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Rezaei B, Tay ZW, Mostufa S, Manzari ON, Azizi E, Ciannella S, Moni HEJ, Li C, Zeng M, Gómez-Pastora J, Wu K. Magnetic nanoparticles for magnetic particle imaging (MPI): design and applications. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:11802-11824. [PMID: 38809214 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr01195c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Recent advancements in medical imaging have brought forth various techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and ultrasound, each contributing to improved diagnostic capabilities. Most recently, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) has become a rapidly advancing imaging modality with profound implications for medical diagnostics and therapeutics. By directly detecting the magnetization response of magnetic tracers, MPI surpasses conventional imaging modalities in sensitivity and quantifiability, particularly in stem cell tracking applications. Herein, this comprehensive review explores the fundamental principles, instrumentation, magnetic nanoparticle tracer design, and applications of MPI, offering insights into recent advancements and future directions. Novel tracer designs, such as zinc-doped iron oxide nanoparticles (Zn-IONPs), exhibit enhanced performance, broadening MPI's utility. Spatial encoding strategies, scanning trajectories, and instrumentation innovations are elucidated, illuminating the technical underpinnings of MPI's evolution. Moreover, integrating machine learning and deep learning methods enhances MPI's image processing capabilities, paving the way for more efficient segmentation, quantification, and reconstruction. The potential of superferromagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle chains (SFMIOs) as new MPI tracers further advanced the imaging quality and expanded clinical applications, underscoring the promising future of this emerging imaging modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Rezaei
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
| | - Zhi Wei Tay
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Health and Medical Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8564, Japan
| | - Shahriar Mostufa
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
| | - Omid Nejati Manzari
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
| | - Ebrahim Azizi
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
| | - Stefano Ciannella
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Hur-E-Jannat Moni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Changzhi Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
| | - Minxiang Zeng
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | | | - Kai Wu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA.
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Tay Z, Kim HJ, Ho JS, Olivo M. A Magnetic Particle Imaging Approach for Minimally Invasive Imaging and Sensing With Implantable Bioelectronic Circuits. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2024; 43:1740-1752. [PMID: 38157469 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2023.3348149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Minimally-invasive and biocompatible implantable bioelectronic circuits are used for long-term monitoring of physiological processes in the body. However, there is a lack of methods that can cheaply and conveniently image the device within the body while simultaneously extracting sensor information. Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) with zero background signal, high contrast, and high sensitivity with quantitative images is ideal for this challenge because the magnetic signal is not absorbed with increasing tissue depth and incurs no radiation dose. We show how to easily modify common implantable devices to be imaged by MPI by encapsulating and magnetically-coupling magnetic nanoparticles (SPIOs) to the device circuit. These modified implantable devices not only provide spatial information via MPI, but also couple to our handheld MPI reader to transmit sensor information by modulating harmonic signals from magnetic nanoparticles via switching or frequency-shifting with resistive or capacitive sensors. This paper provides proof-of-concept of an optimized MPI imaging technique for implantable devices to extract spatial information as well as other information transmitted by the implanted circuit (such as biosensing) via encoding in the magnetic particle spectrum. The 4D images present 3D position and a changing color tone in response to a variable biometric. Biophysical sensing via bioelectronic circuits that take advantage of the unique imaging properties of MPI may enable a wide range of minimally invasive applications in biomedicine and diagnosis.
