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Zhang X, Guo J, Liu J, Liu J, Li Z, Chen J, Jiang J, Zhang K, Zhou B. Exosomal Src from hypoxic vascular smooth muscle cells exacerbates ischemic brain injury by promoting M1 microglial polarization. Neurochem Int 2024; 179:105819. [PMID: 39084350 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2024] [Revised: 07/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Inflammatory response mediated by M1 microglia is a crucial factor leading to the exacerbation of brain injury after ischemic stroke (IS). Under the stimulation of IS, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) switch to the synthetic phenotype characterized by exosome secretion. Previous studies have shown that exosomes play an important role in the regulation of microglial polarization. We reported that exosomes derived from primary human brain VSMCs under hypoxia (HExos), but not those under normoxia (Exos), significantly promoted primary human microglia (HM1900) shift to M1 phenotype. Proteomic analysis showed that the Src protein enriched in HExos was a potential pro-inflammatory mediator. In vitro experiments showed that the expression of Src and M1 markers were upregulated in HM1900 co-incubated with HExos. However, the Src inhibitor dasatinib (DAS) significantly promoted the transformation of HM1900 phenotype from M1 to M2. In vivo experiments of pMCAO mice also revealed that DAS could effectively inhibit the activation of M1 microglia/macrophages, protect neurons from apoptosis, and improve neuronal function. These data suggested that hypoxic-VSMCs-derived exosomes were involved in post-IS inflammation by promoting M1 microglial polarization through Src transmission. Targeting inhibition of Src potentially acts as an effective strategy for treating brain injury after IS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Zhang
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Jingpei Guo
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Junbin Liu
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Junfeng Liu
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Zhaozhu Li
- Department of Medical Ultrasonics, The Fourth People's Hospital of Nanhai District of Foshan City, Foshan, Guangdong Province, 528211, China
| | - Jiayao Chen
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Jiawei Jiang
- College of Education, Jinan University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China
| | - Ke Zhang
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China.
| | - Bin Zhou
- Center of Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China; Center of Cerebrovascular Disease, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, 519000, China.
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Totoń-Żurańska J, Mikolajczyk TP, Saju B, Guzik TJ. Vascular remodelling in cardiovascular diseases: hypertension, oxidation, and inflammation. Clin Sci (Lond) 2024; 138:817-850. [PMID: 38920058 DOI: 10.1042/cs20220797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Optimal vascular structure and function are essential for maintaining the physiological functions of the cardiovascular system. Vascular remodelling involves changes in vessel structure, including its size, shape, cellular and molecular composition. These changes result from multiple risk factors and may be compensatory adaptations to sustain blood vessel function. They occur in diverse cardiovascular pathologies, from hypertension to heart failure and atherosclerosis. Dynamic changes in the endothelium, fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, pericytes or other vascular wall cells underlie remodelling. In addition, immune cells, including macrophages and lymphocytes, may infiltrate vessels and initiate inflammatory signalling. They contribute to a dynamic interplay between cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, inflammation, and extracellular matrix reorganisation, all critical mechanisms of vascular remodelling. Molecular pathways underlying these processes include growth factors (e.g., vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor), inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin-1β and tumour necrosis factor-α), reactive oxygen species, and signalling pathways, such as Rho/ROCK, MAPK, and TGF-β/Smad, related to nitric oxide and superoxide biology. MicroRNAs and long noncoding RNAs are crucial epigenetic regulators of gene expression in vascular remodelling. We evaluate these pathways for potential therapeutic targeting from a clinical translational perspective. In summary, vascular remodelling, a coordinated modification of vascular structure and function, is crucial in cardiovascular disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Totoń-Żurańska
- Center for Medical Genomics OMICRON, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
| | - Tomasz P Mikolajczyk
- Center for Medical Genomics OMICRON, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
| | - Blessy Saju
- BHF Centre for Research Excellence, Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
| | - Tomasz J Guzik
- Center for Medical Genomics OMICRON, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
- BHF Centre for Research Excellence, Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
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Li H, Zhang J, Tan M, Yin Y, Song Y, Zhao Y, Yan L, Li N, Zhang X, Bai J, Jiang T, Li H. Exosomes based strategies for cardiovascular diseases: Opportunities and challenges. Biomaterials 2024; 308:122544. [PMID: 38579591 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
Exosomes, as nanoscale extracellular vesicles (EVs), are secreted by all types of cells to facilitate intercellular communication in living organisms. After being taken up by neighboring or distant cells, exosomes can alter the expression levels of target genes in recipient cells and thereby affect their pathophysiological outcomes depending on payloads encapsulated therein. The functions and mechanisms of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases have attracted much attention in recent years and are thought to have cardioprotective and regenerative potential. This review summarizes the biogenesis and molecular contents of exosomes and details the roles played by exosomes released from various cells in the progression and recovery of cardiovascular disease. The review also discusses the current status of traditional exosomes in cardiovascular tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, pointing out several limitations in their application. It emphasizes that some of the existing emerging industrial or bioengineering technologies are promising to compensate for these shortcomings, and the combined application of exosomes and biomaterials provides an opportunity for mutual enhancement of their performance. The integration of exosome-based cell-free diagnostic and therapeutic options will contribute to the further development of cardiovascular regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Li
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China
| | - Mingyue Tan
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China; Department of Geriatrics, Cardiovascular Center, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, PR China
| | - Yunfei Yin
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China
| | - Yiyi Song
- Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215000, PR China
| | - Yongjian Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China
| | - Lin Yan
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China
| | - Ning Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Centre for Leading Medicine and Advanced Technologies of IHM, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230022, PR China
| | - Xianzuo Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Centre for Leading Medicine and Advanced Technologies of IHM, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230022, PR China
| | - Jiaxiang Bai
- Department of Orthopedics, Centre for Leading Medicine and Advanced Technologies of IHM, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230022, PR China; National Center for Translational Medicine (Shanghai) SHU Branch, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, PR China.
| | - Tingbo Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China.
| | - Hongxia Li
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, PR China.
