Microbial Dynamics between Yeasts and Acetic Acid Bacteria in Kombucha: Impacts on the Chemical Composition of the Beverage

Microbiological characterization of kombucha and biocellulose film produced with black tea and cocoa bean shell infusion

The food industry is increasingly striving to produce probiotics-based food and beverages using sustainable processes. Therefore, the use of by-products in product development has been investigated by several authors. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of cocoa bean shell infusion in the production of kombucha through microbiological and genetic characterization. Three beverage formulations were prepared, one based on black tea (KBT), one based on cocoa bean shell infusion (KCS) and one containing 50 % black tea and 50 % cocoa shell infusion (KBL). The infusions were prepared with water, filtered, and sucrose was added. They were then homogenized and a portion of finished kombucha and SCOBY (symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast) were added. Fermentation took place for 13 days and aliquots were collected every three days for physicochemical and microbial count analyses. Samples from the last day of fermentation were sent for DNA sequencing, extraction and quantification. The results were subjected to analysis of variance and compared by using Tukey's test (p < 0.05). The results show that there was a significant decrease in pH over time in all samples, while the titratable acidity increased, indicating an acidification of the beverage due to the production of organic acids. There was an increase in lactic acid bacterial colonies in all the formulations, which have a probiotic nature and are not always found in this type of beverage. Regarding the taxonomic classification of the samples, microorganisms of the kingdoms Fungi and Bacteria, of the families Saccharomycetaceae and Acetobacteraceae, were found in KBT, KCS and KBL, but with different microbiological compositions, with different amounts of yeasts and bacteria. Therefore, the use of by-products such as cocoa bean shell in the production of kombucha can contribute to the reduction of waste in the food industry and, at the same time, accelerate fermentation increasing the presence of lactic acid bacteria when compared to black tea.

Evaluation of microbiota-induced changes in biochemical, sensory properties and volatile profile of kombucha produced by reformed microbial community

Kombucha is a traditional beverage produced by a living culture known as SCOBY or "symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast". Culture-dependent production is essential for stable kombucha fermentation. The aim of this study was to design a microbial community and to determine the effect of that community on the flavor and chemical properties of kombucha. The fermentations were carried out using combinations of selected species including Pichia kudriavzevii, Brettanomyces bruxellensis, Dekkera bruxellensis, Komagataeibacter saccharivorans, Komagataeibacter xylinus, and Acetobacter papayae, which were previously isolated from kombucha. The effects of monocultures and cocultures on fermentation were investigated. The highest acetic acid producer was A. papayae, which has strong antioxidant properties. In the monoculture and coculture fermentations, aldehydes, acids, and esters were generally observed at the end of fermentation. This study confirms that microbiota reconstruction is a viable approach for achieving the production of kombucha with increased bioactive constituents and consumer acceptance.

Microbiological, Functional, and Chemico-Physical Characterization of Artisanal Kombucha: An Interesting Reservoir of Microbial Diversity

Kombucha is a trending tea fermented via a complex microflora of yeasts and acetic acid bacteria. It can be a valid low-calorie substitute for soft drinks due to its sour, naturally carbonated, and sweet taste. Despite increased interest, the microflora and functional properties of kombucha have not yet been fully understood. The aim of this work was to characterize, from a microbiological, chemico-physical, and functional point of view, three types of artisanal kombucha obtained by fermenting green tea containing sugar by means of different starter cultures. Metagenomic analysis revealed a predominance of yeasts compared to bacteria, regardless of the sample. In particular, Brettanomyces spp. was found to be the dominant yeast. Moreover, the different types of kombucha had different microbial patterns in terms of acetic acid bacteria and yeasts. Ethanol and acetic acid were the dominant volatile molecules of the kombucha volatilome; the samples differed from each other in terms of their content of alcohols, esters, and acids. All the samples showed a high antioxidant potential linked to the high content of phenols. This study confirmed the positive chemico-physical and functional properties of kombucha and indicated that the microflora responsible for the fermentation process can significantly affect the characteristics of the final product.

Antigenotoxic and Life-Prolonging Effects of Flavoured Kombuchas on Drosophila melanogaster

Research background

Kombucha is a fermented beverage with several health benefits; however, to improve its antioxidant activity, new raw materials such as hop, madimak and hawthorn were included in the present study.

Experimental approach

The somatic mutation and recombination test (SMART) was performed on the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) to evaluate the antigenotoxic potential of black tea-flavoured kombucha and three other flavours of kombuchas (hop, madimak and hawthorn) against H2O2- and K2Cr2O7-induced genotoxicity. Furthermore, a lifespan assay was performed to assess the effects of kombuchas on the longevity of the fruit fly.

Results and conclusions

According to the results obtained from the SMART assay, hop-flavoured kombucha attenuated genotoxicity induced by H2O2, and madimak-flavoured kombucha reduced genotoxicity induced by H2O2 and K2Cr2O7. Black tea- and hop-flavoured kombucha prolonged the lifespan of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) after the treatment with H2O2 and K2Cr2O7.

Novelty and scientific contribution

Hop-flavoured kombucha is a promising antioxidant that protects the genome and extends the lifespan of the fruit fly. This study sheds light on novel beverages that can combat ageing and protect against genotoxicity.