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Mim JJ, Hasan M, Chowdhury MS, Ghosh J, Mobarak MH, Khanom F, Hossain N. A comprehensive review on the biomedical frontiers of nanowire applications. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29244. [PMID: 38628721 PMCID: PMC11016983 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
This comprehensive review examines the immense capacity of nanowires, nanostructures characterized by unbounded dimensions, to profoundly transform the field of biomedicine. Nanowires, which are created by combining several materials using techniques such as electrospinning and vapor deposition, possess distinct mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. As a result, they are well-suited for use in nanoscale electronic devices, drug delivery systems, chemical sensors, and other applications. The utilization of techniques such as the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) approach and template-assisted approaches enables the achievement of precision in synthesis. This precision allows for the customization of characteristics, which in turn enables the capability of intracellular sensing and accurate drug administration. Nanowires exhibit potential in biomedical imaging, neural interfacing, and tissue engineering, despite obstacles related to biocompatibility and scalable manufacturing. They possess multifunctional capabilities that have the potential to greatly influence the intersection of nanotechnology and healthcare. Surmounting present obstacles has the potential to unleash the complete capabilities of nanowires, leading to significant improvements in diagnostics, biosensing, regenerative medicine, and next-generation point-of-care medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhi Jannat Mim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Mehedi Hasan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Md Shakil Chowdhury
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Jubaraz Ghosh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Md Hosne Mobarak
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Fahmida Khanom
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
| | - Nayem Hossain
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
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Xie X, Zhai J, Zhou X, Guo Z, Lo PC, Zhu G, Chan KWY, Yang M. Magnetic Particle Imaging: From Tracer Design to Biomedical Applications in Vasculature Abnormality. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2306450. [PMID: 37812831 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202306450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is an emerging non-invasive tomographic technique based on the response of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) to oscillating drive fields at the center of a static magnetic gradient. In contrast to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is driven by uniform magnetic fields and projects the anatomic information of the subjects, MPI directly tracks and quantifies MNPs in vivo without background signals. Moreover, it does not require radioactive tracers and has no limitations on imaging depth. This article first introduces the basic principles of MPI and important features of MNPs for imaging sensitivity, spatial resolution, and targeted biodistribution. The latest research aiming to optimize the performance of MPI tracers is reviewed based on their material composition, physical properties, and surface modifications. While the unique advantages of MPI have led to a series of promising biomedical applications, recent development of MPI in investigating vascular abnormalities in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems, and cancer are also discussed. Finally, recent progress and challenges in the clinical translation of MPI are discussed to provide possible directions for future research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xulin Xie
- Department of Precision Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technology, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Jiao Zhai
- Department of Precision Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technology, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhou
- Department of Precision Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technology, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Zhengjun Guo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
- Department of Oncology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400010, China
| | - Pui-Chi Lo
- Department of Precision Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technology, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Guangyu Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Kannie W Y Chan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
| | - Mengsu Yang
- Department of Precision Diagnostic and Therapeutic Technology, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, and Tung Biomedical Sciences Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China
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Liao F, Yang W, Long L, Yu R, Qu H, Peng Y, Lu J, Ren C, Wang Y, Fu C. Elucidating Iron Metabolism through Molecular Imaging. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:2798-2818. [PMID: 38666905 PMCID: PMC11049567 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46040175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Iron is essential for many physiological processes, and the dysregulation of its metabolism is implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Recent advances in iron metabolism research have revealed multiple complex pathways critical for maintaining iron homeostasis. Molecular imaging, an interdisciplinary imaging technique, has shown considerable promise in advancing research on iron metabolism. Here, we comprehensively review the multifaceted roles of iron at the cellular and systemic levels (along with the complex regulatory mechanisms of iron metabolism), elucidate appropriate imaging methods, and summarize their utility and fundamental principles in diagnosing and treating diseases related to iron metabolism. Utilizing molecular imaging technology to deeply understand the complexities of iron metabolism and its critical role in physiological and pathological processes offers new possibilities for early disease diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and the development of novel therapies. Despite technological limitations and the need to ensure the biological relevance and clinical applicability of imaging results, molecular imaging technology's potential to reveal the iron metabolic process is unparalleled, providing new insights into the link between iron metabolism abnormalities and various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Liao
- Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100105, China; (F.L.); (R.Y.); (Y.P.); (J.L.); (C.R.)
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Wenwen Yang
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Linzi Long
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Ruotong Yu
- Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100105, China; (F.L.); (R.Y.); (Y.P.); (J.L.); (C.R.)
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Hua Qu
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Yuxuan Peng
- Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100105, China; (F.L.); (R.Y.); (Y.P.); (J.L.); (C.R.)
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Jieming Lu
- Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100105, China; (F.L.); (R.Y.); (Y.P.); (J.L.); (C.R.)
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Chenghuan Ren
- Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100105, China; (F.L.); (R.Y.); (Y.P.); (J.L.); (C.R.)
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
| | - Yueqi Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Changgeng Fu
- Graduate School, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China; (W.Y.); (L.L.); (H.Q.)