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Xu D, Gareev I, Beylerli O, Pavlov V, Le H, Shi H. Integrative bioinformatics analysis of miRNA and mRNA expression profiles and identification of associated miRNA-mRNA network in intracranial aneurysms. Noncoding RNA Res 2024; 9:471-485. [PMID: 38511055 PMCID: PMC10950608 DOI: 10.1016/j.ncrna.2024.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Intracranial aneurysms (IAs) represent protrusions in the vascular wall, with their growth and wall thinning influenced by various factors. These processes can culminate in the rupture of the aneurysm, leading to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Unfortunately, over half of the patients prove unable to withstand SAH, succumbing to adverse outcomes despite intensive therapeutic interventions, even in premier medical facilities. This study seeks to discern the pivotal microRNAs (miRNAs) and genes associated with the formation and progression of IAs. Methods The investigation gathered expression data of miRNAs (from GSE66240) and mRNAs (from GSE158558) within human aneurysm tissue and superficial temporal artery (STA) samples, categorizing them into IA and normal groups. This classification was based on the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Results A total of 70 differentially expressed microRNAs (DEMs) and 815 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEGs) were pinpointed concerning IA. Subsequently, a miRNA-mRNA network was constructed, incorporating 9 significantly upregulated DEMs and 211 significantly downregulated DEGs. Simultaneously, functional enrichment and pathway analyses were conducted on both DEMs and DEGs. Through protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and functional enrichment, 9 significantly upregulated DEMs (hsa-miR-188-5p, hsa-miR-590-5p, hsa-miR-320b, hsa-miR-423-5p, hsa-miR-140-5p, hsa-miR-486-5p, hsa-miR-320a, hsa-miR-342-3p, and hsa-miR-532-5p) and 50 key genes (such as ATP6V1G1, KBTBD6, VIM, PA2G4, DYNLL1, METTL21A, MDH2, etc.) were identified, suggesting their potential significant role in IA. Among these genes, ten were notably negatively regulated by at least two key miRNAs. Conclusions The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the potential pathogenic mechanisms underlying IA by elucidating a miRNA-mRNA network. This comprehensive approach sheds light on the intricate interplay between miRNAs and genes, offering a deeper understanding of the molecular dynamics involved in IA development and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxiao Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Ilgiz Gareev
- Central Research Laboratory, Bashkir State Medical University, Ufa, Republic of Bashkortostan, 3 Lenin street, 450008, Russia
| | - Ozal Beylerli
- Central Research Laboratory, Bashkir State Medical University, Ufa, Republic of Bashkortostan, 3 Lenin street, 450008, Russia
| | - Valentin Pavlov
- Department of Urology, Bashkir State Medical University, 3 Lenin Street, 450008, Ufa, Russia
| | - Huang Le
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Huaizhang Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, China
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Heo J, Kang H. Platelet-derived growth factor-stimulated pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells regulate pulmonary artery endothelial cell dysfunction through extracellular vesicle miR-409-5p. Biol Chem 2024; 405:203-215. [PMID: 37903646 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2023-0222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023]
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced changes in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) stimulate vascular remodeling, resulting in vascular diseases such as pulmonary arterial hypertension. VSMCs communicate with endothelial cells through extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying cargos, including microRNAs. To understand the molecular mechanisms through which PDGF-stimulated pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) interact with pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) under pathological conditions, we investigated the crosstalk between PASMCs and PAECs via extracellular vesicle miR-409-5p under PDGF stimulation. miR-409-5p expression was upregulated in PASMCs upon PDGF signaling, and it was released into EVs. The elevated expression of miR-409-5p was transported to PAECs and led to their impaired function, including reduced NO release, which consequentially resulted in enhanced PASMC proliferation. We propose that the positive regulatory loop of PASMC-extracellular vesicle miR-409-5p-PAEC is a potential mechanism underlying the proliferation of PASMCs under PDGF stimulation. Therefore, miR-409-5p may be a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of vascular diseases, including pulmonary arterial hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongyeon Heo
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
| | - Hara Kang
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
- Institute for New Drug Development, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea
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Zhao X, Kong X, Cui Z, Zhang Z, Wang M, Liu G, Gao H, Zhang J, Qin W. Communication between nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and atherosclerosis: Focusing on exosomes. Eur J Pharm Sci 2024; 193:106690. [PMID: 38181871 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2024.106690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most prevalent chronic hepatic disorder on a global scale. Atherosclerosis (AS), a leading cause of cardiovascular diseases, stands as the primary contributor to mortality among patients diagnosed with NAFLD. However, the precise etiology by which NAFLD causes AS remains unclear. Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles secreted by cells, and are considered to participate in complex biological processes by promoting cell-to-cell and organ-to-organ communications. As vesicles containing protein, mRNA, non-coding RNA and other bioactive molecules, exosomes can participate in the development of NAFLD and AS respectively. Recently, studies have shown that NAFLD can also promote the development of AS via secreting exosomes. Herein, we summarized the recent advantages of exosomes in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and AS, and highlighted the role of exosomes in mediating the information exchange between NAFLD and AS. Further, we discussed how exosomes play a prominent role in enabling information exchange among diverse organs, delving into a novel avenue for investigating the link between diseases and their associated complications. The future directions and emerging challenges are also listed regarding the exosome-based therapeutic strategies for AS under NAFLD conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaona Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China; School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China
| | - Xinxin Kong
- School of Pharmacy, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China; School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China
| | - Zhoujun Cui
- Department of General Surgery, People's Hospital of Rizhao, Rizhao, China
| | - Zejin Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China; School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, China
| | - Minghui Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China; School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Guoqing Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China; School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Honggang Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China
| | - Wei Qin
- School of Pharmacy, Jining Medical University, Rizhao, China.