Identification of Key Parameters Inducing Microbial Modulation during Backslopped Kombucha Fermentation

The aim of this study was to assess the impact of production parameters on the reproducibility of kombucha fermentation over several production cycles based on backslopping. Six conditions with varying oxygen accessibility (specific interface surface) and initial acidity (through the inoculation rate) of the cultures were carried out and compared to an original kombucha consortium and a synthetic consortium assembled from yeasts and bacteria isolated from the original culture. Output parameters monitored were microbial populations, biofilm weight, key physico-chemical parameters and metabolites. Results highlighted the existence of phases in microbial dynamics as backslopping cycles progressed. The transitions between phases occurred faster for the synthetic consortium compared to the original kombucha. This led to microbial dynamics and fermentative kinetics that were reproducible over several cycles but that could also deviate and shift abruptly to different behaviors. These changes were mainly induced by an increase in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae population, associated with an intensification of sucrose hydrolysis, sugar consumption and an increase in ethanol content, without any significant acceleration in the rate of acidification. The study suggests that the reproducibility of kombucha fermentations relies on high biodiversity to slow down the modulations of microbial dynamics induced by the sustained rhythm of backslopping cycles.

Exploiting the microbiota of organic and inorganic acid-treated raw poultry products to improve shelf-life

Introduction

Targeted amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA delineates the complex microbial interactions that occur during food spoilage, providing a tool to intensively screen microbiota response to antimicrobial processing aids and interventions. The current research determines the microbiota and spoilage indicator (total aerobes and lactic acid bacteria; LAB) response to inorganic and organic antimicrobial intervention use on the shelf-life of fresh, never-frozen, skin-on, bone-in chicken wings.

Methods

Wings (n=200) were sourced from local processor and either not treated (NT) or treated with 15-s dips of tap water (TW), organic (peracetic acid; PAA), inorganic acids (sodium bisulfate; SBS), and their combination (SBS + PAA). Wings were stored (4°C) and rinsed in neutralizing Buffered Peptone Water (BPW) for 1 min on d 0, 7, 14, and 21 post-treatment. Spoilage indicators, aerobic mesophiles and LAB, were quantified from rinsates. Genomic DNA of d 14 and 21 rinsates were extracted, and V4 of 16S rRNA gene was sequenced. Sequences were analyzed using QIIME2.2019.7. APC and LAB counts were reported as Log10 CFU/g of chicken and analyzed in R Studio as a General Linear Model using ANOVA. Pairwise differences were determined using Tukey's HSD (P£0.05).

Results

Spoilage was indicated for all products by day 21 according to APC counts (>7 Log10 CFU/g); however, wings treated with SBS and SBS + PAA demonstrated a 7-day extended shelf-life compared to those treated with NT, TW, or PAA. The interaction of treatment and time impacted the microbial diversity and composition (p < 0.05), with those treated with SBS having a lower richness and evenness compared to those treated with the controls (NT and TW; p < 0.05, Q < 0.05). On d 14, those treated with SBS and SBS + PAA had lower relative abundance of typical spoilage population while having a greater relative abundance of Bacillus spp. (~70 and 50% of population; ANCOM p < 0.05). By d 21, the Bacillus spp. populations decreased below 10% of the population among those treated with SBS and SBS + PAA.

Discussion

Therefore, there are differential effects on the microbial community depending on the chemical intervention used with organic and inorganic acids, impacting the microbial ecology differently.

Enhanced mechanical strength of vortex fluidic mediated biomass-based biodegradable films composed from agar, alginate and kombucha cellulose hydrolysates

Biodegradable, biomass derived kombucha cellulose films with increased mechanical strength from 9.98 MPa to 18.18 MPa were prepared by vortex fluidic device (VFD) processing. VFD processing not only reduced the particle size of kombucha cellulose from approximate 2 μm to 1 μm, but also reshaped its structure from irregular to round. The increased mechanical strength of these polysaccharide-derived films is the result of intensive micromixing and high shear stress of a liquid thin film in a VFD. This arises from the incorporation at the micro-structural level of uniform, unidirectional strings of kombucha cellulose hydrolysates, which resulted from the topological fluid flow in the VFD. The biodegradability of the VFD generated polymer films was not compromised relative to traditionally generated films. Both films were biodegraded within 5 days.

The Differences in Protein Degradation and Sensitization Reduction of Mangoes between Juices and Pieces Fermentation

Given the allergic reaction caused by mangoes, nonthermal food technologies for allergenicity reduction are urgently desired. This study aimed to assess the impact of kombucha fermentation on the allergenicity of mangoes. The total proteins, soluble proteins, peptides, amino acid nitrogen, the SDS-PAGE profiles of the protein extracts, and immunoreactivity of the sediment and supernatant were measured in two fermentation systems (juices and pieces fermentation). Throughout the fermentation, the pH decreased from about 4.6 to about 3.6, and the dissolved oxygen reduced about 50% on average. However, the protein degradation and sensitization reduction of mangoes were different between the two fermentation systems. In juices fermentation, there was a drop in proteins and peptides but an increase in amino acids, due to the conversion of proteins and peptides into amino acids both in the supernatant and sediment. The allergenicity decreased both in the solid and liquid phases of juices fermentation. In pieces fermentation, proteins and peptides were decreased in the solid phase but increased in the liquid phase. This was due to the fact that proteins and peptides were partly transported into the culture liquid, resulting in a decrease of allergenicity in fruit pieces and an increase in culture liquid. The principal component analysis results showed that the fermentation type had significant effects on the protein degradation and sensitization reduction, while mango variety had no significant effect. These results demonstrate that kombucha fermentation can reduce the allergenicity of mangoes, and it is more effective in juices fermentation than in pieces fermentation. The present study provides a theoretical basis for developing hypoallergenic mango products.