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Chávez-Hernández JA, Velarde-Salcedo AJ, Navarro-Tovar G, Gonzalez C. Safe nanomaterials: from their use, application, and disposal to regulations. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2024; 6:1583-1610. [PMID: 38482025 PMCID: PMC10929592 DOI: 10.1039/d3na01097j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2024]
Abstract
Nanomaterials are structures with a wide range of applications in the medical, pharmaceutical, food, textile, and electronic industries, reaching more customers worldwide. As a relatively new technological field, the information about the associated risk of nanomaterials in environmental and human health must be addressed and consolidated to develop accurate legislations, frameworks, and guidelines to standardise their use in any field. This review aims to display and context the global applications of nanomaterials, their final disposal, as well as the perspective of the current efforts formulated by various countries (including Mexico and Latin American countries), international official departments and organisations directed to implement regulations on nanomaterials, nanotechnology, and nanoscience matters. In addition, the compiled information includes the tools, initiatives, and strategies to develop regulatory frameworks, such as life cycle assessments, risk assessments, technical tools, and biological models to evaluate their effects on living organisms. Finally, the authors point out the importance of implementing global regulations to promote nanotechnological research according to a precautionary principle focused on an environmental and health protection approach to ensure the use and application of nanotechnologies safely, and responsibly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Antonio Chávez-Hernández
- Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi Manuel Nava 6, Zona Universitaria 78210 San Luis Potosí SLP Mexico +5211-52-444-8262300, ext. 6459
| | - Aída Jimena Velarde-Salcedo
- Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi Manuel Nava 6, Zona Universitaria 78210 San Luis Potosí SLP Mexico +5211-52-444-8262300, ext. 6459
| | - Gabriela Navarro-Tovar
- Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi Manuel Nava 6, Zona Universitaria 78210 San Luis Potosí SLP Mexico +5211-52-444-8262300, ext. 6459
- Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologias Insurgentes Sur 1582, Credito Constructor, Benito Juarez 03940 Mexico City Mexico
| | - Carmen Gonzalez
- Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi Manuel Nava 6, Zona Universitaria 78210 San Luis Potosí SLP Mexico +5211-52-444-8262300, ext. 6459
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Nigam S, Gjelaj E, Wang R, Wei GW, Wang P. Machine Learning and Deep Learning Applications in Magnetic Particle Imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 2024:10.1002/jmri.29294. [PMID: 38358090 PMCID: PMC11324856 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.29294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) has emerged as a promising imaging technique depicting high sensitivity and spatial resolution. It originated in the early 2000s where it proposed a new approach to challenge the low spatial resolution achieved by using relaxometry in order to measure the magnetic fields. MPI presents 2D and 3D images with high temporal resolution, non-ionizing radiation, and optimal visual contrast due to its lack of background tissue signal. Traditionally, the images were reconstructed by the conversion of signal from the induced voltage by generating system matrix and X-space based methods. Because image reconstruction and analyses play an integral role in obtaining precise information from MPI signals, newer artificial intelligence-based methods are continuously being researched and developed upon. In this work, we summarize and review the significance and employment of machine learning and deep learning models for applications with MPI and the potential they hold for the future. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 5 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saumya Nigam
- Precision Health Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
- Department of Radiology, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Elvira Gjelaj
- Precision Health Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
- Lyman Briggs College, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Mathematics, College of Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824, United States
| | - Guo-Wei Wei
- Department of Mathematics, College of Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Natural Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824, United States
| | - Ping Wang
- Precision Health Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
- Department of Radiology, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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Buckner JH. Translational immunology: Applying fundamental discoveries to human health and autoimmune diseases. Eur J Immunol 2023; 53:e2250197. [PMID: 37101346 PMCID: PMC10600327 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202250197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Studying the human immune system is challenging. These challenges stem from the complexity of the immune system itself, the heterogeneity of the immune system between individuals, and the many factors that lead to this heterogeneity including the influence of genetics, environment, and immune experience. Studies of the human immune system in the context of disease are increased in complexity as multiple combinations and variations in immune pathways can lead to a single disease. Thus, although individuals with a disease may share clinical features, the underlying disease mechanisms and resulting pathophysiology can be diverse among individuals with the same disease diagnosis. This has consequences for the treatment of diseases, as no single therapy will work for everyone, therapeutic efficacy varies among patients, and targeting a single immune pathway is rarely 100% effective. This review discusses how to address these challenges by identifying and managing the sources of variation, improving access to high-quality, well-curated biological samples by building cohorts, applying new technologies such as single-cell omics and imaging technologies to interrogate samples, and bringing to bear computational expertise in conjunction with immunologists and clinicians to interpret those results. The review has a focus on autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, MS, systemic lupus erythematosus, and type 1 diabetes, but its recommendations are also applicable to studies of other immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane H Buckner
- Center for Translational Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute, Virginia Mason Hospital, Seattle, WA, USA
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Bui TQ, Henn MA, Tew WL, Catterton MA, Woods SI. Harmonic dependence of thermal magnetic particle imaging. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15762. [PMID: 37737290 PMCID: PMC10516919 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42620-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Advances in instrumentation and tracer materials are still required to enable sensitive, accurate, and localized in situ 3D temperature monitoring by magnetic particle imaging (MPI). We have developed a high-resolution magnetic particle imaging instrument and implemented a low-noise multi-harmonic lock-in detection method to observe and quantify temperature variations in iron oxide nanoparticle tracers using the harmonic ratio method for determining temperature. Using isolated harmonics for MPI and temperature imaging revealed an apparent dependence of imaging resolution on harmonic number. Thus, we present experimental and simulation studies to quantify the imaging resolution dependence on temperature and harmonic number, and directly validate the fundamental origin of MPI imaging resolution on harmonic number based on the concept of a harmonic point-spread-function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thinh Q Bui
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20895, USA.