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Huang C, Han X, Yang L, Song W, Zhang H, Zhu X, Huang G, Xu J. Exosomal miR-129 and miR-342 derived from intermittent hypoxia-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cells inhibit the eIF2α/ATF4 axis from preventing calcified aortic valvular disease. J Cell Commun Signal 2023:10.1007/s12079-023-00785-4. [PMID: 37812275 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-023-00785-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to elucidate the role of miR-129/miR-342 loaded in exosomes derived from vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) stimulated by intermittent hypoxia in calcified aortic valvular disease (CAVD). Bioinformatics analysis was conducted to identify differentially expressed miRs in VSMCs-derived exosomes and CAVD samples, and their potential target genes were predicted. VSMCs were exposed to intermittent hypoxia to induce stimulation, followed by isolation of exosomes. Valvular interstitial cells (VICs) were cultured in vitro to investigate the impact of miR-129/miR-342 on VICs' osteogenic differentiation and aortic valve calcification with eIF2α. A CAVD mouse model was established using ApoE knockout mice for in vivo validation. In CAVD samples, miR-129 and miR-342 were downregulated, while eIF2α and ATF4 were upregulated. miR-129 and miR-342 exhibited inhibitory effects on eIF2α through targeted regulation. Exosomes released from intermittently hypoxia-stimulated VSMCs contained miR-129 and miR-342. Overexpression of miR-129 and miR-342, or silencing ATF4, suppressed VICs' osteogenic differentiation and aortic valve calcification, which could be rescued by overexpressed eIF2α. Collectively, intermittent hypoxia stimulation of VSMCs leads to the secretion of exosomes that activate the miR-129/miR-342 dual pathway, thereby inhibiting the eIF2α/ATF4 axis and attenuating VICs' osteogenic differentiation and CAVD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Huang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Xu Han
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Linjie Yang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Wei Song
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Hualu Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, China
| | - Xiaohua Zhu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Gongcheng Huang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, No.1, Jianshe East Road, Erqi Distrcit, Zhengzhou, 450000, Henan Province, China.
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Yang L, Lin Y, Wang C, Fan P. circSnd1 promotes atherosclerosis progression through the miR-485-3p/Olr1 signaling pathway. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17366. [PMID: 37426804 PMCID: PMC10329125 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Circular RNAs (circRNAs) participate in the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Identifying and verifying the key competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network related to atherosclerosis (AS) is significant for understanding the development of AS. The aim of this study was to investigate the circRNA-miRNA‒mRNA network, identify a key circRNA and explore its role in the development of atherosclerosis. Methods Differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs) and circRNAs (DECs) in the AS model were obtained from datasets in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. R software and Cytoscape software were used to construct and visualize the ceRNA network. The dual-luciferase reporter experiment and the RNA pull-down experiment were used to verify the selected ceRNA axis. siRNA targeting circRNA, miRNA mimic, miRNA inhibitor, or gene overexpression plasmid was used for in vitro functional studies. ELISA and western blotting were used to detect inflammation and lipid transport-related proteins. Furthermore, an AS mouse model was established and treated with recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors to further verify the influence of the selected ceRNA axis on the occurrence and/or development of AS. Results A total of 497 DEMs were enriched in 25 pathways, based on which the circ_0082139 (circSnd1)/miR-485-3p/Olr1 axis was selected. In vitro, the interaction among the three molecules of this axis was validated and it was found to affect inflammation and lipid transport, which were characterized by the significant change of inflammatory factors (Il-6, Il-8, Tnf-α, Mcp-1, Vcam-1, and Icam-1), and lipid transport-related genes, including Abca1, Abcg1, Ldlr, Hdlbp, Lp-pla2, and Srebp-1c. Through animal experiments, we further verified that the circSnd1/miR-485-3p/Olr1 axis regulated these molecules and participated in the formation and/or development of AS in vivo. Conclusions The circSnd1/miR-485-3p/Olr1 axis participates in the formation and development of atherosclerosis by regulating inflammation and lipid transport.
