Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns

The impact of poverty and socioeconomic status on brain, behaviour, and development: a unified framework

In this article, we, for the first time, provide a comprehensive overview and unified framework of the impact of poverty and low socioeconomic status (SES) on the brain and behaviour. While there are many studies on the impact of low SES on the brain (including cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and even neurotransmitters) and behaviours (including educational attainment, language development, development of psychopathological disorders), prior studies did not integrate behavioural, educational, and neural findings in one framework. Here, we argue that the impact of poverty and low SES on the brain and behaviour are interrelated. Specifically, based on prior studies, due to a lack of resources, poverty and low SES are associated with poor nutrition, high levels of stress in caregivers and their children, and exposure to socio-environmental hazards. These psychological and physical injuries impact the normal development of several brain areas and neurotransmitters. Impaired functioning of the amygdala can lead to the development of psychopathological disorders, while impaired hippocampus and cortex functions are associated with a delay in learning and language development as well as poor academic performance. This in turn perpetuates poverty in children, leading to a vicious cycle of poverty and psychological/physical impairments. In addition to providing economic aid to economically disadvantaged families, interventions should aim to tackle neural abnormalities caused by poverty and low SES in early childhood. Importantly, acknowledging brain abnormalities due to poverty in early childhood can help increase economic equity. In the current study, we provide a comprehensive list of future studies to help understand the impact of poverty on the brain.

Household Income and Offspring Education Explain Blacks' Diminished Returns of Parental Education

Background

High parental education promotes various aspects of offspring well-being including reducing their risk of depression/anxiety, criminal justice involvement, and welfare reliance. However, according to minorities' diminished returns, these benefits are not equal across racial groups, with Black families experiencing diminished returns of parental education compared to White families. This study explores the role of household income and offspring educational attainment as potential serial pathways that operate as mechanisms underlying diminished returns of parental education on offspring outcomes in Black families. Gender differences in these effects were also explored.

Methods

Utilizing data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) over a 22-year follow-up period (seven waves), we examined the serial mediation by household income and offspring educational attainment in explaining the relationship between parental education and offspring outcomes namely depression, anxiety, criminal justice involvement, and welfare reliance [Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)]. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) with household income as the first mediator and young adult education as the second mediator. Multi-group models were used to explore gender differences in these paths.

Results

The study confirmed the role of our proposed serial mediators for Blacks' weaker effects of parental education on offspring outcomes. We observed weaker effects of first affects household income, with this effect being for Black families compared to White families, which then impacted educational attainment of the offspring. The findings indicate that household income plays a crucial mediating role, but its effect is weaker in Black families. Additionally, the educational attainment of offspring from highly educated Black parents is less effective in improving outcomes compared to their White peers, further contributing to diminished returns. Some gender differences were observed for the effects of educational attainment on economic and health outcomes of young adults.

Conclusions

The study underscores the need to reconsider traditional assumptions about the comparability of family conditions and outcomes across racial groups with similar levels of parental education. The findings highlight the importance of targeted policies and interventions aimed at enhancing the economic stability and educational outcomes of Black families to address these disparities. Policies should focus on promoting the economic well-being of highly educated Black parents and improving the educational outcomes of their children.

Racial Differences in Biopsychosocial Pathways to Tobacco and Marijuana Use Among Youth

BACKGROUND

The influence of socioeconomic disparities and multidimensional stressors on youth tobacco and marijuana use is recognized; however, the extent of these effects varies among different racial groups. Understanding the racial differences in the factors influencing substance use is crucial for developing tailored interventions aimed at reducing disparities in tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents.

AIMS

This study aims to explore the differential effects of socioeconomic disparities and multidimensional stressors on tobacco and marijuana use between Black and White adolescents.

METHODS

Utilizing longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, this research includes a cohort of pre-youth, monitored from the age of 9-10 years for a period of up to 36 months. We examined the impact of various socioeconomic status (SES) indicators and multidimensional stressors, including trauma, financial stress, racial discrimination, and family stress, alongside baseline average cortical thickness and the subsequent initiation of tobacco and marijuana use over the 36-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Overall, 10,777 participants entered our analysis. This included 8263 White and 2514 Black youth. Our findings indicate significant differences in the pathways from SES indicators through stress types to cortical thickness between Black and White youths. Notably, cortical thickness's impact on the future initiation of tobacco and marijuana use was present in both groups.

CONCLUSION

The study suggests that compared to White adolescents, Black adolescents' substance use and associated cortical thickness are less influenced by stress and SES indicators. This discrepancy may be attributed to the compounded effects of racism, where psychosocial mechanisms might be more diminished for Black youth than White youth. These findings support the theory of Minorities' Diminished Returns rather than the cumulative disadvantage or double jeopardy hypothesis, highlighting the need for interventions that address the unique challenges faced by Black adolescents.