| | - Mark-Alexander Henn
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20895, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Weston L Tew
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20895, USA
| | - Megan A Catterton
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20895, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Solomon I Woods
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20895, USA
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Wu W, Chang E, Jin L, Liu S, Huang CH, Kamal R, Liang T, Aissaoui NM, Theruvath AJ, Pisani L, Moseley M, Stoyanova T, Paulmurugan R, Huang J, Mitchell DA, Daldrup-Link HE. Multimodal In Vivo Tracking of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cells in Preclinical Glioblastoma Models. Invest Radiol 2023; 58:388-395. [PMID: 36729074 PMCID: PMC10164035 DOI: 10.1097/rli.0000000000000946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Iron oxide nanoparticles have been used to track the accumulation of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, the only nanoparticle available for clinical applications to date, ferumoxytol, has caused rare but severe anaphylactic reactions. MegaPro nanoparticles (MegaPro-NPs) provide an improved safety profile. We evaluated whether MegaPro-NPs can be applied for in vivo tracking of CAR T cells in a mouse model of glioblastoma multiforme. MATERIALS AND METHODS We labeled tumor-targeted CD70CAR (8R-70CAR) T cells and non-tumor-targeted controls with MegaPro-NPs, followed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, Prussian blue staining, and cell viability assays. Next, we treated 42 NRG mice bearing U87-MG/eGFP-fLuc glioblastoma multiforme xenografts with MegaPro-NP-labeled/unlabeled CAR T cells or labeled untargeted T cells and performed serial MRI, magnetic particle imaging, and histology studies. The Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted to evaluate overall group differences, and the Mann-Whitney U test was applied to compare the pairs of groups. RESULTS MegaPro-NP-labeled CAR T cells demonstrated significantly increased iron uptake compared with unlabeled controls ( P < 0.01). Cell viability, activation, and exhaustion markers were not significantly different between the 2 groups ( P > 0.05). In vivo, tumor T2* relaxation times were significantly lower after treatment with MegaPro-NP-labeled CAR T cells compared with untargeted T cells ( P < 0.01). There is no significant difference in tumor growth inhibition between mice injected with labeled and unlabeled CAR T cells. CONCLUSIONS MegaPro-NPs can be used for in vivo tracking of CAR T cells. Because MegaPro-NPs recently completed phase II clinical trial investigation as an MRI contrast agent, MegaPro-NP is expected to be applied to track CAR T cells in cancer immunotherapy trials in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wu
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
- Institute of Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Edwin Chang
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Linchun Jin
- Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shiqin Liu
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ching-Hsin Huang
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Rozy Kamal
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Tie Liang
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Nour Mary Aissaoui
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Ashok J. Theruvath
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Laura Pisani
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Michael Moseley
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Tanya Stoyanova
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ramasamy Paulmurugan
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Jianping Huang
- Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Duane A. Mitchell
- Lillian S. Wells Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Heike E. Daldrup-Link
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265 Campus Drive, Room G2045, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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11
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Ajayi TO, Liu S, Rosen C, Rinaldi-Ramos CM, Allen KD, Sharma B. Application of magnetic particle imaging to evaluate nanoparticle fate in rodent joints. J Control Release 2023; 356:347-359. [PMID: 36868518 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles are a promising approach for improving intra-articular drug delivery and tissue targeting. However, techniques to non-invasively track and quantify their concentration in vivo are limited, resulting in an inadequate understanding of their retention, clearance, and biodistribution in the joint. Currently, fluorescence imaging is often used to track nanoparticle fate in animal models; however, this approach has limitations that impede long-term quantitative assessment of nanoparticles over time. The goal of this work was to evaluate an emerging imaging modality, magnetic