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Jin C, Chen D, Zhu T, Chen S, Du J, Zhang H, Dong W. Poly(ferulic acid)-hybrid nanofibers for reducing thrombosis and restraining intimal hyperplasia in vascular tissue engineering. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2023; 146:213278. [PMID: 36638698 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Small-diameter blood vascular transplantation failure is mainly caused by the vascular materials' unreliable hemocompatibility and histocompatibility and the unmatched mechanical properties, which will cause unstable blood flow. How to solve the problems of coagulation and intimal hyperplasia caused by the above factors is formidable in vascular replacement. In this work, we have synthesized poly(ferulic acid) (PFA) and prepared poly(ester-urethane)urea (PEUU)/silk fibroin (SF)/poly(ferulic acid) (PFA) hybrid nanofibers vascular graft (PSPG) by random electrospinning and post-double network bond crosslinking for process optimization. The results in vitro demonstrated that the graft is of significant anti-oxidation, matched mechanical properties, reliable cytocompatibility, and blood compatibility. Replacing resected rat abdominal aorta and rabbit carotid artery models with PSPG vascular grafts indicated that the grafts are capable of homogeneous hybrid PFA significantly promoted the stabilization of endothelial cells and the ingrowth of smooth muscle cells, meanwhile stabilizing the immune microenvironment. This research demonstrates the PSPG vascular graft with substantial patency, indicating their potential for injured vascular healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjie Jin
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Pharmaceutical Intelligent Equipment, Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Center for Druggability of Cardiovascular Non-coding RNA, Institute for Frontier Medical Technology, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, 333 Longteng Rd., Shanghai 201620, PR China
| | - Dian Chen
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1678 Dongfang Rd., Shanghai 200127, PR China
| | - Tonghe Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Pharmaceutical Intelligent Equipment, Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Center for Druggability of Cardiovascular Non-coding RNA, Institute for Frontier Medical Technology, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, 333 Longteng Rd., Shanghai 201620, PR China; Shanghai PINE&POWER Biotech Co., Ltd, 500 Huaxi Rd., Shanghai 201108, PR China.
| | - Sihao Chen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Pharmaceutical Intelligent Equipment, Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Center for Druggability of Cardiovascular Non-coding RNA, Institute for Frontier Medical Technology, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, 333 Longteng Rd., Shanghai 201620, PR China
| | - Juan Du
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Pharmaceutical Intelligent Equipment, Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Center for Druggability of Cardiovascular Non-coding RNA, Institute for Frontier Medical Technology, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, 333 Longteng Rd., Shanghai 201620, PR China
| | - Haibo Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1678 Dongfang Rd., Shanghai 200127, PR China.
| | - Wei Dong
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 1678 Dongfang Rd., Shanghai 200127, PR China.
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Wang C, Liu Y, Zhang W, Huang J, Jiang J, Wang R, Zeng D. circ-BPTF serves as a miR-486-5p sponge to regulate CEMIP and promotes hypoxic pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation in COPD. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2022; 55:438-448. [PMID: 36514216 PMCID: PMC10160238 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2022178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia plays a crucial role in pulmonary vascular remodelling at the early stage of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Circle RNA (circRNA) has been identified to play a critical role in multiple diseases. However, the role of circRNAs in pulmonary vascular remodelling in COPD remains unclear. In this study, we aim to investigate the role of circRNAs in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation and pulmonary vascular remodelling in COPD. COPD patients show lower partial pressure of arterial oxygen and pulmonary arterial remodeling as compared with controls. circRNA microarray and real-time PCR analyses show significantly higher level of circ-BPTF and lower miR-486-5p level in the pulmonary arteries of COPD patients as compared with controls. Hypoxia suppresses miR-486-5p expression but promotes expressions of circ-BPTF and cell migration inducing protein (CEMIP) in human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) in vitro. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments show that circ-BPTF promotes PASMC proliferation in vitro. Moreover, luciferase reporter assay results indicate that circ-BPTF regulates PASMC proliferation by acting as an miR-486-5p sponge. CEMIP is identified as a candidate target gene of miR-486-5p by luciferase reporter assay. Overall, our study shows that circ-BPTF serves as a miR-486-5p sponge to regulate CEMIP and promote hypoxic PASMC proliferation in pulmonary vascular remodelling in COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changguo Wang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yingying Liu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Dushu Lake Hospital, Suzhou 215006, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Dushu Lake Hospital Affiliated to Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Weiyun Zhang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Dushu Lake Hospital, Suzhou 215006, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Dushu Lake Hospital Affiliated to Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jian'an Huang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Junhong Jiang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Dushu Lake Hospital, Suzhou 215006, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Dushu Lake Hospital Affiliated to Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, China
| | - Daxiong Zeng
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Suzhou Dushu Lake Hospital, Suzhou 215006, China.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Dushu Lake Hospital Affiliated to Soochow University, Medical Center of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
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11
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Li D, Huang LT, Zhang CP, Li Q, Wang JH. Insights Into the Role of Platelet-Derived Growth Factors: Implications for Parkinson’s Disease Pathogenesis and Treatment. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:890509. [PMID: 35847662 PMCID: PMC9283766 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.890509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer’s disease, commonly occurs in the elderly population, causing a significant medical and economic burden to the aging society worldwide. At present, there are few effective methods that achieve satisfactory clinical results in the treatment of PD. Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) and platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs) are important neurotrophic factors that are expressed in various cell types. Their unique structures allow for specific binding that can effectively regulate vital functions in the nervous system. In this review, we summarized the possible mechanisms by which PDGFs/PDGFRs regulate the occurrence and development of PD by affecting oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, protein folding and aggregation, Ca2+ homeostasis, and cell neuroinflammation. These modes of action mainly depend on the type and distribution of PDGFs in different nerve cells. We also summarized the possible clinical applications and prospects for PDGF in the treatment of PD, especially in genetic treatment. Recent advances have shown that PDGFs have contradictory roles within the central nervous system (CNS). Although they exert neuroprotective effects through multiple pathways, they are also associated with the disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Our recommendations based on our findings include further investigation of the contradictory neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of the PDGFs acting on the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Department of Family Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Le-Tian Huang
- Department of Oncology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Cheng-pu Zhang
- Department of Family Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- *Correspondence: Qiang Li,
| | - Jia-He Wang
- Department of Family Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Jia-He Wang,
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12
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Fang Y, Dai X. Emerging Roles of Extracellular Non-Coding RNAs in Vascular Diseases. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2022; 15:492-499. [PMID: 35460016 DOI: 10.1007/s12265-022-10237-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by cells and carry diverse components, including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites. EVs could be found in blood and other biofluids. They vary greatly in size, function, cargo, and cellular origin. Accumulating evidence shows that extracellular non-coding RNAs, the dominant extracellular RNAs encapsulated into EVs, function as critical mediators of cell-cell communication and play critical roles in human health and disease. Blood vessels form a dense network that nourishes all of the body's tissues. These vascular networks' dysregulated functions contribute to vascular diseases, such as pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), hypertension, atherosclerosis, and aneurysm. With the increase in unhealthy lifestyle-associated obesity and metabolic disorders, vascular diseases are becoming serious medical and public health issues with a profound global economic burden. The present review summarizes the latest advances on extracellular non-coding RNAs in pathological vascular remodeling-associated diseases, briefly describing vessel-associated extracellular non-coding RNAs and their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxiong Fang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology and the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaoyan Dai
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology and the State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, Guangdong, China.