Intersectional Effects of Race and Educational Attainment on Memory Function of Middle-Aged and Older Adults With Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

High educational attainment may protect individuals, particularly middle-aged and older adults, against a wide range of health risks, including memory decline with age; however, this protection is less clear in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, this effect may differ across racial groups. According to the Marginalized-Related Diminished Return (MDR) theory, for example, the protective effect of high educational attainment on mental and physical health shows a weaker protective effect for racial minority groups, particularly Black people compared to White individuals.

OBJECTIVES

This longitudinal study used data of middle-aged and older adults with AD with two aims: first, to test the association between educational attainment and memory, and second, to explore racial differences in this association in the USA.

METHODS

Data came from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study. The total sample was 1673 American middle-aged and older adults. The independent variable was educational attainment measured as years of education. The main outcome was memory operationalized as Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) Verbal Forgetting percentage (VF%). Age, gender, and follow-up duration were covariates. Race was the effect modifier. Linear regression model was utilized to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Of all participants, 68 (4.1%) were Black, and the remaining were White, with a mean age of 75 years old. In the pooled sample, educational attainment did not show a significant association with memory, independent of confounders. Educational attainment showed a significant interaction with race on memory, with higher educational attainment having a different effect on memory in White patients compared to Black patients.

CONCLUSION

The effect of higher educational attainment on memory differs for Black patients with AD compared to White patients. To prevent cognitive disparities by race, we need to go beyond racial inequality in access to resources (e.g., education) and minimize diminished returns of educational attainment for racial minorities. To tackle health inequalities, social policies should not be limited to equalizing socioeconomic status but also help minority groups leverage their available resources, such as educational attainment, and secure tangible outcomes.

Association of Preterm Birth and Socioeconomic Status With Neonatal Brain Structure

Importance

Preterm birth and socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with brain structure in childhood, but the relative contributions of each during the neonatal period are unknown.

Objective

To investigate associations of birth gestational age (GA) and SES with neonatal brain morphology by testing 3 hypotheses: GA and SES are associated with brain morphology; associations between SES and brain morphology vary with GA; and associations between SES and brain structure and morphology depend on how SES is operationalized.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study recruited participants from November 2016 to September 2021 at a single center in the United Kingdom. Participants were 170 extremely and very preterm infants and 91 full-term or near-term infants. Exclusion criteria were major congenital malformation, chromosomal abnormality, congenital infection, cystic periventricular leukomalacia, hemorrhagic parenchymal infarction, and posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation.

Exposures

Birth GA and SES, operationalized at the neighborhood level (using the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation), the family level (using parental education and occupation), and subjectively (World Health Organization Quality of Life measure).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Brain volume (85 parcels) and 5 whole-brain cortical morphology measures (gyrification index, thickness, sulcal depth, curvature, surface area) at term-equivalent age (median [range] age, 40 weeks, 5 days [36 weeks, 2 days to 45 weeks, 6 days] and 42 weeks [38 weeks, 2 days to 46 weeks, 1 day] for preterm and full-term infants, respectively).

Results

Participants were 170 extremely and very preterm infants (95 [55.9%] male; 4 of 166 [2.4%] Asian, 145 of 166 [87.3%] White) and 91 full-term or near-term infants (50 [54.9%] male; 3 of 86 [3.5%] Asian, 78 of 86 [90.7%] White infants) with median (range) birth GAs of 30 weeks, 0 days (22 weeks, 1 day, to 32 weeks, 6 days) and 39 weeks, 4 days (36 weeks, 3 days, to 42 weeks, 1 day), respectively. In fully adjusted models, birth GA was associated with a higher proportion of brain volumes (27 of 85 parcels [31.8%]; β range, -0.20 to 0.24) than neighborhood-level SES (1 of 85 parcels [1.2%]; β = 0.17 [95% CI, -0.16 to 0.50]) or family-level SES (maternal education: 4 of 85 parcels [4.7%]; β range, 0.09 to 0.15; maternal occupation: 1 of 85 parcels [1.2%]; β = 0.06 [95% CI, 0.02 to 0.11] respectively). There were interactions between GA and both family-level and subjective SES measures on regional brain volumes. Birth GA was associated with cortical surface area (β = 0.10 [95% CI, 0.02 to 0.18]) and gyrification index (β = 0.16 [95% CI, 0.07 to 0.25]); no SES measure was associated with cortical measures.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of UK infants, birth GA and SES were associated with neonatal brain morphology, but low GA had more widely distributed associations with neonatal brain structure than SES. Further work is warranted to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the association of both GA and SES with early brain development.