particle imaging (MPI), for intra-articular tracking of nanoparticles. MPI provides 3D visualization and depth-independent quantification of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (SPION) tracers. Here, we developed and characterized a polymer-based magnetic nanoparticle system incorporated with SPION tracers and cartilage targeting properties. MPI was then used to longitudinally assess nanoparticle fate after intra-articular injection. Magnetic nanoparticles were injected into the joints of healthy mice, and evaluated for nanoparticle retention, biodistribution, and clearance over 6 weeks using MPI. In parallel, the fate of fluorescently tagged nanoparticles was tracked using in vivo fluorescence imaging. The study was concluded at day 42, and MPI and fluorescence imaging demonstrated different profiles in nanoparticle retention and clearance from the joint. MPI signal was persistent over the study duration, suggesting NP retention of at least 42 days, much longer than the 14 days observed based on fluorescence signal. These data suggest that the type of tracer - SPIONs or fluorophores - and modality of imaging can affect interpretation of nanoparticle fate in the joint. Given that understanding particle fate over time is paramount for attaining insights about therapeutic profiles in vivo, our data suggest MPI may yield a quantitative and robust method to non-invasively track nanoparticles following intra-articular injection on an extended timeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tolulope O Ajayi
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sitong Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Chelsea Rosen
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Carlos M Rinaldi-Ramos
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kyle D Allen
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Blanka Sharma
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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12
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Smith BR, Edelman ER. Nanomedicines for cardiovascular disease. NATURE CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH 2023; 2:351-367. [PMID: 39195953 DOI: 10.1038/s44161-023-00232-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
The leading cause of death in the world, cardiovascular disease (CVD), remains a formidable condition for researchers, clinicians and patients alike. CVD comprises a broad collection of diseases spanning the heart, the vasculature and the blood that runs through and interconnects them. Limitations in CVD therapeutic and diagnostic landscapes have generated excitement for advances in nanomedicine, a field focused on improving patient outcomes through transformative therapies, imaging agents and ex vivo diagnostics. CVD nanomedicines are fundamentally shaped by their intended clinical application, including (1) cardiac or heart-related biomaterials, which can be functionally (for example, mechanically, immunologically, electrically) improved by incorporating nanomaterials; (2) the vasculature, involving systemically injected nanotherapeutics and imaging nanodiagnostics, nano-enabled biomaterials or tissue-nanoengineered solutions; and (3) improving the sensitivity and/or specificity of ex vivo diagnostic devices for patient samples. While immunotherapy has developed into a key pillar of oncology in the past dozen years, CVD immunotherapy and immunoimaging are recently emergent and likely to factor substantially in CVD management in the coming decade. The nanomaterials in CVD-related clinical trials and many promising preclinical strategies indicate that nanomedicine is on the cusp of greatly impacting patients with CVD. Here we review these recent advances, highlighting key clinical opportunities in the rapidly emerging field of CVD nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Ronain Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering (IQ), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
| | - Elazer R Edelman
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Cardiovascular Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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13
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Magnetic Particle Imaging in Vascular Imaging, Immunotherapy, Cell Tracking, and Noninvasive Diagnosis. Mol Imaging 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/4131117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is a new tracer-based imaging modality that is useful in diagnosing various pathophysiology related to the vascular system and for sensitive tracking of cytotherapies. MPI uses nonradioactive and easily assimilated nanometer-sized iron oxide particles as tracers. MPI images the nonlinear Langevin behavior of the iron oxide particles and has allowed for the sensitive detection of iron oxide-labeled therapeutic cells in the body. This review will provide an overview of MPI technology, the tracer, and its use in vascular imaging and cytotherapies using molecular targets.