Microbiome composition of kombucha tea from Türkiye using high-throughput sequencing

Kombucha is a fermented tea with a combination of yeast and bacteria. Kombucha teas may have a variable microbiota based on geographic origin and cultural conditions. The microbial flora of kombucha has been studied with culture-dependent methods. But, the improvement of the metataxonomic approach has broadened our perspective on fermented foods. In this study, a kombucha mother was procured from an artisanal supplier in Türkiye. High-throughput new-generation sequencing (16S rRNA and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS)) was carried out to investigate the microbial communities of kombucha after 7 days of fermentation in both liquid tea (L) and pellicle (P). Microbial counts, pH (4.42 ± 0.01 and 3.50 ± 0.02), and TA% (0.26 ± 0.02 and 0.60 ± 0.04) were also detected on the first and 7th days of fermentation. According to metataxonomic results, the dominant bacteria were Komagataeibacter obediens (%21.13), an acetic acid-producing bacteria, and the dominant fungal genus was Pichia kudriavzevii (64.35%) in L while Romboutsia sp. CE17 was the dominant bacteria (7%) and Pichia kudriavzevii was also the dominant yeast in P. This study also revealed different species which were not common in kombucha including propionic acid and butyric acid-producing bacteria such as Anaerotignum propionicum and Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, a butyrivibriocin producing bacteria. Accordingly, different yeast species were detected such as Tetrapisispora phaffii and Ogataea polimorpha.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05725-z.

Changes in the chemical compositions and biological properties of kombucha beverages made from black teas and pineapple peels and cores

Several raw materials have been used as partial supplements or entire replacements for the main ingredients of kombucha to improve the biological properties of the resulting kombucha beverage. This study used pineapple peels and cores (PPC), byproducts of pineapple processing, as alternative raw materials instead of sugar for kombucha production. Kombuchas were produced from fusions of black tea and PPC at different ratios, and their chemical profiles and biological properties, including antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, were determined and compared with the control kombucha without PPC supplementation. The results showed that PPC contained high amounts of beneficial substances, including sugars, polyphenols, organic acids, vitamins, and minerals. An analysis of the microbial community in a kombucha SCOBY (Symbiotic Cultures of Bacteria and Yeasts) using next-generation sequencing revealed that Acetobacter and Komagataeibacter were the most predominant acetic acid bacteria. Furthermore, Dekkera and Bacillus were also the prominent yeast and bacteria in the kombucha SCOBY. A comparative analysis was performed for kombucha products fermented using black tea and a fusion of black tea and PPC, and the results revealed that the kombucha made from the black tea and PPC infusion exhibited a higher total phenolic content and antioxidant activity than the control kombucha. The antimicrobial properties of the kombucha products made from black tea and the PPC infusion were also greater than those of the control. Several volatile compounds that contributed to the flavor, aroma, and beneficial health properties, such as esters, carboxylic acids, phenols, alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones, were detected in kombucha products made from a fusion of black tea and PPC. This study shows that PPC exhibits high potential as a supplement to the raw material infusion used with black tea for functional kombucha production.

Metagenomic and physicochemical analysis of Kombucha beverage produced from tea waste

Kombucha beverage produced through fermentation of sugared tea using bacteria and yeast has gained attention for its beneficial health benefits. However, the cost linked to the raw materials often increases the upstream process expenses, thereby the overall operating expenditures. Thus, there is a need to explore alternative waste and cost-effective raw materials for Kombucha fermentation. The present study, compared the physico-chemical and microbial growth pattern of Kombucha beverage production using tea waste from the tea processing industries with that of the green/black tea, reporting similar trends irrespective of its type. Further, the amplicon sequencing of 16S rRNA showed dominant presence of Komagataeibacter rhaeticus and high throughput sequencing of ITS1 confirmed the presence of yeast species similar to Brettanomyces bruxellensis in the tea waste based Kombucha beverage. Appreciable amount of carbohydrates (8.5/100 g) and energy (34 kcal/100 g) with appropriate organoleptic properties favourable for human consumption were also observed during the nutritional content and qualitative property assessment. The overall study showed a broad taxonomic and functional diversity existing during Kombucha fermentation process with tea waste to maintain a sustained eco-system to facilitate cost-effective beverage production with desired properties for safe consumption.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05476-3.

Identification of volatile compounds and metabolic pathway during ultrasound-assisted kombucha fermentation by HS-SPME-GC/MS combined with metabolomic analysis

The current work combines headspace solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC/MS) with multivariate analysis fusion metabonomics for examining metabolite profile changes. The correlation with metabolic pathways during the fermentation of kombucha tea were comprehensively explored. For optimizing the fermentation process, ultrasound-assisted factors were explored. A total of 132 metabolites released by fermented kombucha were detected by HS-SPME-GC/MS. We employed the principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to present the relationship between aroma components and fermentation time, of which the first two principal components respectively accounted for 60.3% and 6.5% of the total variance. Multivariate statistical analysis showed that during the fermentation of kombucha tea, there were significant differences in the phenotypes of metabolites in the samples, and 25 characteristic metabolites were selected as biomarkers. Leaf alcohol was first proposed as the characteristic volatile in the fermentation process of kombucha. Furthermore, we addressed the generation pathways of characteristic volatiles, their formation mechanisms, and the transformational correlation among them. Our findings provide a roadmap for future kombucha fermentation processing to enhance kombucha flavor and aroma.

