, p = 0.006, respectively). Additionally, in a haplotype analysis we found that individuals with GSTP1*C haplotype, represented by both variant alleles (GSTP1*Val rs1695 + GSTP1*Val rs1138272), had a 5.46 times higher risk of PC development compared to individuals with the most frequent haplotype (95%CI = 2.56–11.65, p < 0.001), suggesting a potential role of those variants in PC susceptibility. A regression analysis on the number of risk-associated alleles per individual (GSTM1*active, GSTT1*null, GSTP1*Val rs1695 and GSTP1*Val rs1138272) showed a significant increase in the risk of developing PC, from 3.65-fold in carriers of two risk alleles (95%CI = 1.55–8.61, p = 0.003) to an approximately 12-fold increase in carriers of all four risk alleles (95%CI = 3.05–44.93, p < 0.001). Conclusion: Prostate cancer may be influenced by multiple glutathione transferase (GST) polymorphic genes, especially GSTP1, highlighting the role of gene–gene interactions in human susceptibility to this cancer.

The prognostic impact of tumour NSD2 expression in advanced prostate cancer

Purpose: To assess the prognostic significance of the nuclear receptor binding SET protein 2 (NSD2), a co-activator of the NFkB-pathway, on tumour progression in patients with advanced prostate cancer (PCa).Methods: We retrospectively assessed NSD2 expression in 53 patients with metastatic and castration-resistant PCa. Immunohistochemical staining for NSD2 was carried out on specimen obtained from palliative resection of the prostate. Univariable and multivariable analyses were performed to assess the association between NSD2 expression and PCa progression.Results: Of the 53 patients, 41 had castration-resistant PCa and 48 men had metastases at time of tissue acquisition. NSD2 expression was increased in tumour specimen from 42 patients (79.2%). In univariable Cox regression analyses, NSD2 expression was associated with PSA progression, progression on imaging and overall survival (p = 0.04, respectively). In multivariable analyses, NSD2 expression did not retain its association with these endpoints.Conclusions: NSD2 expression is abnormal in almost 80% of patients with advanced PCa. Expression levels of this epigenetic regulator are easily detected by immunohistochemistry while this biomarker exhibited prognostic value for PCa progression and death in univariable analysis. Further studies on NSD2 involvement in PCa proliferation, progression, metastasis and resistance mechanisms are needed.