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14
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Cheng Z, Ma J, Yin L, Yu L, Yuan Z, Zhang B, Tian J, Du Y. Non-invasive molecular imaging for precision diagnosis of metastatic lymph nodes: opportunities from preclinical to clinical applications. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2023; 50:1111-1133. [PMID: 36443568 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-022-06056-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Lymph node metastasis is an indicator of the invasiveness and aggressiveness of cancer. It is a vital prognostic factor in clinical staging of the disease and therapeutic decision-making. Patients with positive metastatic lymph nodes are likely to develop recurrent disease, distant metastasis, and succumb to death in the coming few years. Lymph node dissection and histological analysis are needed to detect whether regional lymph nodes have been infiltrated by cancer cells and determine the likely outcome of treatment and the patient's chances of survival. However, these procedures are invasive, and tissue biopsies are prone to sampling error. In recent years, advanced molecular imaging with novel imaging probes has provided new technologies that are contributing to comprehensive management of cancer, including non-invasive investigation of lymphatic drainage from tumors, identifying metastatic lymph nodes, and guiding surgeons to operate efficiently in patients with complex lesions. In this review, first, we outline the current status of different molecular imaging modalities applied for lymph node metastasis management. Second, we summarize the multi-functional imaging probes applied with the different imaging modalities as well as applications of cancer lymph node metastasis from preclinical studies to clinical translations. Third, we describe the limitations that must be considered in the field of molecular imaging for improved detection of lymph node metastasis. Finally, we propose future directions for molecular imaging technology that will allow more personalized treatment plans for patients with lymph node metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongquan Cheng
- Department of General Surgery, Capital Medical University, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100050, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Jiaojiao Ma
- Department of Medical Ultrasonics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Yinghua East Road 2#, ChaoYang Dist., Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Lin Yin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100080, China
| | - Leyi Yu
- Department of General Surgery, Capital Medical University, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Zhu Yuan
- Department of General Surgery, Capital Medical University, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Medical Ultrasonics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Yinghua East Road 2#, ChaoYang Dist., Beijing, 100029, China.
| | - Jie Tian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China. .,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, School of Medicine Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Yang Du
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100080, China.
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15
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Dual Magnetic Particle Imaging and Akaluc Bioluminescence Imaging for Tracking Cancer Cell Metastasis. Tomography 2023; 9:178-194. [PMID: 36828368 PMCID: PMC9968184 DOI: 10.3390/tomography9010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) provides hotspot tracking and direct quantification of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (SPIO)-labelled cells. Bioluminescence imaging (BLI) with the luciferase reporter gene Akaluc can provide complementary information on cell viability. Thus, we explored combining these technologies to provide a more holistic view of cancer cell fate in mice. Akaluc-expressing 4T1Br5 cells were labelled with the SPIO Synomag-D and injected into the mammary fat pads (MFP) of four nude mice. BLI was performed on days 0, 6 and 13, and MPI was performed on days 1, 8 and 14. Ex vivo histology and fluorescence microscopy of MFP and a potential metastatic site was conducted. The BLI signal in the MFP increased significantly from day 0 to day 13 (p < 0.05), mirroring tumor growth. The MPI signal significantly decreased from day 1 to day 14 (p < 0.05) due to SPIO dilution in proliferating cells. Both modalities detected secondary metastases; however, they were visualized in different anatomical regions. Akaluc BLI complemented MPI cell tracking, allowing for longitudinal measures of cell viability and sensitive detection of distant metastases at different locations. We predict this multimodal imaging approach will help to evaluate novel therapeutics and give a better understanding of metastatic mechanisms.