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13
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Cui Y, Zhou Y, Gan N, Xiang Q, Xia M, Liao W, Zheng XL, Peng J, Tang Z. The Role of Extracellular Non-coding RNAs in Atherosclerosis. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2022; 15:477-491. [PMID: 35233720 DOI: 10.1007/s12265-022-10218-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (AS) is a complex chronic inflammatory disease that leads to myocardial infarction, stroke, and disabling peripheral artery disease. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) directly participate in various physiological processes and exhibit a wide range of biological functions. The present review discusses how different ncRNAs participate in the process of AS in various carrier forms. We focused on the role and potential mechanisms of extracellular ncRNAs in AS and examined their potential implications for clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Cui
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Yating Zhou
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Ni Gan
- Hengyang Medical School, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Qiong Xiang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Mengdie Xia
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Wei Liao
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Xi-Long Zheng
- Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Physiology & Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Juan Peng
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhihan Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province School of Basic Medical Sciences Hengyang Medical School, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China.
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14
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Botts SR, Fish JE, Howe KL. Dysfunctional Vascular Endothelium as a Driver of Atherosclerosis: Emerging Insights Into Pathogenesis and Treatment. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:787541. [PMID: 35002720 PMCID: PMC8727904 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.787541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, the chronic accumulation of cholesterol-rich plaque within arteries, is associated with a broad spectrum of cardiovascular diseases including myocardial infarction, aortic aneurysm, peripheral vascular disease, and stroke. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of mortality in high-income countries and recent years have witnessed a notable increase in prevalence within low- and middle-income regions of the world. Considering this prominent and evolving global burden, there is a need to identify the cellular mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis to discover novel therapeutic targets for preventing or mitigating its clinical sequelae. Despite decades of research, we still do not fully understand the complex cell-cell interactions that drive atherosclerosis, but new investigative approaches are rapidly shedding light on these essential mechanisms. The vascular endothelium resides at the interface of systemic circulation and the underlying vessel wall and plays an essential role in governing pathophysiological processes during atherogenesis. In this review, we present emerging evidence that implicates the activated endothelium as a driver of atherosclerosis by directing site-specificity of plaque formation and by promoting plaque development through intracellular processes, which regulate endothelial cell proliferation and turnover, metabolism, permeability, and plasticity. Moreover, we highlight novel mechanisms of intercellular communication by which endothelial cells modulate the activity of key vascular cell populations involved in atherogenesis, and discuss how endothelial cells contribute to resolution biology - a process that is dysregulated in advanced plaques. Finally, we describe important future directions for preclinical atherosclerosis research, including epigenetic and targeted therapies, to limit the progression of atherosclerosis in at-risk or affected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R. Botts
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jason E. Fish
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Kathryn L. Howe
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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15
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Xie X, Guo LW, Craig Kent K. miR548ai antagonism attenuates exosome-induced endothelial cell dysfunction. Cell Death Discov 2021; 7:318. [PMID: 34711811 PMCID: PMC8553949 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-021-00720-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cell (EC) and smooth muscle cell (SMC) are major cell types adjacent in the vascular wall. Recent progress indicates that their communication is crucial for vascular homeostasis and pathogenesis. In particular, dysfunctional (proliferative) SMCs through exosomes can induce EC dysfunction (impaired growth). The current study suggests that miR548ai, a rarely known microRNA, may provide a molecular target for protection against SMC/exosome-induced EC dysfunction. We performed microarray profiling of microRNAs of dysfunctional human primary aortic SMCs induced by different cytokines (PDGF-BB, TGFβ1, TNFα, IL1β). Among the microRNAs commonly upregulated by these cytokines, miR548ai showed the most robust changes, as also validated through quantitative PCR. This cytokine-induced miR548ai upregulation was recapitulated in the qPCR determination of SMC-derived exosomal microRNAs. Consistent with SMC-to-EC communication, the exosomes extracted from cytokine-stimulated SMCs impaired human EC proliferation and migration. Of particular interest, this SMC exosomal impingement on ECs was countered by transfection of miR548ai inhibitor microRNA into ECs. Furthermore, the miR548ai inhibitor transfected into SMCs attenuated SMC dysfunction/proliferation. Thus, these results identify miR548ai as a novel target; namely, miR548ai inhibitor mitigates EC dysfunction induced by exosomes derived from dysfunctional SMCs. This new knowledge may aid the future development of microRNA-based treatment of vascular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiujie Xie
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - Lian-Wang Guo
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA. .,Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA. .,Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA.
| | - K Craig Kent
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA.
