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Bonfanti L, La Rosa C, Ghibaudi M, Sherwood CC. Adult neurogenesis and "immature" neurons in mammals: an evolutionary trade-off in plasticity? Brain Struct Funct 2024; 229:1775-1793. [PMID: 37833544 PMCID: PMC11485216 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-023-02717-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal plasticity can vary remarkably in its form and degree across animal species. Adult neurogenesis, namely the capacity to produce new neurons from neural stem cells through adulthood, appears widespread in non-mammalian vertebrates, whereas it is reduced in mammals. A growing body of comparative studies also report variation in the occurrence and activity of neural stem cell niches between mammals, with a general trend of reduction from small-brained to large-brained species. Conversely, recent studies have shown that large-brained mammals host large amounts of neurons expressing typical markers of neurogenesis in the absence of cell division. In layer II of the cerebral cortex, populations of prenatally generated, non-dividing neurons continue to express molecules indicative of immaturity throughout life (cortical immature neurons; cINs). After remaining in a dormant state for a very long time, these cINs retain the potential of differentiating into mature neurons that integrate within the preexisting neural circuits. They are restricted to the paleocortex in small-brained rodents, while extending into the widely expanded neocortex of highly gyrencephalic, large-brained species. The current hypothesis is that these populations of non-newly generated "immature" neurons might represent a reservoir of developmentally plastic cells for mammalian species that are characterized by reduced stem cell-driven adult neurogenesis. This indicates that there may be a trade-off between various forms of plasticity that coexist during brain evolution. This balance may be necessary to maintain a "reservoir of plasticity" in brain regions that have distinct roles in species-specific socioecological adaptations, such as the neocortex and olfactory structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Orbassano, Italy.
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Turin, Grugliasco, Italy.
| | - Chiara La Rosa
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Marco Ghibaudi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Chet C Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.
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2
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Wu Y, Yang J, Wang X, Guo J, Tan Z, Guan F, Cao L. NCAM and attached polysialic acid affect behaviors of breast epithelial cells through differential signaling pathways. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2024. [PMID: 39420834 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2024176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), a common mammalian cell surface glycoprotein, is the major substrate of polysialic acid (polySia). Polysialylated NCAM occurs in many types of cancer, but rarely in normal adult tissues. The functional role of NCAM hypersialylation in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process remains unclear. The present study indicates that NCAM and attached polysialic acid affect behaviors of breast epithelial cells through differential signaling pathways. NCAM and polysialylated NCAM are aberrantly regulated in breast cancer cells. They are both upregulated in normal breast epithelial cells undergoing EMT. Western blot analysis demonstrates that NCAM-140 overexpression induces EMT in breast epithelial cells and promotes cell proliferation and migration through activation of the β-catenin/slug signaling pathway. Modification of polySia attached to NCAM modulates cell adhesion and promotes cell motility through activation of the EGFR/STAT3 pathway. These observations contribute to clarifying the molecular mechanisms by which polysialic acid and its major substrate, NCAM, modulate cell behaviors, and highlight the significance of increased polysialylated expression on NCAM during EMT and tumor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurong Wu
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Juhong Yang
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Shandong University of Arts, Ji'nan 250300, China
| | - Jia Guo
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China
| | - Zengqi Tan
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Feng Guan
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Lin Cao
- Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
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3
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Choi MS, Park SM, Kim S, Jegal H, Lee HA, Han HY, Yoon S, Kim SK, Oh JH. Enhanced electrophysiological activity and neurotoxicity screening of environmental chemicals using 3D neurons from human neural precursor cells purified with PSA-NCAM. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 280:116516. [PMID: 38820819 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
The assessment of neurotoxicity for environmental chemicals is of utmost importance in ensuring public health and environmental safety. Multielectrode array (MEA) technology has emerged as a powerful tool for assessing disturbances in the electrophysiological activity. Although human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived neurons have been used in MEA for neurotoxicity screening, obtaining a substantial and sufficiently active population of neurons from hESCs remains challenging. In this study, we successfully differentiated neurons from a large population of human neuronal precursor cells (hNPC) purified using a polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), referred to as hNPCPSA-NCAM+. The functional characterization demonstrated that hNPCPSA-NCAM+-derived neurons improve functionality by enhancing electrophysiological activity compared to total hNPC-derived neurons. Furthermore, three-dimensional (3D) neurons derived from hNPCPSA-NCAM+ exhibited reduced maturation time and enhanced electrophysiological activity on MEA. We employed subdivided population analysis of active mean firing rate (MFR) based on electrophysiological intensity to characterize the electrophysiological properties of hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons. Based on electrophysiological activity including MFR and burst parameters, we evaluated the sensitivity of hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons on MEA to screen both inhibitory and excitatory neuroactive environmental chemicals. Intriguingly, electrophysiologically active hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons demonstrated good sensitivity to evaluate neuroactive chemicals, particularly in discriminating excitatory chemicals. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of MEA approaches using hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons in the assessment of neurotoxicity associated with environmental chemicals. Furthermore, we emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate signal intensity thresholds to enhance neurotoxicity prediction and screening of environmental chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Sun Choi
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea; College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Se-Myo Park
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Kim
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jegal
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea; Department of Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science & Technology, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Hyang-Ae Lee
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung-Yun Han
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea; Department of Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science & Technology, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Seokjoo Yoon
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea; Department of Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science & Technology, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Kyum Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea.
| | - Jung-Hwa Oh
- Department of predictive toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology (KIT), Daejeon, the Republic of Korea; Department of Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science & Technology, Daejeon, the Republic of Korea.