Effect of Brown Algae and Lichen Extracts on the SCOBY Microbiome and Kombucha Properties

Kombucha tea was made by the fermentation of SCOBY culture of green tea broth with the addition of Fucus vesiculosus algae extract, Cetraria islandica lichen extract and their mixture. Kombucha was also made without the herbal supplements as a control. After 11 days of fermentation, in addition to the yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis and the bacteria Komagataeibacter rhaeticus and Komagataeibacter hansenii contained in all of the samples, the yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii and bacteria Komagataeibacter cocois were detected in the samples with the herbal extracts. In all of the kombucha with herbal additives, the total fraction of yeast was decreased as compared to the control. The total content of polyphenols and the antioxidant activity of the beverages with and without the addition of herbal extracts were comparable. The kombucha made with the algae extract showed an increased content of sucrose and organic acids, while the fructose and glucose content in the samples with algae and the mixture of extracts were lower than in the other samples. The samples with the algae extract had the highest organoleptic indicators "aroma", "clarity" and "acidity", while the control samples had slightly higher indicators of "taste" and "aftertaste". The results of this study indicate the potential of algae and lichens as functional supplements for obtaining non-alcoholic fermented beverages with additional nutraceutical value.

The Effect of Dekkera bruxellensis Concentration and Inoculation Time on Biochemical Changes and Cellulose Biosynthesis by Komagataeibacter intermedius

Bacterial Cellulose (BC) is a biopolymer with numerous applications. The growth of BC-producing bacteria, Komagataeibacter intermedius, could be stimulated by Dekkera bruxellensis, however, the effect on BC yield needs further investigation. This study investigates BC production and biochemical changes in the K. intermedius-D. bruxellensis co-culture system. D. bruxellensis was introduced at various concentrations (103 and 106 CFU/mL) and inoculation times (days 0 and 3). BC yield was ~24% lower when D. bruxellensis was added at 103 CFU/mL compared to K. intermedius alone (0.63 ± 0.11 g/L). The lowest BC yield was observed when 103 CFU/mL yeast was added on day 0, which could be compromised by higher gluconic acid production (10.08 g/L). In contrast, BC yields increased by ~88% when 106 CFU/mL D. bruxellensis was added, regardless of inoculation time. High BC yield might correlate with faster sugar consumption or increased ethanol production when 106 CFU/mL D. bruxellensis was added on day 0. These results suggest that cell concentration and inoculation time have crucial impacts on species interactions in the co-culture system and product yield.

Fermented Black Tea and Its Relationship with Gut Microbiota and Obesity: A Mini Review

Fermentation is one of the world’s oldest techniques for food preservation, nutrient enhancement, and alcohol manufacturing. During fermentation, carbohydrates such as glucose and starch are converted into other molecules, such as alcohol and acid, anaerobically through enzymatic action while generating energy for the microorganism or cells involved. Black tea is among the most popular fermented beverages; it is made from the dried tea leaves of the evergreen shrub plant known as Camellia sinensis. The adequate consumption of black tea is beneficial to health as it contains high levels of flavanols, also known as catechins, which act as effective antioxidants and are responsible for protecting the body against the development of illnesses, such as inflammation, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and obesity. The prevalence of obesity is a severe public health concern associated with the incidence of various serious diseases and is now increasing, including in Malaysia. Advances in ‘omic’ research have allowed researchers to identify the pivotal role of the gut microbiota in the development of obesity. This review explores fermented black tea and its correlation with the regulation of the gut microbiota and obesity.

Impact of different processing techniques on reduction in oil content in deep-fried donuts when using kombucha cellulose hydrolysates

To evaluate the efficiency of the oil-reducing properties of kombucha cellulose, enzymolysis and microwave-assisted enzymolysis methods were developed. The water-holding capacity of the kombucha cellulose hydrolysates formed by these two methods was higher than for the intact kombucha cellulose, while the oil-holding capacity was lower. The hydrolysates of kombucha cellulose and the intact kombucha cellulose were used to make deep-fried donuts. During this process, kombucha cellulose hydrolysates were added instead of 2% flour, and from the results, the oil content of the donut decreased significantly from ~28 to 15%, and the reduction was not related to the processing of the donut. The hardness and brittleness of all samples showed no significant change, and these samples had similar internal micro-structures, confirming texture profile analysis. In vitro digestion results suggested that there would be no adverse health effects from substituting kombucha cellulose hydrolysates in the deep-fried donut formula.

Reconstruction of Simplified Microbial Consortia to Modulate Sensory Quality of Kombucha Tea

Kombucha is a fermented tea with a long history of production and consumption. It has been gaining popularity thanks to its refreshing taste and assumed beneficial properties. The microbial community responsible for tea fermentation—acetic acid bacteria (AAB), yeasts, and lactic acid bacteria (LAB)—is mainly found embedded in an extracellular cellulosic matrix located at the liquid–air interphase. To optimize the production process and investigate the contribution of individual strains, a collection of 26 unique strains was established from an artisanal-scale kombucha production; it included 13 AAB, 12 yeasts, and one LAB. Among these, distinctive strains, namely Novacetimonas hansenii T7SS-4G1, Brettanomyces bruxellensis T7SB-5W6, and Zygosaccharomyces parabailii T7SS-4W1, were used in mono- and co-culture fermentations. The monocultures highlighted important species-specific differences in the metabolism of sugars and organic acids, while binary co-cultures demonstrated the roles played by bacteria and yeasts in the production of cellulose and typical volatile acidity. Aroma complexity and sensory perception were comparable between reconstructed (with the three strains) and native microbial consortia. This study provided a broad picture of the strains’ metabolic signatures, facilitating the standardization of kombucha production in order to obtain a product with desired characteristics by modulating strains presence or abundance.

