Recent Advances and Applications in Starch for Intelligent Active Food Packaging: A Review

Engineered environment-friendly multifunctional food packaging with superior nonleachability, polymer miscibility and antimicrobial activity

This study was conducted primarily to develop an environment-friendly food packaging boasting several advantages, including good water vapor barrier, UV resistance, antimicrobial activity, non-leachability, and polymer miscibility. Initially, the starch-based antimicrobial agent (OCSI) was synthesized through a simple esterification reaction between oxidized corn starch (OCS) and indoleacetic acid (IAA). Subsequently, OCSI was further blended separately with environmentally-friendly materials (PVA, PBAT, PCL), and a series of environment-friendly packaging films were successfully prepared. The resulting films exhibited desirable thermal stability and 100 % barrier against both UV-A and UV-B rays. Moreover, the films presented effective barriers against water vapor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Meanwhile, the films could significantly inhibit the deterioration of fresh fruits and prolong shelf life, considerably expanding their utilization in safe packaging. The environment-friendly packaging not only realized the sustainable utilization of green polymers, but also offered novel insights into the exploration of sustainable packaging.

Factors and modification techniques enhancing starch gel structure and their applications in foods:A review

The formation of starch gel structure results from the gelatinization and retrogradation of starch in aqueous solutions, which plays a crucial role in determining the quality and functional properties of starchy foods. The gelation ability of many native starches is limited and their structure is weak, which restricts their application. Therefore, how to enhance the gel structure of starch is of great significance to food science and industry. In this paper, the mechanism of starch gel formation was reviewed, and the research progress of starch composition, retrogradation conditions, food composition and modification methods were reviewed. Meanwhile, the applications of enhanced starch gel structures in food quality, nutrition, packaging, and 3D printing were discussed. This review provides valuable references for researchers and producers to develop high-quality and nutritious starch-based foods and further expand the applications of starches.

Starch-based bio-membrane for water purification, biomedical waste, and environmental remediation

This review article explores the utilization of starch-based materials as smart materials for the removal of dyes and heavy metals from wastewater, highlighting their cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. It addresses the critical need for clean water, emphasizing the contamination caused by industrial activities, such as printing, textile, cosmetic, and leather tanning industries. Starch and its derivatives demonstrate significant potential in water purification technology, effectively removing toxicants through hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, and complexation. The review also discusses the application of starch-based materials in the biomedical field, particularly as drug carriers. Starch-based microspheres, hydrogels, nano-spheres, and nano-composites exhibit sustained drug-release properties and are effective in transporting various drugs, including DOX, quercetin, 5-Fluorouracil, glycyrrhizic acid, paclitaxel, tetracycline hydrochloride, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, and moxifloxacin. These materials show good antimicrobial activity against a range of pathogens, including C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, C. neoformance, B. subtilis, A. niger, A. fumigatus, and A. terreus. While highlighting the significant achievements of starch-based materials, the review also discusses current limitations and areas for future development. Key weaknesses include the need for enhanced adsorption capacities and the challenge of scaling up production for industrial applications. The review concludes by identifying development directions, such as improving functionalization techniques and exploring new applications in water purification and drug delivery systems. This article aims to assist researchers in advancing the field of starch-based materials for environmental and biomedical applications.

Biotechnology in Food Packaging Using Bacterial Cellulose

Food packaging, which is typically made of paper/cardboard, glass, metal, and plastic, is essential for protecting and preserving food. However, the impact of conventional food packaging and especially the predominant use of plastics, due to their versatility and low cost, bring serious environmental and health problems such as pollution by micro and nanoplastics. In response to these challenges, biotechnology emerges as a new way for improving packaging by providing biopolymers as sustainable alternatives. In this context, bacterial cellulose (BC), a biodegradable and biocompatible material produced by bacteria, stands out for its mechanical resistance, food preservation capacity, and rapid degradation and is a promising solution for replacing plastics. However, despite its advantages, large-scale application still encounters technical and economic challenges. These include high costs compared to when conventional materials are used, difficulties in standardizing membrane production through microbial methods, and challenges in optimizing cultivation and production processes, so further studies are necessary to ensure food safety and industrial viability. Thus, this review provides an overview of the impacts of conventional packaging. It discusses the development of biodegradable packaging, highlighting BC as a promising biopolymer. Additionally, it explores biotechnological techniques for the development of innovative packaging through structural modifications of BC, as well as ways to optimize its production process. The study also emphasizes the importance of these solutions in promoting a circular economy within the food industry and reducing its environmental impact.