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4
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Xiong Y, Pi W, Zhao W, Shi W, Yan W, Yang H, Zhou Y, Li Q, Yang L. Roles of cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons as potential neural stem cells in the repair and regeneration of spinal cord injuries. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1426395. [PMID: 38983786 PMCID: PMC11231923 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1426395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons (CSF-cNs) represent a distinct group of interneurons characterized by their prominent apical globular protrusions penetrating the spinal cord's central canal and their basal axons extending towards adjacent cells. Identified nearly a century back, the specific roles and attributes of CSF-cNs have just started to emerge due to the historical lack of definitive markers. Recent findings have confirmed that CSF-cNs expressing PKD2L1 possess attributes of neural stem cells, suggesting a critical function in the regeneration processes following spinal cord injuries. This review aims to elucidate the molecular markers of CSF-cNs as potential neural stem cells during spinal cord development and assess their roles post-spinal cord injury, with an emphasis on their potential therapeutic implications for spinal cord repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxiang Xiong
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Wenjun Pi
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Wang Zhao
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Weiwei Shi
- Department of Medical Examination Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Weihong Yan
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Yuanrong Zhou
- Department of Health, The Qinglong County People’s Hospital, Qinglong, Guizhou, China
| | - Qing Li
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Leiluo Yang
- Department of Traumatic Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
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5
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Simard S, Matosin N, Mechawar N. Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in the Human Brain: Updates, Challenges, and Perspectives. Neuroscientist 2024:10738584241252581. [PMID: 38757781 DOI: 10.1177/10738584241252581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
The existence of neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus has been under considerable debate within the past three decades due to the diverging conclusions originating mostly from immunohistochemistry studies. While some of these reports conclude that hippocampal neurogenesis in humans occurs throughout physiologic aging, others indicate that this phenomenon ends by early childhood. More recently, some groups have adopted next-generation sequencing technologies to characterize with more acuity the extent of this phenomenon in humans. Here, we review the current state of research on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the human brain with an emphasis on the challenges and limitations of using immunohistochemistry and next-generation sequencing technologies for its study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Simard
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Natalie Matosin
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Naguib Mechawar
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
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6
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Goodkey K, Wischmeijer A, Perrin L, Watson AES, Qureshi L, Cordelli DM, Toni F, Gnazzo M, Benedicenti F, Elmaleh-Bergès M, Low KJ, Voronova A. Olfactory bulb anomalies in KBG syndrome mouse model and patients. BMC Med 2024; 22:158. [PMID: 38616269 PMCID: PMC11017579 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-024-03363-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
ANKRD11 (ankyrin repeat domain 11) is a chromatin regulator and the only gene associated with KBG syndrome, a rare neurodevelopmental disorder. We have previously shown that Ankrd11 regulates murine embryonic cortical neurogenesis. Here, we show a novel olfactory bulb phenotype in a KBG syndrome mouse model and two diagnosed patients. Conditional knockout of Ankrd11 in murine embryonic neural stem cells leads to aberrant postnatal olfactory bulb development and reduced size due to reduction of the olfactory bulb granule cell layer. We further show that the rostral migratory stream has incomplete migration of neuroblasts, reduced cell proliferation as well as aberrant differentiation of neurons. This leads to reduced neuroblasts and neurons in the olfactory bulb granule cell layer. In vitro, Ankrd11-deficient neural stem cells from the postnatal subventricular zone display reduced migration, proliferation, and neurogenesis. Finally, we describe two clinically and molecularly confirmed KBG syndrome patients with anosmia and olfactory bulb and groove hypo-dysgenesis/agenesis. Our report provides evidence that Ankrd11 is a novel regulator of olfactory bulb development and neuroblast migration. Moreover, our study highlights a novel clinical sign of KBG syndrome linked to ANKRD11 perturbations in mice and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara Goodkey
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Anita Wischmeijer
- Clinical Genetics Service and Coordination Center for Rare Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Regional Hospital of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | | | - Adrianne E S Watson
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Leenah Qureshi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Duccio Maria Cordelli
- IRCCS Istituto Delle Scienze Neurologiche Di Bologna, UOC Neuropsichiatria Dell'età Pediatrica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Toni
- IRCCS Istituto Delle Scienze Neurologiche Di Bologna, Programma Di Neuroradiologia Con Tecniche Ad Elevata Complessità (PNTEC), Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Gnazzo
- Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Translational Cytogenomics Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Benedicenti
- Clinical Genetics Service and Coordination Center for Rare Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Regional Hospital of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
| | | | - Karen J Low
- Department of Academic Child Health, Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Clinical Genetics Service, St. Michaels Hospital, Bristol, UK
| | - Anastassia Voronova
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada.
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, 5-083 Edmonton Clinic Health Academy, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1C9, Canada.
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada.
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E1, Canada.