Storage time and temperature affect microbial dynamics of yeasts and acetic acid bacteria in a kombucha beverage

Kombucha is a mildly sweet, slightly acidic fermented beverage, commercially available worldwide, that has attracted increasing consumers' interest due to its potential health benefits. Kombucha is commonly prepared using sugared black or green tea, but also other plant substrates are frequently utilised. Kombucha is obtained by fermentation using a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts, whose composition varies depending on inoculum origin, plant substrates and environmental conditions. After fermentation, kombucha drinks are usually refrigerated at 4 °C, in order to maintain their biological and functional properties. There are no reports on the fate of microbial communities of kombucha in relation to long-term storage time and temperature. Here, for the first time, we monitored the diversity and dynamics of the microbial communities of a kombucha beverage fermented with different herbs during storage at 4 °C and at room temperature, for a period of 90 days, utilising culture-dependent and independent approaches. Moreover, cultivable yeasts and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) were isolated from the beverage, inoculated in pure culture, identified by molecular methods, and yeasts assessed for their functional properties. Total yeast counts were not affected by storage temperature and time, although their community composition changed, as Saccharomyces species significantly decreased after 45 days of storage at room temperature, completely disappearing after 90 days. On the other hand, Dekkera anomala (Brettanomyces anomalus), representing 52 % of the yeast isolates, remained viable up to 90 days at both storage temperatures, and was able to produce high levels of organic acids and exopolysaccharides. Data from DGGE (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis) band sequencing confirmed that it was the dominant yeast species in all samples across storage. Other yeast isolates were represented by Saccharomyces and Zygosaccharomyces species. Among AAB, Gluconobacter oxydans, Novacetimonas hansenii and Komagataeibacter saccharivorans represented 46, 36 and 18 % of the isolates, whose occurrence remained unchanged across storage at 4 °C and did not vary up to 20 days of storage at room temperature. This work showed that the combination of culture-dependent and independent approaches is important for obtaining a complete picture of the distinctive core microbial community in kombucha beverages during storage, elucidating its diversity and composition, and preliminary characterizing yeast strains with putative functional activities.

Teaming up to make kombucha

Reducing the microbial diversity in a type of fermented tea reveals the core metabolic interactions responsible for the drink’s signature taste and characteristics.

Multispecies biofilms in fermentation: Biofilm formation, microbial interactions, and communication

Food fermentation is driven by microorganisms, which usually coexist as multispecies biofilms. The activities and interactions of functional microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria in biofilms have important implications for the quality and safety of fermented foods. It was verified that the biofilm lifestyle benefited the fitness of microorganisms in harsh environments and intensified the cooperation and competition between biofilm members. This review focuses on multispecies biofilm formation, microbial interactions and communication in biofilms, and the application of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Microbial aggregation and adhesion are important steps in the early stage of multispecies biofilm formation. Different biofilm-forming abilities and strategies among microorganisms lead to several types of multispecies biofilm formation. The spatial distribution of multispecies biofilms reflects microbial interactions and biofilm function. Then, we discuss the intrinsic factors and external manifestations of multispecies biofilm system succession. Several typical interspecies cooperation and competition modes and mechanisms of microbial communication were reviewed in this review. The main limitations of the studies included in this review are the relatively small number of studies of biofilms formed by functional microorganisms during fermentation and the lack of direct evidence for the formation process of multispecies biofilms and microbial interactions and communication within biofilms. This review aims to provide the food industry with a sufficient understanding of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Practical Application: Meanwhile, it offers a reference value for better controlling and utilizing biofilms during food fermentation process, and the improvement of the yield, quality, and safety of fermented products including Chinese Baijiu, cheeese,kefir, soy sauce, kombucha, and fermented olive.

Microbial Diversity and Interaction Specificity in Kombucha Tea Fermentations

Despite the popularity of kombucha tea, the distribution of different microbes across kombucha ferments and how those microbes interact within communities are not well characterized. Using metagenomics, comparative genomics, synthetic community experiments, and metabolomics, we determined the taxonomic, ecological, and functional diversity of 23 distinct kombuchas from across the United States. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing demonstrated that the bacterium Komagataeibacter rhaeticus and the yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis were the most common microbes in the sampled kombucha communities. To determine the specificity of bacterium-yeast interactions, we experimentally quantified microbial interactions within kombucha biofilms by measuring densities of interacting species and biofilm production. In pairwise combinations of bacteria and yeast, B. bruxellensis and individual strains of Komagataeibacter spp. were sufficient to form kombucha fermentations with robust biofilms, but Zygosaccharomyces bisporus, another yeast found in kombucha, did not stimulate bacteria to produce biofilms. Profiling the spent media of both yeast species using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy suggested that the enhanced ability of B. bruxellensis to ferment and produce key metabolites in sucrose-sweetened tea may explain why it stimulates biofilm formation. Comparative genomics demonstrated that Komagataeibacter spp. with >99% genomic similarity can still have dramatic differences in biofilm production, with strong producers yielding five times more biofilm than the weakest producers.