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16
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The miR-182/Myadm axis regulates hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension by balancing the BMP- and TGF-β-signalling pathways in an SMC/EC-crosstalk-associated manner. Basic Res Cardiol 2021; 116:53. [PMID: 34546460 DOI: 10.1007/s00395-021-00892-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
We recently identified oncologic miR-182 as a new regulator of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) that targets myeloid-associated differentiation marker (Myadm), which is expressed in bone marrow stem cells and multipotent progenitors. Both miR-182 and Myadm are expressed in the cardiopulmonary system and correlated with the balance between the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signalling pathways, which are disturbed in PAH. We hypothesize that miR-182/Myadm are involved in BMP-TGF-β-signalling way in PAH. Hypoxia triggered pathological progression in cardiopulmonary PAH in vivo and in vitro; these changes were accompanied by strongly dowregulated BMP/SMAD1/5/8 expression and enhanced TGF-β/SMAD2/3 signalling pathway, favouring SMAD4/SMAD2 transcript formation and inhibiting the PAH negative regulator Id1 expression. miR-182 gain-of-function significantly inhibited the pathological progression in hypoxia-induced PAH (HPH) in vivo and in vitro, with a restoration of the balance in BMP-TGF-β signalling pathway. This recovery was abrogated by overexpression of Myadm. Conversely, loss-of-function of miR-182 increased the pathological progression of HPH followed by severe disturbance of BMP and TGF-β signal transduction and reduced Id1 expression, which was restored by Myadm knockdown. We also showed that the miR-182/Myadm relate BMP-TGF-β pathway is associated with NOS3/NO/cGMP via the crosstalk between endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. Our findings further support the therapeutic significance of miR-182/Myadm in PAH via the balance of BMP- and TGF-β-associated mechanisms.
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17
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Cellular Crosstalk between Endothelial and Smooth Muscle Cells in Vascular Wall Remodeling. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147284. [PMID: 34298897 PMCID: PMC8306829 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathological vascular wall remodeling refers to the structural and functional changes of the vessel wall that occur in response to injury that eventually leads to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Vessel wall are composed of two major primary cells types, endothelial cells (EC) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The physiological communications between these two cell types (EC–VSMCs) are crucial in the development of the vasculature and in the homeostasis of mature vessels. Moreover, aberrant EC–VSMCs communication has been associated to the promotor of various disease states including vascular wall remodeling. Paracrine regulations by bioactive molecules, communication via direct contact (junctions) or information transfer via extracellular vesicles or extracellular matrix are main crosstalk mechanisms. Identification of the nature of this EC–VSMCs crosstalk may offer strategies to develop new insights for prevention and treatment of disease that curse with vascular remodeling. Here, we will review the molecular mechanisms underlying the interplay between EC and VSMCs. Additionally, we highlight the potential applicable methodologies of the co-culture systems to identify cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in pathological vascular wall remodeling, opening questions about the future research directions.
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18
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Wang C, Li Z, Liu Y, Yuan L. Exosomes in atherosclerosis: performers, bystanders, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3996-4010. [PMID: 33664877 PMCID: PMC7914371 DOI: 10.7150/thno.56035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are nanosized lipid vesicles originating from the endosomal system that carry many macromolecules from their parental cells and play important roles in intercellular communication. The functions and underlying mechanisms of exosomes in atherosclerosis have recently been intensively studied. In this review, we briefly introduce exosome biology and then focus on advances in the roles of exosomes in atherosclerosis, specifically exosomal changes associated with atherosclerosis, their cellular origins and potential functional cargos, and their detailed impacts on recipient cells. We also discuss the potential of exosomes as biomarkers and drug carriers for managing atherosclerosis.