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities of Cimbopogon winterianus and Origanum syriacum Extracts and Essential Oils against Uropathogenic Bacteria and Foodborne Fungal Isolates

This study focused on testing the antibacterial and antifungal activity of Origanum syriacum (O. syriacum) and Cimbopogon winterianus (C. winterianus) extracts and their essential oils (EOs). The bacteria were isolated from urine samples and identified by a VITEK assay, and the fungi were isolated from spoiled food samples and further identified by MALDI-TOF. The susceptibility of the microbial isolates was assessed by determining the bacteriostatic and bactericidal/fungicidal effects by the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal/fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) broth microdilution assay and time-kill test. The antibiofilm activities were assessed by the antibiofilm screening assays. The bacterial isolates included three Gram-negative isolates (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Citrobacter freundii) and two Gram-positive isolates (Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus intermedius). The fungal isolates included Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. The O. syriacum and C. winterianus extracts exhibited bacteriostatic and fungistatic activities (MIC 1.25-2.5 mg/mL for the bacterial isolates and 2.5-5 mg/mL for the fungal isolates). However, their EOs exhibited bactericidal (MBC 5-20%) and fungicidal (MFC 1.25-10%) activities, meaning that the EOs had a better antimicrobial potential than the extracts. The antibiofilm activities of the mentioned extracts and their EOs were relatively weak. The O. syriacum extract inhibited S. aureus, S. intermedius, and K. pneumonia biofilms at a concentration of 0.3125 mg/mL and C. albicans and A. niger biofilms at 0.625 mg/mL. No antibiofilm activity was recorded for C. winterianus extract. In addition, the packaging of grapes with C. winterianus extract preserved them for about 40 days. The results reflect the significant antimicrobial activity of O. syriacum and C. winterianus extracts and their EOs, thus suggesting their potential in food packaging and preservation.

A novel method for quantifying the short-range order in non-crystalline starch by Raman spectroscopy

A quantitative method was developed to characterize the short-range order in non-crystalline starch by Raman spectroscopy. The Raman spectra of three forms of non-crystalline starches (just-gelatinized starch, which was heated to the point of having just lost its long-range order but still retaining essentially all of its short-range order, gelatinized starch and amorphous starch) were resolved into subspectra to calculate the short-range ordered phases. By deducting the spectra of amorphous starch using a subtraction technique, the areas of subspectra for short-range ordered phases in just-gelatinized and gelatinized starches were obtained. The ratio of the area for short-range ordered phases in gelatinized starch relative to that in just-gelatinized starch was negatively correlated with water content for gelatinization. Based on this, we propose that this ratio of areas provides a quantitative measure for assessing the short-range order in non-crystalline starch. This study provides an alternative and simpler method to an X-ray diffraction protocol proposed previously.

Recent advances in modified starch based biodegradable food packaging: A review

This study reviews the importance of resistant starch (RS) as the polymer of choice for biodegradable food packaging and highlights the RS types and modification methods for developing RS from native starch (NS). NS is used in packaging because of its vast availability, low cost and film forming capacity. However, application of starch is restricted due to its high moisture sensitivity and hydrophilic nature. The modification of NS into RS improves the film forming characteristics and extends the applications of starch into the formulation of packaging. The starch is blended with other bio-based polymers such as guar, konjac glucomannan, carrageenan, chitosan, xanthan gum and gelatin as well as active ingredients such as nanoparticles (NPs), plant extracts and essential oils to develop hybrid biodegradable packaging with reduced water vapor permeability (WVP), low gas transmission, enhanced antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties. Hybrid RS based active packaging is well known for its better film forming properties, crystalline structures, enhanced tensile strength, water resistance and thermal properties. This review concludes that RS, due to its better film forming ability and stability, can be utilized as polymer of choice in the formulation of biodegradable packaging.

Polysaccharides and proteins based bionanocomposites as smart packaging materials: From fabrication to food packaging applications a review

Food industry is the biggest and rapidly growing industries all over the world. This sector consumes around 40 % of the total plastic produced worldwide as packaging material. The conventional packaging material is mainly petrochemical based. However, these petrochemical based materials impose serious concerns towards environment after its disposal as they are nondegradable. Thus, in search of an appropriate replacement for conventional plastics, biopolymers such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, chitosan, natural gums, etc.), proteins (gelatin, collagen, soy protein, etc.), and fatty acids find as an option but again limited by its inherent properties. Attention on the initiatives towards the development of more sustainable, useful, and biodegradable packaging materials, leading the way towards a new and revolutionary green era in the food sector. Eco-friendly packaging materials are now growing dramatically, at a pace of about 10-20 % annually. The recombination of biopolymers and nanomaterials through intercalation composite technology at the nanoscale demonstrated some mesmerizing characteristics pertaining to both biopolymer and nanomaterials such as rigidity, thermal stability, sensing and bioactive property inherent to nanomaterials as well as biopolymers properties such as flexibility, processability and biodegradability. The dramatic increase of scientific research in the last one decade in the area of bionanocomposites in food packaging had reflected its potential as a much-required and important alternative to conventional petroleum-based material. This review presents a comprehensive overview on the importance and recent advances in the field of bionanocomposite and its application in food packaging. Different methods for the fabrication of bionanocomposite are also discussed briefly. Finally, a clear perspective and future prospects of bionanocomposites in food packaging were presented.