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7
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Marchand G, Fliniaux I, Titran P, Takeda Uchimura Y, Bodart JF, Harduin Lepers A, Cailliau K, Marin M. Cadmium induces physiological and behavioral changes associated with 180 kDa NCAM lower expression and higher polysialic acid, in the African clawed Xenopus laevis tadpoles. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116119. [PMID: 38382347 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Heavy metals are released into the environment in increasing amounts from different natural and anthropogenic sources. Among them, cadmium contaminates aquatic habitats and represents a threat to Amphibians. To assess the risks of exposure to cadmium in the aquatic environment, we studied the survival rate of early tadpoles of Xenopus laevis under exposure to CdCl2 for 6 days in the concentration range between 0.15 and 150 µM of Cd2+. Tadpoles survived and reached stage 45 before feeding at all concentrations tested except 150 µM Cd2+, which significantly induced death. With an exposure of 15 µM Cd2+, tadpoles' mean body length decreased, heart rate increased, fastest swimming speed decreased, and distance traveled was greater compared to unexposed controls. Additionally, a witness of neuronal normal development, the neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAM) expression, was decreased. Moreover, this cell-surface glycoprotein exhibited higher polysialylation, a post-translational modification capable to reduce cell adhesion properties and to affect organ development. Our study highlights the effects of Cd2+ on a series of parameters including morphology, physiology, and behavior. They emphasize the deregulation of molecular NCAM suggesting this effector is an interesting biomarker to detect cadmic toxicity in early tadpoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Marchand
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Ingrid Fliniaux
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Pauline Titran
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Yoshiko Takeda Uchimura
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Jean-François Bodart
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Anne Harduin Lepers
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Katia Cailliau
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Matthieu Marin
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576-UGSF-Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F-59000, France.
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Lopez-Gordo E, Chamberlain K, Riyad JM, Kohlbrenner E, Weber T. Natural Adeno-Associated Virus Serotypes and Engineered Adeno-Associated Virus Capsid Variants: Tropism Differences and Mechanistic Insights. Viruses 2024; 16:442. [PMID: 38543807 PMCID: PMC10975205 DOI: 10.3390/v16030442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Today, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based vectors are arguably the most promising in vivo gene delivery vehicles for durable therapeutic gene expression. Advances in molecular engineering, high-throughput screening platforms, and computational techniques have resulted in a toolbox of capsid variants with enhanced performance over parental serotypes. Despite their considerable promise and emerging clinical success, there are still obstacles hindering their broader use, including limited transduction capabilities, tissue/cell type-specific tropism and penetration into tissues through anatomical barriers, off-target tissue biodistribution, intracellular degradation, immune recognition, and a lack of translatability from preclinical models to clinical settings. Here, we first describe the transduction mechanisms of natural AAV serotypes and explore the current understanding of the systemic and cellular hurdles to efficient transduction. We then outline progress in developing designer AAV capsid variants, highlighting the seminal discoveries of variants which can transduce the central nervous system upon systemic administration, and, to a lesser extent, discuss the targeting of the peripheral nervous system, eye, ear, lung, liver, heart, and skeletal muscle, emphasizing their tissue and cell specificity and translational promise. In particular, we dive deeper into the molecular mechanisms behind their enhanced properties, with a focus on their engagement with host cell receptors previously inaccessible to natural AAV serotypes. Finally, we summarize the main findings of our review and discuss future directions.
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Salmina AB, Alexandrova OP, Averchuk AS, Korsakova SA, Saridis MR, Illarioshkin SN, Yurchenko SO. Current progress and challenges in the development of brain tissue models: How to grow up the changeable brain in vitro? J Tissue Eng 2024; 15:20417314241235527. [PMID: 38516227 PMCID: PMC10956167 DOI: 10.1177/20417314241235527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
In vitro modeling of brain tissue is a promising but not yet resolved problem in modern neurobiology and neuropharmacology. Complexity of the brain structure and diversity of cell-to-cell communication in (patho)physiological conditions make this task almost unachievable. However, establishment of novel in vitro brain models would ultimately lead to better understanding of development-associated or experience-driven brain plasticity, designing efficient approaches to restore aberrant brain functioning. The main goal of this review is to summarize the available data on methodological approaches that are currently in use, and to identify the most prospective trends in development of neurovascular unit, blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and neurogenic niche in vitro models. The manuscript focuses on the regulation of adult neurogenesis, cerebral microcirculation and fluids dynamics that should be reproduced in the in vitro 4D models to mimic brain development and its alterations in brain pathology. We discuss approaches that are critical for studying brain plasticity, deciphering the individual person-specific trajectory of brain development and aging, and testing new drug candidates in the in vitro models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla B Salmina
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga P Alexandrova
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anton S Averchuk
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
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10
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Benedetti B, Reisinger M, Hochwartner M, Gabriele G, Jakubecova D, Benedetti A, Bonfanti L, Couillard‐Despres S. The awakening of dormant neuronal precursors in the adult and aged brain. Aging Cell 2023; 22:e13974. [PMID: 37649323 PMCID: PMC10726842 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Beyond the canonical neurogenic niches, there are dormant neuronal precursors in several regions of the adult mammalian brain. Dormant precursors maintain persisting post-mitotic immaturity from birth to adulthood, followed by staggered awakening, in a process that is still largely unresolved. Strikingly, due to the slow rate of awakening, some precursors remain immature until old age, which led us to question whether their awakening and maturation are affected by aging. To this end, we studied the maturation of dormant precursors in transgenic mice (DCX-CreERT2 /flox-EGFP) in which immature precursors were labelled permanently in vivo at different ages. We found that dormant precursors are capable of awakening at young age, becoming adult-matured neurons (AM), as well as of awakening at old age, becoming late AM. Thus, protracted immaturity does not prevent late awakening and maturation. However, late AM diverged morphologically and functionally from AM. Moreover, AM were functionally most similar to neonatal-matured neurons (NM). Conversely, late AM were endowed with high intrinsic excitability and high input resistance, and received a smaller amount of spontaneous synaptic input, implying their relative immaturity. Thus, late AM awakening still occurs at advanced age, but the maturation process is slow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Benedetti