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Yang X, Shao G, Zhang Y, Wang W, Qi Y, Han S, Li H. Applications of Magnetic Particle Imaging in Biomedicine: Advancements and Prospects. Front Physiol 2022; 13:898426. [PMID: 35846005 PMCID: PMC9285659 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.898426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is a novel emerging noninvasive and radiation-free imaging modality that can quantify superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles tracers. The zero endogenous tissue background signal and short image scanning times ensure high spatial and temporal resolution of MPI. In the context of precision medicine, the advantages of MPI provide a new strategy for the integration of the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In this review, after a brief explanation of the simplified theory and imaging system, we focus on recent advances in the biomedical application of MPI, including vascular structure and perfusion imaging, cancer imaging, the MPI guidance of magnetic fluid hyperthermia, the visual monitoring of cell and drug treatments, and intraoperative navigation. We finally optimize MPI in terms of the system and tracers, and present future potential biomedical applications of MPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Yang
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Yanyan Zhang
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Qi
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuai Han
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hongjun Li
- Beijing You’an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China,*Correspondence: Hongjun Li,
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Herrero de la Parte B, Rodrigo I, Gutiérrez-Basoa J, Iturrizaga Correcher S, Mar Medina C, Echevarría-Uraga JJ, Garcia JA, Plazaola F, García-Alonso I. Proposal of New Safety Limits for In Vivo Experiments of Magnetic Hyperthermia Antitumor Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14133084. [PMID: 35804855 PMCID: PMC9265033 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14133084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Magnetic hyperthermia is a promising therapy for the treatment of certain types of tumors. However, it is not clear what the maximum limit of the magnetic field to which the organism can be subjected without severe and/or irreversible pathophysiological consequences is. This study aims to study the alterations at the physiological level that may occur after exposure to different combinations of frequency and intensity of the applied alternating magnetic field. Understanding the response to alternating magnetic field exposure will allow us to apply this type of antitumor treatment in a safer way for the patient, while achieving an optimal therapeutic result. Abstract Background: Lately, major advances in crucial aspects of magnetic hyperthermia (MH) therapy have been made (nanoparticle synthesis, biosafety, etc.). However, there is one key point still lacking improvement: the magnetic field-frequency product (H × f = 4.85 × 108 Am−1s−1) proposed by Atkinson–Brezovich as a limit for MH therapies. Herein, we analyze both local and systemic physiological effects of overpassing this limit. Methods: Different combinations of field frequency and intensity exceeding the Atkinson–Brezovich limit (591–920 kHz, and 10.3–18 kA/m) have been applied for 21 min to WAG/RijHsd male rats, randomly distributed to groups of 12 animals; half of them were sacrificed after 12 h, and the others 10 days later. Biochemical serum analyses were performed to assess the general, hepatic, renal and/or pancreatic function. Results: MH raised liver temperature to 42.8 ± 0.4 °C. Although in five of the groups the exposure was relatively well tolerated, in the two of highest frequency (928 kHz) and intensity (18 kA/m), more than 50% of the animals died. A striking elevation in liver and systemic markers was observed after 12 h in the surviving animals, independently of the frequency and intensity used. Ten days later, liver markers were almost recovered in all of the animals. However, in those groups exposed to 591 kHz and 16 kA/m, and 700 kHz and 13.7 kA/m systemic markers remained altered. Conclusions: Exceeding the Atkinson–Brezovich limit up to 9.59 × 109 Am−1s−1 seems to be safe, though further research is needed to understand the impact of intensity and/or frequency on physiological conditions following MH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borja Herrero de la Parte
- Department of Surgery and Radiology and Physical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, ES48940 Leioa, Spain;
- Interventional Radiology Research Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, ES48903 Barakaldo, Spain; (J.J.E.-U.); (J.A.G.); (F.P.)
- Correspondence: (B.H.d.l.P.); (I.R.)
| | - Irati Rodrigo
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Electricity and Electronics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, ES48940 Leioa, Spain
- Correspondence: (B.H.d.l.P.); (I.R.)
| | - Jon Gutiérrez-Basoa
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, General University Hospital Consortium of Valencia, ES46014 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Sira Iturrizaga Correcher
- Department of Clinical Analyses, Galdakao-Usansolo Hospital, ES48960 Galdakao, Spain; (S.I.C.); (C.M.M.)
| | - Carmen Mar Medina
- Department of Clinical Analyses, Galdakao-Usansolo Hospital, ES48960 Galdakao, Spain; (S.I.C.); (C.M.M.)
| | - Jose Javier Echevarría-Uraga
- Interventional Radiology Research Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, ES48903 Barakaldo, Spain; (J.J.E.-U.); (J.A.G.); (F.P.)
- Department of Radiology, Galdakao-Usansolo Hospital, ES48960 Galdakao, Spain
| | - Jose Angel Garcia
- Interventional Radiology Research Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, ES48903 Barakaldo, Spain; (J.J.E.-U.); (J.A.G.); (F.P.)
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of The Basque Country UPV/EHU, ES48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Fernando Plazaola
- Interventional Radiology Research Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, ES48903 Barakaldo, Spain; (J.J.E.-U.); (J.A.G.); (F.P.)
- Department of Electricity and Electronics, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, ES48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Alonso
- Department of Surgery and Radiology and Physical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, ES48940 Leioa, Spain;
- Interventional Radiology Research Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, ES48903 Barakaldo, Spain; (J.J.E.-U.); (J.A.G.); (F.P.)
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