Development of Biodegradable Thermosetting Plastic Using Dialdehyde Pineapple Stem Starch

Starch extracted from pineapple stem waste underwent an environmentally friendly modification process characterized by low-energy consumption. This process resulted in the creation of dialdehyde pineapple stem starch featuring varying aldehyde contents ranging from 10% to 90%. Leveraging these dialdehyde starches, thermosetting plastics were meticulously developed by incorporating glycerol as a plasticizer. Concurrently, unmodified pineapple stem starch was employed as a control to produce thermoplastic material under identical conditions. The objective of streamlining the processing steps was pursued by adopting a direct hot compression molding technique. This enabled the transformation of starch powders into plastic sheets without the need for water-based gelatinization. Consequently, the dialdehyde starch-based thermosetting plastics exhibited exceptional mechanical properties, boasting a modulus within the range of 1862 MPa to 2000 MPa and a strength of 15 MPa to 42 MPa. Notably, their stretchability remained relatively modest, spanning from 0.8% to 2.4%. Comparatively, these properties significantly outperformed the thermoplastic counterpart derived from unmodified starch. Tailoring the mechanical performance of the thermosetting plastics was achieved by manipulating the glycerol content, ranging from 30% to 50%. Phase morphologies of the thermoset starch unveiled a uniformly distributed microstructure without any observable starch particles. This stood in contrast to the heterogeneous structure exhibited by the thermoplastic derived from unmodified starch. X-ray diffraction patterns indicated the absence of a crystalline structure within the thermosets, likely attributed to the establishment of a crosslinked structure. The resultant network formation in the thermosets directly correlated with enhanced water resistance. Remarkably, the thermosetting starch originating from pineapple stem starch demonstrated continued biodegradability following a soil burial test, albeit at a notably slower rate when compared to its thermoplastic counterpart. These findings hold the potential to pave the way for the utilization of starch-based products, thereby replacing non-biodegradable petroleum-based materials and contributing to the creation of more enduring and sustainable commodities.

Recovery of Phenolic Compounds from Jackfruit Seeds Using Subcritical Water Extraction

Jackfruit is one of the major fruits cultivated in many Asian countries. Jackfruit seeds are generally disposed of into the environment, which causes an environmental concern that leads to biowaste accumulation. The seeds have excellent nutritional value, such as carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Bioactive compounds, such as phenolic, can be recovered from jackfruit seeds that could add value to the food and pharmaceutical industry. Thus, this study focused on utilizing subcritical water to extract the phenolic compounds from jackfruit seeds and correlate them with antioxidant activity (AA). The extraction of phenolic compounds was studied at different temperatures and extraction times. The highest total phenolic compounds (TPC) and AA were obtained by treating the jackfruit seed powder at 210 °C, 30 min, and 15% solid loading under subcritical water extraction (SWE) with 1.84 mg GAE/100 g (TPC) and 86% (AA). High correlation between the extracted TPC and AA of the jackfruit seed extracts was obtained (R2 = 0.96), indicating a significant positive relationship between TPC and AA. A higher amount of TPC was obtained via SWE as compared to Soxhlet extraction (1 h:0.53 mg GAE/100 g and 4 h:1.20 mg GAE/100 g). More pores were detected on the surface of the sample treated by SWE than using Soxhlet extraction. Thus, jackfruit seed extracts can be potentially beneficial in the fortification of fermented dairy or meat products.