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Maximilian Reisinger
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Marie Hochwartner
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Gabriele Gabriele
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Dominika Jakubecova
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Ariane Benedetti
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
| | - Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO)OrbassanoItaly
- Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of TurinTorinoItaly
| | - Sebastien Couillard‐Despres
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue RegenerationViennaAustria
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11
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Benner O, Cast TP, Minamide LS, Lenninger Z, Bamburg JR, Chanda S. Multiple N-linked glycosylation sites critically modulate the synaptic abundance of neuroligin isoforms. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105361. [PMID: 37865312 PMCID: PMC10679506 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, elegant glycomic and glycoproteomic approaches have revealed an intricate glycosylation profile of mammalian brain with enormous spatial and temporal diversities. Nevertheless, at a cellular level, it is unclear how these post-translational modifications affect various proteins to influence crucial neuronal properties. Here, we have investigated the impact of N-linked glycosylation on neuroligins (NLGNs), a class of cell-adhesion molecules that play instructive roles in synapse organization. We found that endogenous NLGN proteins are differentially glycosylated across several regions of murine brain in a sex-independent but isoform-dependent manner. In both rodent primary neurons derived from brain sections and human neurons differentiated from stem cells, all NLGN variants were highly enriched with multiple N-glycan subtypes, which cumulatively ensured their efficient trafficking to the cell surface. Removal of these N-glycosylation residues only had a moderate effect on NLGNs' stability or expression levels but particularly enhanced their retention at the endoplasmic reticulum. As a result, the glycosylation-deficient NLGNs exhibited considerable impairments in their dendritic distribution and postsynaptic accumulation, which in turn, virtually eliminated their ability to recruit presynaptic terminals and significantly reduced NLGN overexpression-induced assemblies of both glutamatergic and GABAergic synapse structures. Therefore, our results highlight an essential mechanistic contribution of N-linked glycosylations in facilitating the appropriate secretory transport of a major synaptic cell-adhesion molecule and promoting its cellular function in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orion Benner
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Thomas P Cast
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Laurie S Minamide
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Zephyr Lenninger
- Molecular, Cellular & Integrated Neurosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - James R Bamburg
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA; Molecular, Cellular & Integrated Neurosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA; Cell & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Soham Chanda
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA; Molecular, Cellular & Integrated Neurosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA; Cell & Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
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12
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Bai Y, Hao W, Zeng Z, Zhang T, Zhang W, Yang J, Wu F, Li X. Bell's palsy was associated with TRPV2 downregulation of Schwann cell by cold stress. JOURNAL OF STOMATOLOGY, ORAL AND MAXILLOFACIAL SURGERY 2023; 124:101533. [PMID: 37307913 DOI: 10.1016/j.jormas.2023.101533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown that sharp changes in the ambient temperature are associated with the occurrence and development of Bell's palsy. However, the specific pathogenesis of peripheral facial paralysis remains nebulous. This study investigated the effect of cold stress on transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 2 (TRPV2) secretion by Schwann cells and its role in Bell's palsy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Schwann cell morphology was observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cell proliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle were analysed using CCK8 and flow cytometry. ELISA, Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, western blotting and immunocytochemical fluorescence staining were used to detect the effects of cold stress on TRPV2, neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and nerve growth factor (NGF) expression in Schwann cells. RESULTS Cold stress resulted in a widening of the intercellular space, and the particles on the membrane showed different degrees of loss. Cold stress may cause Schwann cells to enter a cold dormant state. ELISA, RT-qPCR, western blotting and immunocytochemical fluorescences staining indicated that cold stress inhibited the expression of TRPV2, NCAM, and NGF. CONCLUSIONS Drastic temperature difference between cold and heat can downregulate TRPV2 and the secretome of Schwann cells. The imbalance of Schwann cell homeostasis under such stress may contribute to nerve signalling dysfunction leading to the development of facial paralysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulan Bai
- Shanxi Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Prevention and New Materials, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030001, China
| | - Weijiang Hao
- Shanxi Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Prevention and New Materials, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030001, China
| | - Ziqi Zeng
- Shanxi Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Prevention and New Materials, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030001, China
| | - Tiefeng Zhang
- Chengxi Branch of Hangzhou Stomatology Hospital, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | | | - Jing Yang
- Institute for Oral Science, Matsumoto Dental University, Shiojiri 399-0781, Japan
| | - Feng Wu
- Shanxi Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Prevention and New Materials, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030001, China
| | - Xianqi Li
- Shanxi Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Shanxi Province Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases Prevention and New Materials, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030001, China; Institute for Oral Science, Matsumoto Dental University, Shiojiri 399-0781, Japan; Department of Hard Tissue Research, Graduate School of Oral Medicine, Matsumoto Dental University, Shiojiri 399-0781, Japan.