IMPORTANCE Through an integration of metagenomic and experimental approaches, our work reveals the diversity and nature of interactions among key taxa in kombucha microbiomes through the construction of synthetic microbial pairs. Manipulation of these microbes in kombucha has the potential to shape both the fermentation qualities of kombucha and the production of biofilms and is valuable for kombucha beverage producers, biofilm engineers, and synthetic ecologists.

Use of a Minimal Microbial Consortium to Determine the Origin of Kombucha Flavor

Microbiological, chemical, and sensory analyses were coupled to understand the origins of kombucha organoleptic compounds and their implication in the flavor of the kombucha beverage. By isolating microorganisms from an original kombucha and comparing it to monocultures and cocultures of two yeasts (Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Hanseniaspora valbyensis) and an acetic acid bacterium (Acetobacter indonesiensis), interaction effects were investigated during the two phases of production. 32 volatile compounds identified and quantified by Headspace-Solid Phase-MicroExtraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC/MS) were classified according to their origin from tea or microorganisms. Many esters were associated to H. valbyensis, while alcohols were associated to both yeasts, acetic acid to A. indonesiensis, and saturated fatty acids to all microorganisms. Concentration of metabolites were dependent on microbial activity, yeast composition, and phase of production. Sensory analysis showed that tea type influenced the olfactive perception, although microbial composition remained the strongest factor. Association of B. bruxellensis and A. indonesiensis induced characteristic apple juice aroma.

Brettanomyces bruxellensis: Overview of the genetic and phenotypic diversity of an anthropized yeast

Human-associated microorganisms are ideal models to study the impact of environmental changes on species evolution and adaptation because of their small genome, short generation time, and their colonization of contrasting and ever-changing ecological niches. The yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis is a good example of organism facing anthropogenic-driven selective pressures. It is associated with fermentation processes in which it can be considered either as a spoiler (e.g. winemaking, bioethanol production) or as a beneficial microorganism (e.g. production of specific beers, kombucha). Besides its industrial interests, noteworthy parallels and dichotomies with Saccharomyces cerevisiae propelled B. bruxellensis as a valuable complementary yeast model. In this review, we emphasize that the broad genetic and phenotypic diversity of this species is only beginning to be uncovered. Population genomic studies have revealed the co-existence of auto- and allotriploidization events with different evolutionary outcomes. The different diploid, autotriploid and allotriploid subpopulations are associated with specific fermented processes, suggesting independent adaptation events to anthropized environments. Phenotypically, B. bruxellensis is renowned for its ability to metabolize a wide variety of carbon and nitrogen sources, which may explain its ability to colonize already fermented environments showing low-nutrient contents. Several traits of interest could be related to adaptation to human activities (e.g. nitrate metabolization in bioethanol production, resistance to sulphite treatments in winemaking). However, phenotypic traits are insufficiently studied in view of the great genomic diversity of the species. Future work will have to take into account strains of varied substrates, geographical origins as well as displaying different ploidy levels to improve our understanding of an anthropized yeast's phenotypic landscape.

Microbial Interactions in Kombucha through the Lens of Metabolomics

Kombucha is a fermented beverage obtained through the activity of a complex microbial community of yeasts and bacteria. Exo-metabolomes of kombucha microorganisms were analyzed using FT-ICR-MS to investigate their interactions. A simplified set of microorganisms including two yeasts (Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Hanseniaspora valbyensis) and one acetic acid bacterium (Acetobacter indonesiensis) was used to investigate yeast–yeast and yeast–acetic acid bacterium interactions. A yeast–yeast interaction was characterized by the release and consumption of fatty acids and peptides, possibly in relationship to commensalism. A yeast–acetic acid bacterium interaction was different depending on yeast species. With B. bruxellensis, fatty acids and peptides were mainly produced along with consumption of sucrose, fatty acids and polysaccharides. In opposition, the presence of H. valbyensis induced mainly the decrease of polyphenols, peptides, fatty acids, phenolic acids and putative isopropyl malate and phenylpyruvate and few formulae have been produced. With all three microorganisms, the formulae involved with the yeast–yeast interactions were consumed or not produced in the presence of A. indonesiensis. The impact of the yeasts’ presence on A. indonesiensis was consistent regardless of the yeast species with a commensal consumption of compounds associated to the acetic acid bacterium by yeasts. In detail, hydroxystearate from yeasts and dehydroquinate from A. indonesiensis were potentially consumed in all cases of yeast(s)–acetic acid bacterium pairing, highlighting mutualistic behavior.

Evolution in Composition of Kombucha Consortia over Three Consecutive Years in Production Context

Kombucha is a traditional drink obtained from sugared tea that is transformed by a community of yeasts and bacteria. Its production has become industrialized, and the study of the microbial community's evolution is needed to improve control over the process. This study followed the microbial composition of black and green kombucha tea over three consecutive years in a production facility using a culture-dependent method. Microorganisms were isolated and cultivated using selective agar media. The DNA of isolates was extracted, amplified using 26S and 16S PCR, and sequenced. Identities were obtained after a comparison to the NCBI database. Dekkera/Brettanomyces bruxellensis, Hanseniaspora valbyensis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were the major yeast species, and the major bacterial genera were Acetobacter and Liquorilactobacillus. Results highlight the persistence of yeast species such as B. bruxellensis detected in 2019. Some yeasts species appeared to be sensitive towards stressful events, such as a hot period in 2019. However, they were resilient and isolated again in 2021, as was the case for H. valbyensis. Dominance of B. bruxellensis was clear in green and black tea kombucha, but proportions in yeasts varied depending on tea type and phase (liquid or biofilm). Composition in acetic acid and lactic acid bacteria showed a higher variability than yeasts with many changes in species over time.