Preparation, Characterization, and Application of pH-Response Color-Changeable Films Based on Pullulan, Cooked Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) Juice, and Bergamot Essential Oil

Pullulan-based smart packaging films were prepared by mixing cooked amaranth juice and bergamot essential oil. The impact of cooked amaranth juice and bergamot essential oil on the color-changeability, structural characterization, and barrier, antioxidant, mechanical and thermal properties of pullulan-based films was determined. Results showed the cooked amaranth juice contained pH-response color-changing betacyanins. The pullulan films containing cooked amaranth juice were color-changeable in pH 9-12 buffers and in ammonia vapor. The color-changeable property of betacyanins in cooked amaranth juice was unaffected by bergamot essential oils. The inner structure of pullulan films was greatly affected by cooked amaranth juice, forming big and ordered humps in film cross-sections. The crystallinity of pullulan films was improved by the combined addition of cooked amaranth juice and bergamot essential oil. Among the films, the pullulan film containing cooked amaranth juice and 6% bergamot essential oil showed the highest UV-vis light barrier property, antioxidant activity, and tensile strength; while the pullulan film containing cooked amaranth juice and 4% bergamot essential oil showed the highest oxygen barrier property and thermal stability. Moreover, the pullulan films containing cooked amaranth juice were able to monitor the freshness of shrimp by presenting color changes from reddish purple to dark red.

A Review on Reinforcements and Additives in Starch-Based Composites for Food Packaging

The research of starch as a matrix material for manufacturing biodegradable films has been gaining popularity in recent years, indicating its potential and possible limitations. To compete with conventional petroleum-based plastics, an enhancement of their low resistance to water and limited mechanical properties is essential. This review aims to discuss the various types of nanofillers and additives that have been used in plasticized starch films including nanoclays (montmorillonite, halloysite, kaolinite, etc.), poly-saccharide nanofillers (cellulose, starch, chitin, and chitosan nanomaterials), metal oxides (titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, zirconium oxide, etc.), and essential oils (carvacrol, eugenol, cinnamic acid). These reinforcements are frequently used to enhance several physical characteristics including mechanical properties, thermal stability, moisture resistance, oxygen barrier capabilities, and biodegradation rate, providing antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. This paper will provide an overview of the development of starch-based nanocomposite films and coatings applied in food packaging systems through the application of reinforcements and additives.

Biocompatible green technology principles for the fabrication of food packaging material with noteworthy mechanical and antimicrobial properties A sustainable developmental goal towards the effective, safe food preservation strategy

Biocompatible, eco-friendly, highly economical packaging methods should be needed as conventional packaging is known to cause undesirable effects. As food packaging is the major determining factor of food safety, the selection or methods of packaging materials plays a pioneering role. With this scope, modern food technology seeks unique sustainable approaches for the fabrication of package materials with notable desired properties. The principles, features, and fabrication methodology of modern food packaging are briefly covered in this review. We extensively revealed improved packaging (nanocoating, nanolaminates, and nano clay), active packaging (antimicrobial, oxygen scavenging, and UV barrier packaging), and intelligent/smart packaging (O2 indicator, CO2 indicator, Time Temperature Indicator, freshness indicator, and pH indicator). In particular, we described the role of nanomaterials in the fabrication of packaging material. Methods for the evaluation of mechanical, barrier properties, and anti-microbial assays have been featured. The present studies suggest the possible utilization of materials in the fabrication of food packaging for the production, utilization, and distribution of safe foods without affecting nutritional values.

A pH-sensitive intelligent packaging film harnessing Dioscorea zingiberensis starch and anthocyanin for meat freshness monitoring

Abundant starch was isolated from Dioscorea zingiberensis C.H. Wright, a novel and underutilized industrial crop resource. In this study, an intelligent packaging film able to indicate food freshness was developed and characterized. D. zingiberensis starch (DZS) was bleached first, and its particle size, total starch content, amylose content, and gelatinization temperature were then measured. Butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea Linn.) flowers were selected as the source of polyphenols, which rendered the prepared film intelligent and progressively blue-violet. SEM and FT-IR analyses showed the homogeneous dispersion of butterfly pea flower extract (BPE) in the film. The BPE-loaded film showed improved flexibility and resistance to UV and oxidation while maintaining sufficient mechanical strength and physical properties. Moreover, the film underwent a distinguishable color change from red to blue-violet and finally to green-yellow with increasing pH from 2 to 13. Similar color alteration also occurred when the film was exposed to ammonia. When the film was used to monitor the freshness of chicken stored at room temperature, it exhibited an obvious color change, implying its deterioration. Therefore, the newly developed BPE-DZS film, which was produced from readily accessible natural substances, can serve as an intelligent packaging material, indicating food freshness and prolonging shelf life.