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19
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Darkwah S, Park EJ, Myint PK, Ito A, Appiah MG, Obeng G, Kawamoto E, Shimaoka M. Potential Roles of Muscle-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Remodeling Cellular Microenvironment: Proposed Implications of the Exercise-Induced Myokine, Irisin. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:634853. [PMID: 33614663 PMCID: PMC7892973 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.634853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key players of intercellular communication and mediate crosstalk between tissues. Metastatic tumors release tumorigenic EVs, capable of pre-conditioning distal sites for organotropic metastasis. Growing evidence identifies muscle cell-derived EVs and myokines as potent mediators of cellular differentiation, proliferation, and metabolism. Muscle-derived EVs cargo myokines and other biological modulators like microRNAs, cytokines, chemokines, and prostaglandins hence, are likely to modulate the remodeling of niches in vital sites, such as liver and adipose tissues. Despite the scarcity of evidence to support a direct relationship between muscle-EVs and cancer metastasis, their indirect attribution to the regulation of niche remodeling and the establishment of pre-metastatic homing niches can be put forward. This hypothesis is supported by the role of muscle-derived EVs in findings gathered from other pathologies like inflammation and metabolic disorders. In this review, we present and discuss studies that evidently support the potential roles of muscle-derived EVs in the events of niche pre-conditioning and remodeling of metastatic tumor microenvironment. We highlight the potential contributions of the integrin-mediated interactions with an emerging myokine, irisin, to the regulation of EV-driven microenvironment remodeling in tumor metastasis. Further research into muscle-derived EVs and myokines in cancer progression is imperative and may hold promising contributions to advance our knowledge in the pathophysiology, progression and therapeutic management of metastatic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Darkwah
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Eun Jeong Park
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Phyoe Kyawe Myint
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Atsushi Ito
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan.,Department of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Surgery, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Michael G Appiah
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Gideon Obeng
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Eiji Kawamoto
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan.,Department of Emergency and Disaster Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Motomu Shimaoka
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology and Cell Adhesion Biology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
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20
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Pashova A, Work LM, Nicklin SA. The role of extracellular vesicles in neointima formation post vascular injury. Cell Signal 2020; 76:109783. [PMID: 32956789 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Pathological neointimal growth can develop in patients as a result of vascular injury following percutaneous coronary intervention and coronary artery bypass grafting using autologous saphenous vein, leading to arterial or vein graft occlusion. Neointima formation driven by intimal hyperplasia occurs as a result of a complex interplay between molecular and cellular processes involving different cell types including endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and various inflammatory cells. Therefore, understanding the intercellular communication mechanisms underlying this process remains of fundamental importance in order to develop therapeutic strategies to preserve endothelial integrity and vascular health post coronary interventions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including microvesicles and exosomes, are membrane-bound particles secreted by cells which mediate intercellular signalling in physiological and pathophysiological states, however their role in neointima formation is not fully understood. The purification and characterization techniques currently used in the field are associated with many limitations which significantly hinder the ability to comprehensively study the role of specific EV types and make direct functional comparisons between EV subpopulations. In this review, the current knowledge focusing on EV signalling in neointima formation post vascular injury is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Pashova
- Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - L M Work
- Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - S A Nicklin
- Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
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21
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Song T, Lv M, Zhang L, Zhang X, Song G, Huang M, Zheng L, Zhao M. The Protective Effects of Tripeptides VPP and IPP against Small Extracellular Vesicles from Angiotensin II-Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Mediating Endothelial Dysfunction in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:13730-13741. [PMID: 33180478 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c05698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction is a common disorder of vascular homeostasis in hypertension characterized by oxidative stress, malignant migration, inflammatory response, and active adhesion response of endothelial cells. The extracellular vesicles (EVs), a vital participant in vascular cell communication, have been considered responsible for vascular disease progression. However, the potential mechanism of antihypertensive peptides against the EVs-induced endothelial dysfunction is still unclear. In this study, we investigated whether the antihypertensive peptides Val-Pro-Pro (VPP) and Ile-Pro-Pro (IPP) ameliorate the effects of EVs from Ang II-induced vascular smooth muscles (VSMCs) on the endothelial dysfunction. The dihydroethidium staining, wound healing assay, 3D cell culture, and co-culture with U937 monocyte were used to investigate the oxidant/antioxidant balance, migration, tube formation, and cell adhesion in EV-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells. VPP and IPP treatment reduced the level of reactive oxygen species and EV-induced expression of adhesion molecules and restored the ability of tube formation by upregulating endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. VPP and IPP reduced the protein levels of IL-6 to 227.34 ± 10.56 and 273.84 ± 22.28 pg/mL, of IL-1β protein to 131.56 ± 23.18 and 221.14 ± 13.8 pg/mL, and of MCP-1 to 301.48 ± 19.75 and 428.68 ± 9.59 pg/mL. These results suggested that the VPP and IPP are potential agents that can improve the endothelial dysfunction caused by EVs from Ang II-induced VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyuan Song
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
- Guangdong Food Green Processing and Nutrition Regulation Technologies Research Center, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
| | - Miao Lv
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
- Guangdong Food Green Processing and Nutrition Regulation Technologies Research Center, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
| | - Lixia Zhang
- Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Henan Academy of Agriculture Sciences, 116 Huayuan Road, Zhengzhou 450002, P.R. China
| | - Xun Zhang
- Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Henan Academy of Agriculture Sciences, 116 Huayuan Road, Zhengzhou 450002, P.R. China
| | - Guohui Song
- Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Henan Academy of Agriculture Sciences, 116 Huayuan Road, Zhengzhou 450002, P.R. China
| | - Mingtao Huang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
- Guangdong Food Green Processing and Nutrition Regulation Technologies Research Center, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
| | - Lin Zheng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
- Guangdong Food Green Processing and Nutrition Regulation Technologies Research Center, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
| | - Mouming Zhao
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
- Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Henan Academy of Agriculture Sciences, 116 Huayuan Road, Zhengzhou 450002, P.R. China
- Guangdong Food Green Processing and Nutrition Regulation Technologies Research Center, Guangzhou 510640, P.R. China
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Nguyen VV, Witwer KW, Verhaar MC, Strunk D, van Balkom BW. Functional assays to assess the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles. J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 10:e12033. [PMID: 33708360 PMCID: PMC7890556 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