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13
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Acutain MF, Baez MV. Reduced expression of GluN2A induces a delay in neuron maturation. J Neurochem 2023. [PMID: 38037434 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
NMDA receptors (NMDARs) play an important role in synaptic plasticity both in physiological and pathological conditions. GluN2A and GluN2B are the most expressed NMDAR regulatory subunits, in the hippocampus and other cognitive-related brain structures. GluN2B is characteristic of immature structures and GluN2A of mature ones. Changes in GluN2A expression were associated with complex phenotypes that led to complex neurodevelopmental disorders, including the occurrence of seizures. However, little is known about the role of GluN2A in these phenotypes. In this work, we reduced GluN2A expression in mature neuronal cultures and observed an altered GluN2A/GluN2B ratio. Furthermore, those neurons exhibit an increase in immature dendritic spines and dendritic branching, as well as an increased response to glutamate stimulus. This phenotype (considering GluN2A/GluN2B ratio, index branching and glutamate response) resembles those observed at immature neuronal stages in vitro. We propose that this immature phenotype led to a higher response to glutamate stimulus which, in vivo, would be the basis of reduced threshold for seizure onset in GluN2A-pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Florencia Acutain
- Laboratorio de Sinapsis y Neurobiología Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Verónica Baez
- Laboratorio de Sinapsis y Neurobiología Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
- 1UA de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, UBA, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
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14
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Mendez-David I, David DJ, Deloménie C, Tritschler L, Beaulieu JM, Colle R, Corruble E, Gardier AM, Hen R. A complex relation between levels of adult hippocampal neurogenesis and expression of the immature neuron marker doublecortin. Hippocampus 2023; 33:1075-1093. [PMID: 37421207 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of the antidepressant fluoxetine on behavior and adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). After confirming our earlier report that the signaling molecule β-arrestin-2 (β-Arr2) is required for the antidepressant-like effects of fluoxetine, we found that the effects of fluoxetine on proliferation of neural progenitors and survival of adult-born granule cells are absent in the β-Arr2 knockout (KO) mice. To our surprise, fluoxetine induced a dramatic upregulation of the number of doublecortin (DCX)-expressing cells in the β-Arr2 KO mice, indicating that this marker can be increased even though AHN is not. We discovered two other conditions where a complex relationship occurs between the number of DCX-expressing cells compared to levels of AHN: a chronic antidepressant model where DCX is upregulated and an inflammation model where DCX is downregulated. We concluded that assessing the number of DCX-expressing cells alone to quantify levels of AHN can be complex and that caution should be applied when label retention techniques are unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indira Mendez-David
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), UMR 1018, CESP-Inserm, Team Moods, Faculté de Pharmacie, Bâtiment Henri MOISSAN, Orsay, France
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Division of Integrative Neuroscience, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Denis Joseph David
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), UMR 1018, CESP-Inserm, Team Moods, Faculté de Pharmacie, Bâtiment Henri MOISSAN, Orsay, France
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Division of Integrative Neuroscience, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Claudine Deloménie
- UMS-IPSIT ACTAGen, Inserm, CNRS, Ingénierie et Plateformes au Service de l'Innovation Thérapeutique, Université Paris-Saclay, Bâtiment Henri MOISSAN, Orsay, France
| | - Laurent Tritschler
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), UMR 1018, CESP-Inserm, Team Moods, Faculté de Pharmacie, Bâtiment Henri MOISSAN, Orsay, France
| | - Jean-Martin Beaulieu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Romain Colle
- CESP, MOODS Team, INSERM UMR 1018, Faculté de Médecine, Univ Paris-Saclay, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
- Service Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie de Bicêtre, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris-Saclay, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Emmanuelle Corruble
- CESP, MOODS Team, INSERM UMR 1018, Faculté de Médecine, Univ Paris-Saclay, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
- Service Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie de Bicêtre, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris-Saclay, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Alain Michel Gardier
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), UMR 1018, CESP-Inserm, Team Moods, Faculté de Pharmacie, Bâtiment Henri MOISSAN, Orsay, France
| | - René Hen
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Division of Integrative Neuroscience, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
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15
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Wyart C, Carbo-Tano M, Cantaut-Belarif Y, Orts-Del'Immagine A, Böhm UL. Cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons: multimodal cells with diverse roles in the CNS. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023; 24:540-556. [PMID: 37558908 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00723-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a complex solution that circulates around the CNS, and whose composition changes as a function of an animal's physiological state. Ciliated neurons that are bathed in the CSF - and thus referred to as CSF-contacting neurons (CSF-cNs) - are unusual polymodal interoceptive neurons. As chemoreceptors, CSF-cNs respond to variations in pH and osmolarity and to bacterial metabolites in the CSF. Their activation during infections of the CNS results in secretion of compounds to enhance host survival. As mechanosensory neurons, CSF-cNs operate together with an extracellular proteinaceous polymer known as the Reissner fibre to detect compression during spinal curvature. Once activated, CSF-cNs inhibit motor neurons, premotor excitatory neurons and command neurons to enhance movement speed and stabilize posture. At longer timescales, CSF-cNs instruct morphogenesis throughout life via the release of neuropeptides that act over long distances on skeletal muscle. Finally, recent evidence suggests that mouse CSF-cNs may act as neural stem cells in the spinal cord, inspiring new paths of investigation for repair after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Wyart
- Institut du Cerveau (ICM), INSERM U1127, UMR CNRS 7225 Paris, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
| | - Martin Carbo-Tano
- Institut du Cerveau (ICM), INSERM U1127, UMR CNRS 7225 Paris, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Yasmine Cantaut-Belarif
- Institut du Cerveau (ICM), INSERM U1127, UMR CNRS 7225 Paris, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | | | - Urs L Böhm
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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16