Self-Rated Health of US Older Adults in the General Social Survey (GSS) 1972-2021: Complexity of the Associations of Education and Immigration

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies have shown a link between high education and better self-rated health (SRH). However, recent studies have suggested that immigrants may experience a weaker association between education and SRH than native-born individuals.

AIM

Using a national sample of US older adults, this investigation studied whether there is an inverse association between education and SRH and whether immigration status moderates this association.

METHODS

This study is based on marginalized diminished returns (MDRs) that argues socioeconomic status (SES) resources, such as education, may generate less favorable health outcomes for marginalized groups. Data were from the General Social Survey (GSS) 1972-2021, a cross-sectional survey in the US. A total of 7999 participants who were 65+ years old were included. The independent variable was education, measured as years of schooling and treated as a continuous variable. The dependent variable was poor/fair (poor) SRH. Immigration status was the moderator. Age, sex, and race were control variables. Logistic regressions were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

We found that higher levels of education were protective against poor SRH. However, this effect was weaker for immigrants than for US-born individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that native-born US older individuals are more likely to experience the protective effect of their education against poor SRH compared to their immigrants. Eliminating health inequality between immigrant and US-born individuals needs policies that go beyond socioeconomic status (SES) equality and address barriers that hinder highly-educated immigrants.

Immigration Status, Educational Level, and Perceived Discrimination in Europe

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies have been conducted to test the moderating effect of immigration on the positive health results yielded through educational attainment. However, no study has been conducted to examine the role of immigration as a moderator in the association between educational level and perceived discrimination in Europe.

AIM

We aimed to study whether an inverse association exists between educational level and perceived discrimination in European countries and whether immigration status moderates the association between educational level and perceived discrimination.

METHODS

Data from the 10th round of the cross-sectional European Social Survey (ESS) were used in this cross-sectional study. A total of 17,596 participants between 15-90 years old who lived in European countries were included. The independent variable was educational level, a categorical variable, and the dependent variable was perceived discrimination. Immigration status was the moderator, and age and sex were confounders.

RESULTS

Of 17,596 participants, 16,632 (94.5%) were native-born and 964 were immigrants (5.5%). We found that higher levels of educational level were protective against perceived discrimination, which was also found in immigrant participants; however, the effect was weaker.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that educational level was a protective factor against perceived discrimination. This effect, however, was more robust in the native-born participants than in their immigrant counterparts.

Social Determinants of Mental, Physical, and Oral Health of Middle-Aged and Older African Americans in South Los Angeles

BACKGROUND

A growing body of research suggests that financial difficulties could weaken the protective effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators, including education and income, on the health status of marginalized communities, such as African Americans.

AIM

We investigated the separate and joint effects of education, income, and financial difficulties on mental, physical, and oral self-rated health (SRH) outcomes in African American middle-aged and older adults.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study enrolled 150 middle-aged and older African Americans residing in South Los Angeles. Data on demographic factors (age and gender), socioeconomic characteristics (education, income, and financial difficulties), and self-rated health (mental, physical, and oral health) were collected. Three linear regression models were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Higher education and income were associated with a lower level of financial strain in a bivariate analysis. However, according to multivariable models, only financial difficulties were associated with poor mental, physical, and oral health. As similar patterns emerged for all three health outcomes, the risk associated with financial difficulties seems robust.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our multivariable models, financial strain is a more salient social determinant of health within African American communities than education and income in economically constrained urban environments such as South Los Angeles. While education and income lose some protective effects, financial strain continues to deteriorate the health of African American communities across domains.

Associations between socioeconomic gradients and racial disparities in preadolescent brain outcomes

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which socioeconomic characteristics of the home and neighborhood are associated with racial inequalities in brain outcomes.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional analysis of the baseline dataset (v.2.0.1) from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Cognitive performance was assessed using the National Institutes of Health Toolbox (NIH-TB) cognitive battery. Standard socioeconomic indicators of the family and neighborhood were derived from census-related statistics. Cortical morphometric measures included MRI-derived thickness, area, and volume.

RESULTS

9638 children were included. Each NIH-TB cognitive measure was negatively associated with household and neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics. Differences in cognitive scores between Black or Hispanic children and other racial groups were mitigated by higher household income. Most children from lowest-income families or residents in impoverished neighborhoods were Black or Hispanic. These disparities were associated with racial differences in NIH-TB measures and mediated by smaller cortical brain volumes.

CONCLUSIONS

Neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics are associated with racial differences in preadolescent brain outcomes and mitigated by greater household income. Household income mediates racial differences more strongly than neighborhood-level socioeconomic indicators in brain outcomes. Highlighting these socioeconomic risks may direct focused policy-based interventions such as allocation of community resources to ensure equitable brain outcomes in children.