Non-Targeted Metabolomic Analysis of the Kombucha Production Process

Kombucha is a traditional fermented beverage obtained from the transformation of sugared black tea by a community of yeasts and bacteria. Kombucha production recently became industrialized, but its quality standards remain poorly defined. Metabolomic analyses were applied using FT-ICR-MS to characterize the impacts of production phases and the type of tea on the non-volatile chemical composition of kombucha. Independently from tea type, the first phase of acidification in open vessel was characterized by the release of gluconate and gallate from acetic acid bacteria metabolism and probably from polymeric polyphenols, respectively. The second phase of carbonation in closed vessel induced a consumption or transformation of oleic acid that could be consecutive of oxygen limitation. The first phase had the most impact on molecular diversity, but tea type mainly influenced the global composition in polyphenol profile. Black tea polyphenols were more impacted by microbial activity compared to green tea polyphenols.

Novel Insights for Metabiotics Production by Using Artisanal Probiotic Cultures

Wild probiotic consortia of microorganisms (bacteria and yeasts) associated in the artisanal cultures' microbiota (milk kefir grains, water kefir grains and kombucha) are considered valuable promoters for metabiotics (prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics and paraprobiotics) production. The beneficial effects of the fermented products obtained with the artisanal cultures on human well-being are described by centuries and the interest for them is continuously increasing. The wild origin and microbial diversity of these above-mentioned consortia give them extraordinary protection capacity against microbiological contaminants in unusual physico-chemical conditions and unique fermentative behaviour. This review summarizes the state of the art for the wild artisanal cultures (milk and water kefir grains, respectively, kombucha-SCOBY), their symbiotic functionality, and the ability to ferment unconventional substrates in order to obtain valuable bioactive compounds with in vitro and in vivo beneficial functional properties. Due to the necessity of the bioactives production and their use as metabiotics in the modern consumer's life, artisanal cultures are the perfect sources able to biosynthesize complex functional metabolites (bioactive peptides, antimicrobials, polysaccharides, enzymes, vitamins, cell wall components). Depending on the purposes of the biotechnological fermentation processes, artisanal cultures can be used as starters on different substrates. Current studies show that the microbial synergy between bacteria-yeast and/or bacteria-offers new perspectives to develop functional products (food, feeds, and ingredients) with a great impact on life quality.

Kombucha Tea-A Double Power of Bioactive Compounds from Tea and Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeasts (SCOBY)

Kombucha is a low alcoholic beverage with high content of bioactive compounds derived from plant material (tea, juices, herb extracts) and metabolic activity of microorganisms (acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts). Currently, it attracts an increasing number of consumers due to its health-promoting properties. This review focuses on aspects significantly affecting the bioactive compound content and biological activities of Kombucha tea. The literature review shows that the drink is characterized by a high content of bioactive compounds, strong antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Factors that substantially affect these activities are the tea type and its brewing parameters, the composition of the SCOBY, as well as the fermentation parameters. On the other hand, Kombucha fermentation is characterized by many unknowns, which result, inter alia, from different methods of tea extraction, diverse, often undefined compositions of microorganisms used in the fermentation, as well as the lack of clearly defined effects of microorganisms on bioactive compounds contained in tea, and therefore the health-promoting properties of the final product. The article indicates the shortcomings in the current research in the field of Kombucha, as well as future perspectives on improving the health-promoting activities of this fermented drink.

Do Kombucha Symbiotic Cultures of Bacteria and Yeast Affect Bacterial Cellulose Yield in Molasses?

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a valuable biopolymer typically observed in Kombucha with many potential food applications. Many studies highlight yeast's roles in providing reducing sugars, used by the bacteria to grow and produce BC. However, whether yeast could enhance the BC yields remains unclear. This study investigates the effect of yeast Dekkera bruxellensis on bacteria Komagataeibacter intermedius growth and BC production in molasses medium. The results showed that the co-culture stimulated K. intermedius by ~2 log CFU/mL, which could be attributed to enhanced reducing sugar utilization. However, BC yields decreased by ~24%, suggesting a negative impact of D. bruxellensis on BC production. In contrast to other studies, regardless of D. bruxellensis, K. intermedius increased the pH to ~9.0, favoring the BC production. Furthermore, pH increase was slower in co-culture as compared to single culture cultivation, which could be the reason for lower BC yields. This study indicates that co-culture could promote synergistic growth but results in the BC yield reduction. This knowledge can help design a more controlled fermentation process for optimum bacterial growth and, ultimately, BC production.

Shedding Light on the Formation and Structure of Kombucha Biofilm Using Two-Photon Fluorescence Microscopy

Kombucha pellicles are often used as inoculum to produce this beverage and have become a signature feature. This cellulosic biofilm produced by acetic acid bacteria (AAB) involves yeasts, which are also part of the kombucha consortia. The role of microbial interactions in the de novo formation and structure of kombucha pellicles was investigated during the 3 days following inoculation, using two-photon microscopy coupled with fluorescent staining. Aggregated yeast cells appear to serve as scaffolding to which bacterial cellulose accumulates. This initial foundation leads to a layered structure characterized by a top cellulose-rich layer and a biomass-rich sublayer. This sublayer is expected to be the microbiologically active site for cellulose production and spatial optimization of yeast–AAB metabolic interactions. The pellicles then grow in thickness while expanding their layered organization. A comparison with pellicles grown from pure AAB cultures shows differences in consistency and structure that highlight the impact of yeasts on the structure and properties of kombucha pellicles.