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Ghibaudi M, Marchetti N, Vergnano E, La Rosa C, Benedetti B, Couillard-Despres S, Farioli-Vecchioli S, Bonfanti L. Age-related changes in layer II immature neurons of the murine piriform cortex. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1205173. [PMID: 37576566 PMCID: PMC10416627 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1205173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent identification of a population of non-newly born, prenatally generated "immature" neurons in the layer II of the piriform cortex (cortical immature neurons, cINs), raises questions concerning their maintenance or depletion through the lifespan. Most forms of brain structural plasticity progressively decline with age, a feature that is particularly prominent in adult neurogenesis, due to stem cell depletion. By contrast, the entire population of the cINs is produced during embryogenesis. Then these cells simply retain immaturity in postnatal and adult stages, until they "awake" to complete their maturation and ultimately integrate into neural circuits. Hence, the question remains open whether the cINs, which are not dependent on stem cell division, might follow a similar pattern of age-related reduction, or in alternative, might leave a reservoir of young, undifferentiated cells in the adult and aging brain. Here, the number and features of cINs were analyzed in the mouse piriform cortex from postnatal to advanced ages, by using immunocytochemistry for the cytoskeletal marker doublecortin. The abundance and stage of maturation of cINs, along with the expression of other markers of maturity/immaturity were investigated. Despite a marked decrease in this neuronal population during juvenile stages, reminiscent of that observed in hippocampal neurogenesis, a small amount of highly immature cINs persisted up to advanced ages. Overall, albeit reducing in number with increasing age, we report that the cINs are present through the entire animal lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ghibaudi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Nicole Marchetti
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Vergnano
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
| | - Chiara La Rosa
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
| | - Bruno Benedetti
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Salzburg, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sebastien Couillard-Despres
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Salzburg, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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17
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Makrygianni EA, Chrousos GP. Neural Progenitor Cells and the Hypothalamus. Cells 2023; 12:1822. [PMID: 37508487 PMCID: PMC10378393 DOI: 10.3390/cells12141822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) are multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) capable of self-renewing and differentiating into neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. In the postnatal/adult brain, NPCs are primarily located in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles (LVs) and subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). There is evidence that NPCs are also present in the postnatal/adult hypothalamus, a highly conserved brain region involved in the regulation of core homeostatic processes, such as feeding, metabolism, reproduction, neuroendocrine integration and autonomic output. In the rodent postnatal/adult hypothalamus, NPCs mainly comprise different subtypes of tanycytes lining the wall of the 3rd ventricle. In the postnatal/adult human hypothalamus, the neurogenic niche is constituted by tanycytes at the floor of the 3rd ventricle, ependymal cells and ribbon cells (showing a gap-and-ribbon organization similar to that in the SVZ), as well as suprachiasmatic cells. We speculate that in the postnatal/adult human hypothalamus, neurogenesis occurs in a highly complex, exquisitely sophisticated neurogenic niche consisting of at least four subniches; this structure has a key role in the regulation of extrahypothalamic neurogenesis, and hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic neural circuits, partly through the release of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, extracellular vesicles (EVs) and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Evanthia A Makrygianni
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health & Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - George P Chrousos
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health & Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
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18
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Li YN, Hu DD, Cai XL, Wang Y, Yang C, Jiang J, Zhang QL, Tu T, Wang XS, Wang H, Tu E, Wang XP, Pan A, Yan XX, Wan L. Doublecortin-Expressing Neurons in Human Cerebral Cortex Layer II and Amygdala from Infancy to 100 Years Old. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3464-3485. [PMID: 36879137 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03261-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
A cohort of morphologically heterogenous doublecortin immunoreactive (DCX +) "immature neurons" has been identified in the cerebral cortex largely around layer II and the amygdala largely in the paralaminar nucleus (PLN) among various mammals. To gain a wide spatiotemporal view on these neurons in humans, we examined layer II and amygdalar DCX + neurons in the brains of infants to 100-year-old individuals. Layer II DCX + neurons occurred throughout the cerebrum in the infants/toddlers, mainly in the temporal lobe in the adolescents and adults, and only in the temporal cortex surrounding the amygdala in the elderly. Amygdalar DCX + neurons occurred in all age groups, localized primarily to the PLN, and reduced in number with age. The small-sized DCX + neurons were unipolar or bipolar, and formed migratory chains extending tangentially, obliquely, and inwardly in layers I-III in the cortex, and from the PLN to other nuclei in the amygdala. Morphologically mature-looking neurons had a relatively larger soma and weaker DCX reactivity. In contrast to the above, DCX + neurons in the hippocampal dentate gyrus were only detected in the infant cases in parallelly processed cerebral sections. The present study reveals a broader regional distribution of the cortical layer II DCX + neurons than previously documented in human cerebrum, especially during childhood and adolescence, while both layer II and amygdalar DCX + neurons persist in the temporal lobe lifelong. Layer II and amygdalar DCX + neurons may serve as an essential immature neuronal system to support functional network plasticity in human cerebrum in an age/region-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Nan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Dan-Dan Hu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Xiao-Lu Cai
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Chen Yang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Juan Jiang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Qi-Lei Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Tian Tu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China.,Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, China
| | - Xiao-Sheng Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Ewen Tu
- Department of Neurology, Brain Hospital of Hunan Province, Changsha, 410007, Hunan, China
| | - Xiao-Ping Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410031, Hunan, China
| | - Aihua Pan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China.
| | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Lily Wan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China.