An important aspect in the development of extracellular vesicle (EV) therapeutics is identifying and quantifying the key features defining their identity, purity, sterility, potency and stability to ensure batch-to-batch reproducibility of their therapeutic efficacy. Apart from EV-inherent features, therapeutic efficacy depends on a variety of additional parameters, like dosing, frequency of application, and administration route, some of which can be addressed only in clinical trials. Before initiating clinical trials, EV-inherent features should be tested in well-standardized quantitative assays in vitro or in appropriate animal models in vivo. Ideally, such assays would predict if a particular EV preparation has the potential to achieve its intended therapeutic effects, and could be further developed into formal potency assays as published by the International Council for Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use guidelines. Furthermore, such assays should facilitate the comparison of EV preparations produced in different batches, on different manufacturing platforms or deriving from different cell sources. For now, a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo assays has been used to interrogate the therapeutic functions of EVs. However, many cannot accurately predict therapeutic potential. Indeed, several unique challenges make it difficult to set up reliable assays to assess the therapeutic potential of EVs, and to develop such assays into formal potency tests. Here, we discuss challenges and opportunities around in vitro and in vivo testing of EV therapeutic potential, including the need for harmonization, establishment of formal potency assays and novel developments for functional testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian V.T. Nguyen
- Department of Nephrology and HypertensionUMC UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Kenneth W. Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative PathobiologyDepartment of NeurologyThe Johns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | | | - Dirk Strunk
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI‐TReCS)Cell Therapy InstituteParacelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
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Song J, Sun T, Tang Z, Ruan Y, Liu K, Rao K, Lan R, Wang S, Wang T, Liu J. Exosomes derived from smooth muscle cells ameliorate diabetes-induced erectile dysfunction by inhibiting fibrosis and modulating the NO/cGMP pathway. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:13289-13302. [PMID: 33009701 PMCID: PMC7701535 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a major health issue among men with diabetes, and ED induced by diabetes mellitus (DMED) is particularly difficult to treat. Therefore, novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of DMED are urgently needed. Exosomes, nanosized particles involved in many physiological and pathological processes, may become a promising tool for DMED treatment. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effect of exosomes derived from corpus cavernosum smooth muscle cells (CCSMC‐EXOs) on erectile function in a rat model of diabetes and compared their effect with that of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC‐EXOs). We incubated labelled CCSMC‐EXOs and MSC‐EXOs with CCSMCs and then observed uptake of the exosomes at different time points using laser confocal microscopy. CCSMC‐EXOs were more easily taken up by CCSMCs. The peak concentration and retention time of labelled CCSMC‐EXOs and MSC‐EXOs in the corpus cavernosum of DMED rats after intracavernous injection were compared by in vivo imaging techniques. Intracavernous injection of CCSMC‐EXOs was associated with a relatively high peak concentration and long retention time. Our data showed that CCSMC‐EXOs could improve erectile function in DMED rats. Meanwhile, CCSMC‐EXOs could exert antifibrotic effects by increasing the smooth muscle content and reducing collagen deposition. CCSMC‐EXOs also increased the expression of eNOS and nNOS, followed by increased levels of NO and cGMP. These findings initially identify the possible role of CCSMC‐EXOs in ameliorating DMED through inhibiting corporal fibrosis and modulating the NO/cGMP signalling pathway, providing a theoretical basis for a breakthrough in the treatment of DMED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyu Song
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Taotao Sun
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Zhe Tang
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Yajun Ruan
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Kang Liu
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Ke Rao
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Ruzhu Lan
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Shaogang Wang
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Jihong Liu
- Department of Urology and Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
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Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Vascular Cell Communications in Hypertension: Mechanism Insights and Therapeutic Potential of ncRNAs. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2020; 36:157-172. [PMID: 32964302 DOI: 10.1007/s10557-020-07080-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hypertension, a chronic and progressive disease, is an outstanding public health issue that affects nearly 40% of the adults worldwide. The increasing prevalence of hypertension is one of the leading causes of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Despite of the available treatment medications, an increasing number of hypertensive individuals continues to have uncontrolled blood pressure. In the vasculature, endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and adventitial fibroblasts play a fundamental role in vascular homeostasis. The aberrant interactions between vascular cells might lead to hypertension and vascular remodeling. Identification of the precise mechanisms of vascular remodeling may be highly required to develop effective therapeutic approaches for hypertension. Recently, extracellular vesicle-mediated transfer of proteins or noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) between vascular cells holds promise for the treatment of hypertension. Especially, extracellular vesicle-packaging ncRNAs have gained enormous attention of basic and clinical scientists because of their tremendous potential to act as novel clinical biomarkers and therapeutic targets of hypertension. Here we will discuss the current findings focusing on the emerging roles of extracellular vesicle-carrying ncRNAs in the pathologies of hypertension and its associated vascular remodeling. Furthermore, we will highlight the potential of extracellular vesicles and ncRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for hypertension. The future research directions on the challenges and perspectives of extracellular vesicles and ncRNAs in hypertensive vascular remodeling are also proposed.
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25
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Park N, Kang H. BMP-Induced MicroRNA-101 Expression Regulates Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Migration. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21134764. [PMID: 32635504 PMCID: PMC7369869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21134764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are implicated in blood vessel development, maintenance of vascular homeostasis, and pathogenesis of vascular disorders. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) mediate the regulation of VSMC functions in response to microenvironmental signals. Because a previous study reported that miR-101, a tumor-suppressive miRNA, is a critical regulator of cell proliferation in vascular disease, we hypothesized that miR-101 controls important cellular processes in VSMCs. The present study aimed to elucidate the effects of miR-101 on VSMC function and its molecular mechanisms. We revealed that miR-101 regulates VSMC proliferation and migration. We showed that miR-101 expression is induced by bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling, and we identified dedicator of cytokinesis 4 (DOCK4) as a novel target of miR-101. Our results suggest that the BMP–miR-101–DOCK4 axis mediates the regulation of VSMC function. Our findings help further the understanding of vascular physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanju Park
- Department of Life Sciences, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea;
| | - Hara Kang
- Department of Life Sciences, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea;
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea
- Institute for New Drug Development, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-32-835-8238; Fax: +82-32-835-0763
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