Toward a Circular Bioeconomy: Exploring Pineapple Stem Starch Film as Protective Coating for Fruits and Vegetables

In order to reduce our dependence on nonrenewable plastics and solve the problem of non-biodegradable plastic waste, there has been much attention paid to the development of biodegradable plastics from natural resources. Starch-based materials have been widely studied and developed for commercial production, primarily from corn and tapioca. However, the use of these starches could generate food security problems. Therefore, the use of alternative starch sources, such as agricultural waste, would be of great interest. In this work, we investigated the properties of films prepared from pineapple stem starch, which has a high amylose content. Pineapple stem starch (PSS) films and glycerol-plasticized PSS films were prepared and characterized using X-ray diffraction and water contact angle measurements. All films exhibited some degree of crystallinity, making them water-resistant. The effect of glycerol content on mechanical properties and gas (oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor) transmission rates was also studied. The tensile modulus and tensile strength of the films decreased with increasing glycerol content, while gas transmission rates increased. Preliminary studies showed that coatings made from PSS films could slow down the ripening process of bananas and extend their shelf life.

More than the main structural genes: Regulation of resistant starch formation in rice endosperm and its potential application

In the past decade, research on resistant starch has evoked interest due to the prevention and inhibition of chronic human diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and obesity. Increasing the amylose content (AC) and resistant starch (RS) has been pivotal in improving the nutritional benefit of rice. However, the exact mechanism of RS formation is complex due to interconnected genetic factors regulating amylose-amylopectin variation. In this review, we discussed the regulatory factors influencing the RS formation centered on the transcription, post-transcriptional, and post-translational processes. Furthermore, we described the developments in RS and AC levels in rice compared with other high RS cereals. Briefly, we enumerated potential applications of high RS mutants in health, medical, and other industries. We contest that the information captured herein can be deployed for marker-assisted breeding and precision breeding techniques through genome editing to improve rice varieties with enhanced RS content.

Recent Advances in Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from Food Wastes and By-Products: Biochemical Aspects

Bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing constituents, exert various beneficial effects arising from their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds can be found in vegetables, fruits, grains, spices and their derived foods and beverages such as tea, olive oil, fruit juices, wine, chocolate and beer. Agricultural production and the food supply chain are major sources of food wastes, which can become resources, as they are rich in bioactive compounds. The aim of this review is to highlight recent articles demonstrating the numerous potential uses of products and by-products of the agro-food supply chain, which can have various applications.

The Potential of Food By-Products: Bioprocessing, Bioactive Compounds Extraction and Functional Ingredients Utilization

Achieving sustainability in the agro-food sector can only be possible with the valorization of food industry waste and side streams, products with an extremely high intrinsic value but often discarded because they are unfit for further processing that meets consumer expectations [...].

Comprehensive Enzymatic Conversion of Starch for the Food Industry

This study demonstrated the feasibility of comprehensive enzymatic conversion of starch for non-waste applications in food industry. Enzymatic conversion of starch gives rise to nano-sized particles that can be used for manufacturing biodegradable and edible packaging materials and glucose syrup for replacing sugar in confectionery formulations. The 96 h enzymatic hydrolysis yielded starch nanoparticles smaller than 100 nm. Films based on nano-sized starch particles have promising physicochemical properties for manufacturing biodegradable and edible packaging materials. Such properties as reduced moisture content, increased homogeneity, crystallinity, and high initial thermal stability improve the mechanical and performance characteristics of the final food packaging materials. During film formation from starch subjected to preliminary mechanical amorphization, the polymer chain is recrystallized. The C-type crystal structure of starch is converted to the B-type structure. The supernatant obtained by starch hydrolysis can be used for producing glucose syrup. The resulting glucose syrup can be used as a sugar substitute in production of confectionery products. No objective technological differences in properties of glucose syrup obtained by comprehensive conversion of starch and the commercially available glucose syrup derived from sucrose were revealed.

A Facile Strategy for Development of pH-Sensing Indicator Films Based on Red Cabbage Puree and Polyvinyl Alcohol for Monitoring Fish Freshness

This study aimed to develop a novel pH-sensing biopolymer film based on red cabbage puree (RCP) incorporated with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), which was utilized for monitoring fish freshness during storage at 25 °C. A homogenized RCP suspension with a mean particle size of 12.86 ± 0.03 μm and a total anthocyanin concentration of 292.17 ± 2.65 mg/L was directly used as a film-forming substance and anthocyanin source to blend with PVA, showing visual changes in color and ultraviolet-visible spectra within a pH of 2–12. Rheological and microstructural studies certified the strong interactions and good compatibility between the RCP and PVA, resulting in better mechanical properties and water resistance of the composite film than those of a pure RCP film, but without affecting its pH sensitivity. When used for fish freshness monitoring at 25 °C, the developed RCP/PVA film presented visible color differences from purple to yellow, which corresponded to the spoilage threshold of the total volatile basic nitrogen and the total viable count in fish samples. The study highlights that anthocyanin-rich purees of fruits and vegetables, in this case red cabbage puree, can be fully utilized to develop eco-friendly pH-sensing indicator films for intelligent food packaging.