Taking a Stand: The Effects of Standing Desks on Task Performance and Engagement

Exploring Associations Between Device-Based Occupational Sedentary Behavior and Need for Recovery in White Collar Workers: A Compositional Data-Analysis

Objectives

White collar workers spend an increasing amount of time in occupational sedentary behavior (OSB) and are thereby at risk for adverse health outcomes. Nevertheless, the association between OSB and the need for recovery (NFR), an important indicator of wellbeing, is unknown and therefore examined.

Methods

Baseline data from a cluster randomized controlled trial was used. A subgroup of 89 white collar workers wore a triaxial accelerometer for 7 days. NFR was measured using the Questionnaire on the Experience and Evaluation of Work. Compositional data analysis was applied to determine the composition of different OSB bouts (short, medium and long) and occupational physical activity (OPA) (light, moderate and vigorous and standing). Linear regression analyses were performed to explore the associations between occupational compositions and NFR.

Results

Relatively more time spent in long OSB bouts was associated with a lower NFR (β: -11.30, 95% CI: -20.2 to -2.4). Short and medium OSB bouts and OPA were not associated with NFR.

Conclusion

Associations between OSB bouts, OPA and NFR hinted at contrasting trends, suggesting the need to consider different bout lengths of OSB in future studies.

Sitting vs. standing: an urgent need to rebalance our world

During their activities of daily living, humans run, walk, stand, sit and lie down. Recent changes in our environment have favored sedentary behavior over more physically active behavior to such a degree that our health is in danger. Here, we sought to address the problem of excessive time spent seated from various theoretical viewpoints, including postural control, human factors engineering, human history and health psychology. If nothing is done now, the high prevalence of sitting will continue to increase. We make a case for the standing position by demonstrating that spending more time upright can mitigate the physiological and psychological problems associated with excessive sitting without lowering task performance and productivity. The psychological literature even highlights potential benefits of performing certain tasks in the standing position. We propose a number of recommendations on spending more time (but not too much) in the standing position and on more active, nonambulatory behaviors. There is a need to inform people about (i) harmful consequences of excessive sitting and (ii) benefits of spending more time performing active, nonambulatory behaviors. One clear benefit is to reduce detrimental health consequences of excessive sitting and to provide potential additional benefits in terms of productivity and performance.

Effects of various sitting and standing postures on arousal and valence

According to research on the effects of posture on psychological states, high-power poses-with the body spread wide open-lead to high-arousal positive emotions, whereas low-power poses-with the body slumped and constricted-lead to low-arousal negative emotions. However, postures that lead to both high-arousal negative and low-arousal positive emotions have not been investigated yet. Although relative comparisons between postures have been made, the positioning of postures on the two-dimensional coordinates created by arousal and valence has not been clarified. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore and clarify which postures lead to the four types of emotions: high-arousal negative, high-arousal positive, low-arousal negative, and low-arousal positive. In Experiment 1, 29 participants (13 men and 16 women) adopted 12 sitting postures for 1 minute each. In Experiment 2, 25 participants (13 men and 12 women) adopted six sitting and six standing postures for 1 minute each. Arousal and valence were measured after each posture, and heart rate was measured during posture maintenance. Arousal and valence after adopting the postures were compared with the neutral arousal and valence. As a result, postures leading to high-arousal negative and low-arousal positive emotions were identified. In addition, postures leading to high-arousal positive emotions, which are the high-power poses, were identified. There were no differences in the magnitude of psychological effects between sitting and standing postures.

"If money was no object": A qualitative study of South African university office workers' perceptions of using height-adjustable sit-stand desks

Background

Data from empirical investigations on the feasibility and acceptability of using sit-stand desks in an office-based setting in low- and middle-income settings are limited.

Objectives

To explore the perceptions of South African office workers towards using height-adjustable sit-stand desks to reduce sitting time during vocational hours.

Methods

Self-reported sedentary behaviour and in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted in December 2020. Thematic content analysis approach was used to develop themes.

Results

Eleven office workers with a work-time sitting time of 8 (6-8) hours were interviewed (age 40.5 ± 12.6 years), most (91%) were female. The main themes emerged and included: overall impressions of the height-adjustable sit-stand desks; enablers versus barriers to using the desk and readiness to continue using sit-stand desks.

Conclusion

The findings of this research add to the evidence on environmental workstation modifications for reducing sedentary behaviour. Further investigations on the efficacy of sit-stand desks are recommended in South African university office workers.

Task type, preference, and occupation affect standing desk utilization in office workers

BACKGROUND

Adjustable height sit-stand desks are becoming the norm in many workplaces. It is not known how task type, worker preference, and occupation impact utilization of the adjustable height feature.

OBJECTIVE

This survey-based study aimed to determine how task type, preference and occupation affect office workers' sitting and standing behaviors at work.

METHODS

Office workers (n = 123) from different occupations completed surveys about actual and preferred positions (sit, stand, either/both) during 39 common tasks from 4 different categories, as well as barriers to use. Each position was analyzed by task type, behavior, and occupation.

RESULTS

There were differences between actual and preferred behavior for each position, with participants sitting more and standing less than preferred across all task categories. There were differences between task categories with participants sitting less for generative and routine, and standing more for communication tasks. The highest rates of either/both responses were for routine tasks. Engineers reported the lowest standing rates, and also indicated standing more than preferred. Information Tech and Engineering had the highest either/both responses. Finance reported the highest sitting rates. Personal, task-based and workplace limitations were cited as barriers to preferred use.

CONCLUSION

Office workers would prefer to stand more at work. Occupation-specific needs and preferences, as well as types of tasks should be considered when providing workplace standing options.