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19
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Ghibaudi M, Amenta A, Agosti M, Riva M, Graïc JM, Bifari F, Bonfanti L. Consistency and Variation in Doublecortin and Ki67 Antigen Detection in the Brain Tissue of Different Mammals, including Humans. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:2514. [PMID: 36768845 PMCID: PMC9916846 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, a population of "immature" neurons generated prenatally, retaining immaturity for long periods and finally integrating in adult circuits has been described in the cerebral cortex. Moreover, comparative studies revealed differences in occurrence/rate of different forms of neurogenic plasticity across mammals, the "immature" neurons prevailing in gyrencephalic species. To extend experimentation from laboratory mice to large-brained mammals, including humans, it is important to detect cell markers of neurogenic plasticity in brain tissues obtained from different procedures (e.g., post-mortem/intraoperative specimens vs. intracardiac perfusion). This variability overlaps with species-specific differences in antigen distribution or antibody species specificity, making it difficult for proper comparison. In this work, we detect the presence of doublecortin and Ki67 antigen, markers for neuronal immaturity and cell division, in six mammals characterized by widely different brain size. We tested seven commercial antibodies in four selected brain regions known to host immature neurons (paleocortex, neocortex) and newly born neurons (hippocampus, subventricular zone). In selected human brains, we confirmed the specificity of DCX antibody by performing co-staining with fluorescent probe for DCX mRNA. Our results indicate that, in spite of various types of fixations, most differences were due to the use of different antibodies and the existence of real interspecies variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ghibaudi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), 10043 Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Torino, Italy
| | - Alessia Amenta
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Miriam Agosti
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Riva
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, 20090 Pieve Emanuele, Italy
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
| | - Jean-Marie Graïc
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Francesco Bifari
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), 10043 Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, 10095 Torino, Italy
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20
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Rosa P, Scibetta S, Pepe G, Mangino G, Capocci L, Moons SJ, Boltje TJ, Fazi F, Petrozza V, Di Pardo A, Maglione V, Calogero A. Polysialic Acid Sustains the Hypoxia-Induced Migration and Undifferentiated State of Human Glioblastoma Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23179563. [PMID: 36076963 PMCID: PMC9455737 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23179563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are the most common primary malignant brain tumors. Glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype (GBM, CNS WHO grade 4) is the most aggressive form of glioma and is characterized by extensive hypoxic areas that strongly correlate with tumor malignancy. Hypoxia promotes several processes, including stemness, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and radio- and chemoresistance, that have direct impacts on treatment failure. Thus, there is still an increasing need to identify novel targets to limit GBM relapse. Polysialic acid (PSA) is a carbohydrate composed of a linear polymer of α2,8-linked sialic acids, primarily attached to the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM). It is considered an oncodevelopmental antigen that is re-expressed in various tumors. High levels of PSA-NCAM are associated with high-grade and poorly differentiated tumors. Here, we investigated the effect of PSA inhibition in GBM cells under low oxygen concentrations. Our main results highlight the way in which hypoxia stimulates polysialylation in U87-MG cells and in a GBM primary culture. By lowering PSA levels with the sialic acid analog, F-NANA, we also inhibited GBM cell migration and interfered with their differentiation influenced by the hypoxic microenvironment. Our findings suggest that PSA may represent a possible molecular target for the development of alternative pharmacological strategies to manage a devastating tumor like GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Rosa
- Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Polo Pontino, C.so della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Sofia Scibetta
- Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Polo Pontino, C.so della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Pepe
- IRCCS Neuromed, Via Dell’Elettronica, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Giorgio Mangino
- Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Polo Pontino, C.so della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy
| | - Luca Capocci
- IRCCS Neuromed, Via Dell’Elettronica, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Sam J. Moons
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas J. Boltje
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Francesco Fazi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic & Orthopedic Sciences, Section of Histology & Medical Embryology, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Via A. Scarpa, 14-16, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Petrozza
- Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Polo Pontino, C.so della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy
- ICOT, Istituto Chirurgico Ortopedico Traumatologico, Via F. Faggiana 1668, 04100 Latina, Italy
| | - Alba Di Pardo
- IRCCS Neuromed, Via Dell’Elettronica, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy
| | | | - Antonella Calogero
- Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Polo Pontino, C.so della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy
- ICOT, Istituto Chirurgico Ortopedico Traumatologico, Via F. Faggiana 1668, 04100 Latina, Italy
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21
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Ghibaudi M, Bonfanti L. How Widespread Are the “Young” Neurons of the Mammalian Brain? Front Neurosci 2022; 16:918616. [PMID: 35733930 PMCID: PMC9207312 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.918616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
After the discovery of adult neurogenesis (stem cell-driven production of new neuronal elements), it is conceivable to find young, undifferentiated neurons mixed with mature neurons in the neural networks of the adult mammalian brain. This “canonical” neurogenesis is restricted to small stem cell niches persisting from embryonic germinal layers, yet, the genesis of new neurons has also been reported in various parenchymal brain regions. Whichever the process involved, several populations of “young” neurons can be found at different locations of the brain. Across the years, further complexity emerged: (i) molecules of immaturity can also be expressed by non-dividing cells born during embryogenesis, then maintaining immature features later on; (ii) remarkable interspecies differences exist concerning the types, location, amount of undifferentiated neurons; (iii) re-expression of immaturity can occur in aging (dematuration). These twists are introducing a somewhat different definition of neurogenesis than normally assumed, in which our knowledge of the “young” neurons is less sharp. In this emerging complexity, there is a need for complete mapping of the different “types” of young neurons, considering their role in postnatal development, plasticity, functioning, and interspecies differences. Several important aspects are at stake: the possible role(s) that the young neurons may play in maintaining brain efficiency and in prevention/repair of neurological disorders; nonetheless, the correct translation of results obtained from laboratory rodents. Hence, the open question is: how many types of undifferentiated neurons do exist in the brain, and how widespread are they?