IMPACT

Neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics are associated with racial differences in preadolescent brain outcomes and mitigated by greater household income. Household income mediates racial differences more strongly than neighborhood-level socioeconomic indicators in brain outcomes. Highlighting these disparities related to socioeconomic risks may direct focused policy-based interventions such as allocation of community resources to ensure equitable brain outcomes in children.

Chasing a dream against all odds

Background

Youth of color growing up in poverty face many challenges that children from more affluent families never experience. These children often reside in disadvantaged neighborhoods with substandard housing, inadequate medical care, and under resourced schools. This places these children at risk for poor academic achievement, school dropout, abuse and neglect, behavioral and socioemotional problems, and physical health problems. In spite of these risks, some children “beat the odds” and overcome the challenges and adversities in their external contexts. The paper reports the findings of a draw-and-write activity designed to learn the processes whereby protective factors promote resilience from a child’s point of view.

Methods

In this qualitative study, a draw-and-write activity was conducted with a convenience sample of 33 children, (23 females and 10 males of which 10 were Hmong, 11 were Middle Eastern, and 12 were African Americans) .The children were asked to make visual representations of resources (persons or things that, in their view, contribute to their wellbeing.) In depth interviews with a subset of 15 of the children was conducted to discuss the meaning of the images in their drawings. A summative content analysis of the visual and narrative data was performed using a resilience framework.

Results

Regardless of racial/ethnic background, parents, and especially mothers, were the main “person or thing” identified by these children living in poverty as helping them “make it thus far in life.” Ninety seven percent of the participants in this study described their parent(s) as nurturing and supportive, enabling them to overcome obstacles and adversities within their environment.

Forty five percent of participants identified their mother as a key anchor in their life Fifty eight percent of the African American children indicated that their parent(s) encouraged education to escape poverty.

Conclusion

The findings support that families, particularly parents have the strongest influence on supporting the resilience process in a child. These findings were consistent across ethnicity and gender. Families, particularly parents, should be the target of future interventions designed to produce resilient behaviors in youth of color living in poverty.

Cingulo-opercular and Cingulo-parietal Brain Networks Functional Connectivity in Pre-adolescents: Multiplicative Effects of Race, Ethnicity, and Parental Education

Introduction

A growing body of research has shown a diminished association between socioeconomic status (SES) indicators and a wide range of neuroimaging indicators for racial and ethnic minorities compared to majority groups. However, less is known about these effects for resting-state functional connectivity between various brain networks.

Purpose

This study investigated racial and ethnic variation in the correlation between parental education and resting-state functional connectivity between the cingulo-opercular (CO) and cingulo-parietal (CP) networks in children.

Methods

This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study; we analyzed the resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (rsfMRI) data of 8,464 American pre-adolescents between the ages of 9 and 10. The main outcome measured was resting-state functional connectivity between the CO and CP networks calculated using rsfMRI. The independent variable was parental education, which was treated as a nominal variable. Age, sex, and family marital status were the study covariates. Race and ethnicity were the moderators. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis, with and without interaction terms between parental education and race and ethnicity.

Results

Higher parental education was associated with higher resting-state functional connectivity between the CO and CP networks. Race and ethnicity both showed statistically significant interactions with parental education on children's resting-state functional connectivity between CO and CP networks, suggesting that the correlation between parental education and the resting-state functional connectivity was significantly weaker for Black and Hispanic pre-adolescents compared to White and non-Hispanic pre-adolescents.

Conclusions

In line with the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, the association between parental education and pre-adolescents resting-state functional connectivity between CO and CP networks may be weaker in Black and Hispanic children than in White and non-Hispanic children. The weaker link between parental education and brain functional connectivity for Blacks and Hispanics than for Whites and non-Hispanics may reflect racism, racialization, and social stratification that collectively minimize the returns of SES indicators, such as parental education for non-Whites, who become others in the US.

Parents and Peers in Child and Adolescent Development: Preface to the Special Issue on Additive, Multiplicative, and Transactional Mechanisms

Parents and peers play critical roles in the socialization of children and adolescents, yet investigations on the role played by parents vs. peers have been largely separate for many years. To address this problem, we invited leading scholars in the field to collectively tell a complex story of the part that parents and peers together play in the development of children and adolescents. The resulting Special Issue is a collection of papers highlighting current conceptualizations and empirical work in this area, with a focus on additive, multiplicative, and transactional mechanisms that link parent and peer relational contexts to each other and to child/adolescent social and emotional development. Two papers present new conceptual models, six illustrate empirical work in the field, and one paper that provides a comprehensive review of the literature. The stories that are conveyed in the issue are both innovative and complex.