Zijuan tea- based kombucha: Physicochemical, sensorial, and antioxidant profile

Zijuan tea is a representative anthocyanin-rich tea cultivar in China. In this study, Zijuan tea was used to produce a novel kombucha beverage (ZTK). The physicochemical, sensory properties, and antioxidant activity of ZTK were compared with that of black tea kombucha (BTK) and green tea kombucha (GTK). Results indicated that after fermentation, the color of ZTK changed from yellowish-brown to salmon-pink, because its anthocyanins (4.5 mg/L) appeared red in acidic conditions. Meanwhile no significant changes of color were observed in BTK and GTK. The dynamic changes of pH, biomass, and concentrations of sugars, amino acids, and main organic acids were similar in three kombucha beverages, except catechins showing different trends. Moreover, ZTK showed the highest overall acceptability score, antioxidant activity, and concentration of volatiles among the three kombucha beverages. Therefore, Zijuan tea is suitable for the preparation of kombucha beverage with attractive color and health benefits.

Microbial Composition of SCOBY Starter Cultures Used by Commercial Kombucha Brewers in North America

Kombucha fermentation is initiated by transferring a solid-phase cellulosic pellicle into sweetened tea and allowing the microbes that it contains to initiate the fermentation. This pellicle, commonly referred to as a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY), floats to the surface of the fermenting tea and represents an interphase environment, where embedded microbes gain access to oxygen as well as nutrients in the tea. To date, various yeast and bacteria have been reported to exist within the SCOBY, with little consensus as to which species are essential and which are incidental to Kombucha production. In this study, we used high-throughput sequencing approaches to evaluate spatial homogeneity within a single commercial SCOBY and taxonomic diversity across a large number (n = 103) of SCOBY used by Kombucha brewers, predominantly in North America. Our results show that the most prevalent and abundant SCOBY taxa were the yeast genus Brettanomyces and the bacterial genus Komagataeibacter, through careful sampling of upper and lower SCOBY layers. This sampling procedure is critical to avoid over-representation of lactic acid bacteria. K-means clustering was used on metabarcoding data of all 103 SCOBY, delineating four SCOBY archetypes based upon differences in their microbial community structures. Fungal genera Zygosaccharomyces, Lachancea and Starmerella were identified as the major compensatory taxa for SCOBY with lower relative abundance of Brettanomyces. Interestingly, while Lactobacillacae was the major compensatory taxa where Komagataeibacter abundance was lower, phylogenic heat-tree analysis infers a possible antagonistic relationship between Starmerella and the acetic acid bacterium. Our results provide the basis for further investigation of how SCOBY archetype affects Kombucha fermentation, and fundamental studies of microbial community assembly in an interphase environment.

Yeast Fermentation at Low Temperatures: Adaptation to Changing Environmental Conditions and Formation of Volatile Compounds

Yeast plays a key role in the production of fermented foods and beverages, such as bread, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. They are able to produce and release from the fermentation environment large numbers of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This is the reason for the great interest in the possibility of adapting these microorganisms to fermentation at reduced temperatures. By doing this, it would be possible to obtain better sensory profiles of the final products. It can reduce the addition of artificial flavors and enhancements to food products and influence other important factors of fermented food production. Here, we reviewed the genetic and physiological mechanisms by which yeasts adapt to low temperatures. Next, we discussed the importance of VOCs for the food industry, their biosynthesis, and the most common volatiles in fermented foods and described the beneficial impact of decreased temperature as a factor that contributes to improving the composition of the sensory profiles of fermented foods.

The Biotechnological Potential of Pediococcus spp. Isolated from Kombucha Microbial Consortium

In the past decade, the probiotic market has grown rapidly, both for foods and supplements intended to enhance wellness in healthy individuals. Different lactic acid bacteria (LAB), especially Lactobacillus spp., of different origins have already been used to develop commercial probiotic products. Nowadays, LAB new alternative sources, such as non-dairy fermented food products, are being exploited. One such source is Kombucha, a fermented low-alcohol beverage made of tea leaves. In this regard, we tested seven Pediococcus spp. strains isolated from a local industrial Kombucha for their biotechnological potential. Two, out of the seven isolates, identified as Pediococcus pentosaceus (L3) and Pediococcus acidiliactici (L5), were selected as successful candidates for the food industry, due to their probiotic and technological properties. In regard to their resistance in the gastro-intestinal tract, both selected strains were tolerant to a pH of 3.5, presence of 0.3% pepsin, and 0.5% bile salt concentration. On the antagonistic side, the fresh suspension of selected isolates had high inhibitory activity against pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella enterica Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Bacillus cereus, Proteus hauseri, and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, moderate to high inhibitory activity was noticed against foodborne molds (e.g., Penicillium expansum and Penicillium digitatum). These safety issues were supported by their negative hemolytic activity and good antioxidant potential (56-58%). Selected isolates were sensitive to ampicillin, penicillin, erythromycin, and lincomycin, while a broad range of other antibiotics were not effective inhibitors. On the technological side, both strains tolerated 5% NaCl and, during the freeze-drying process, had a good survival rate (86-92%). The selected Pediococcus strains have proven properties to be used for further development of functional products.