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ghibaudi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
- *Correspondence: Luca Bonfanti,
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22
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Wielgat P, Narejko K, Car H. SARS-CoV-2 Attacks in the Brain: Focus on the Sialome. Cells 2022; 11:1458. [PMID: 35563764 PMCID: PMC9104523 DOI: 10.3390/cells11091458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidemiological observations suggest that respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are accompanied by short- and long-term neurological manifestations. There is increasing evidence that the neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to its capacity to interact with cell membrane sialome. Given the wide expression of sialylated compounds of cell membranes in the brain, the interplay between cell membrane sialoglycans and the virus is crucial for its attachment and cell entry, transport, neuronal damage and brain immunity. Here, we focus on the significance of the brain sialome in the progress of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and SARS-CoV-2-induced neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemyslaw Wielgat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
| | - Karolina Narejko
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
| | - Halina Car
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Szpitalna 37, 15-265 Bialystok, Poland
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23
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Shiwaku H, Katayama S, Kondo K, Nakano Y, Tanaka H, Yoshioka Y, Fujita K, Tamaki H, Takebayashi H, Terasaki O, Nagase Y, Nagase T, Kubota T, Ishikawa K, Okazawa H, Takahashi H. Autoantibodies against NCAM1 from patients with schizophrenia cause schizophrenia-related behavior and changes in synapses in mice. Cell Rep Med 2022; 3:100597. [PMID: 35492247 PMCID: PMC9043990 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
From genetic and etiological studies, autoimmune mechanisms underlying schizophrenia are suspected; however, the details remain unclear. In this study, we describe autoantibodies against neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM1) in patients with schizophrenia (5.4%, cell-based assay; 6.7%, ELISA) in a Japanese cohort (n = 223). Anti-NCAM1 autoantibody disrupts both NCAM1-NCAM1 and NCAM1-glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) interactions. Furthermore, the anti-NCAM1 antibody purified from patients with schizophrenia interrupts NCAM1-Fyn interaction and inhibits phosphorylation of FAK, MEK1, and ERK1 when introduced into the cerebrospinal fluid of mice and also reduces the number of spines and synapses in frontal cortex. In addition, it induces schizophrenia-related behavior in mice, including deficient pre-pulse inhibition and cognitive impairment. In conclusion, anti-NCAM1 autoantibodies in patients with schizophrenia cause schizophrenia-related behavior and changes in synapses in mice. These antibodies may be a potential therapeutic target and serve as a biomarker to distinguish a small but treatable subgroup in heterogeneous patients with schizophrenia. Some patients with schizophrenia are positive for anti-NCAM1 autoantibodies Anti-NCAM1 antibody from schizophrenia patients inhibits NCAM1-NCAM1 interactions Anti-NCAM1 antibody from schizophrenia patients reduces spines and synapses in mice Anti-NCAM1 antibody from patients induces schizophrenia-related behavior in mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Shiwaku
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan.
| | - Shingo Katayama
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Kanoh Kondo
- Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Yuri Nakano
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Hikari Tanaka
- Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Yuki Yoshioka
- Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Kyota Fujita
- Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Haruna Tamaki
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Tetsuo Kubota
- Department of Medical Technology, Tsukuba International University, Ibaraki 300-0051, Japan
| | - Kinya Ishikawa
- The Center for Personalized Medicine for Healthy Aging, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Okazawa
- Department of Neuropathology, Medical Research Institute and Center for Brain Integration Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Hidehiko Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan.
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24
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Abstract
Can plasticity be considered as an extension of "immaturity" [...].
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25
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Benedetti B, Couillard-Despres S. Why Would the Brain Need Dormant Neuronal Precursors? Front Neurosci 2022; 16:877167. [PMID: 35464307 PMCID: PMC9026174 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.877167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dormant non-proliferative neuronal precursors (dormant precursors) are a unique type of undifferentiated neuron, found in the adult brain of several mammalian species, including humans. Dormant precursors are fundamentally different from canonical neurogenic-niche progenitors as they are generated exquisitely during the embryonic development and maintain a state of protracted postmitotic immaturity lasting up to several decades after birth. Thus, dormant precursors are not pluripotent progenitors, but to all effects extremely immature neurons. Recently, transgenic models allowed to reveal that with age virtually all dormant precursors progressively awaken, abandon the immature state, and become fully functional neurons. Despite the limited common awareness about these cells, the deep implications of recent discoveries will likely lead to revisit our understanding of the adult brain. Thus, it is timely to revisit and critically assess the essential evidences that help pondering on the possible role(s) of these cells in relation to cognition, aging, and pathology. By highlighting pivoting findings as well as controversies and open questions, we offer an exciting perspective over the field of research that studies these mysterious cells and suggest the next steps toward the answer of a crucial question: why does the brain need dormant neuronal precursors?
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Benedetti
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sebastien Couillard-Despres
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Sebastien Couillard-Despres,
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