Dynamic Seat Assessment for Enabled Restlessness of Children with Learning Difficulties

Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) face a range of learning difficulties in the school environment, thus several strategies have been developed to enhance or optimise their performance in school. One possible way is to actively enable appropriate restlessness using dynamic seats. In this paper, an assessment of the efficacy of a dynamic seat while solving school task is presented and compared to classic chair and therapy ball. To test the effectiveness of active seat, a study that examined task solving performance while observing the intensity of movement, in-seat behaviour and psychophysiological responses (electrodermal activity, facial temperature) was designed. A total of 23 school-aged children participated in the study, 11 children with a combined type of ADHD and 12 children without disorders. Children with ADHD achieved the best results when sitting in the active seat, where the most intense movement and best in-seat behaviour was observed. At the same time, psychophysiological parameters indicate that when performing better at the task children with ADHD were not too challenged and were consequently less agitated. Results have suggested that for a better cognitive performance of children with ADHD, it is crucial to provide a comfortable and pleasant workspace that enables them the right amount of restlessness.

Health Issues Due to the Global Prevalence of Sedentariness and Recommendations towards Achieving a Healthier Behaviour

Sedentariness has progressed in recent years. Here, we summarize the high prevalence of objectively measured sedentariness and the list of health problems associated with sedentariness. According to the literature, a minimum sedentary time of 8 h/d may avoid the harmful effects of sedentariness. Our review of the literature shows that many countries worldwide exceed this threshold. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has increased the proportion of time spent seated in chairs and/or other types of furniture. Furthermore, prolonged sedentariness will continue to increase because it is assumed that people, at least those in desk jobs, perform their work better when sitting than when standing. Many practical solutions should be implemented to help people reduce their sedentary time. People need to be aware that prolonged sedentariness causes health problems. They need to measure the amount of time spent being sedentary to self-guide their behaviour. They should adopt a new lifestyle to avoid prolonged sedentariness and prolonged standing. In addition, we point out that they should frequently change their posture to avoid fatigue and health issues. For global public health, there is an urgent need to adopt an intermediate healthy/healthier behaviour between too much time spent in the sitting and standing positions.

Ergonomic Stressors Among Pregnant Healthcare Workers: Impact on pregnancy outcomes and recommended safety practices

Workplace environment can have a considerable impact on the physical, psychological and maternal health of pregnant healthcare workers. This article aimed to summarise the impact of work-related ergonomic stressors on pregnancy outcomes for healthcare workers, along with potential interventions to resolve these stressors. A narrative review analysis using the Pearl Growing Strategy was conducted between February 2019 and June 2020 to identify English-language articles published between 2000 and 2020. A total of 89 studies were identified from the SCOPUS (Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands), MEDLINE® (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, USA) databases and Google Scholar (Google LLC, Menlo Park, California, USA). The results indicated that poor work-related ergonomics had detrimental effects on pregnancy outcomes, resulting in spontaneous abortions, preterm delivery, low birth weight babies and infertility. Policymakers and employers should conduct ergonomic assessments and implement appropriate practices to ensure the safety of pregnant healthcare workers.

College Classroom Instructors Can Effectively Promote Standing among Students Provided with Standing Desks

Standing desks may reduce sedentary behaviors in college students. Students at one mid-size urban university in the Midwestern United States were randomized into intervention (n = 21) and control groups (n = 27) to assess standing time when given access to standing desks. The intervention group received visual and oral instructor prompts to stand, while the control received no prompts during a 50 min lecture. All students were provided with adjustable tabletop standing desks. ActivPAL accelerometers measured sitting and standing time. A brief survey assessed student preferences, including facilitators and barriers to standing. Mean standing time was greater in the intervention vs. control group (26 vs. 17 min, p = 0.023). Students tended to stand in the corners and edges of the room. Main facilitators for standing included to break up sitting, reduce back pain, and increase attention and focus; main barriers were not wanting to distract others or be the only one standing. In total, 87.5% of intervention group participants found five prompts to stand were adequate. Students increased standing time in class when provided with standing desks and instructor prompts to stand. Findings can inform the layout of classrooms and when and how to promote standing desks during lectures.

Effects of Time in Sitting and Standing on Pleasantness, Acceptability, Fatigue, and Pain When Using a Sit-Stand Desk: An Experiment on Overweight and Normal-Weight Subjects

BACKGROUND

Sit-stand desks have been suggested as an initiative to increase posture variation among office workers. However, there is limited evidence of what would be preferable combinations of time sitting and standing. The aim of this study was to determine and compare perceived pleasantness, acceptability, pain, and fatigue for 5 time patterns of sitting and standing at a sit-stand desk.

METHODS

Thirty postgraduate students were equally divided into a normal-weight (mean body mass index 22.8 kg/m2) and an overweight/obese (mean body mass index 28.1 kg/m2) group. They performed 3 hours of computer work at a sit-stand desk on 5 different days, each day with a different time pattern (A: 60-min sit/0-min stand; B: 50/10; C: 40/20; D: 30/30; E: 20/40). Pleasantness, acceptability, pain, and fatigue ratings were obtained at the beginning and at the end of the 3-hour period.

RESULTS

High ratings of pleasantness were observed for time patterns B, C, and D in both groups. All participants rated acceptability to be good for time patterns A to D. A minor increase in perceived fatigue and pain was observed in time pattern E.

CONCLUSION

For new sit-stand desk users, regardless of body mass index, 10 to 30 minutes of standing per hour appears to be an amenable time pattern.

Sociodemographic and Job Characteristics Influence Environmental Strategies Used to Manage Workplace Sleepiness

OBJECTIVE

Suboptimal alertness and sleepiness impact work performance, health, and safety in many industries. We aimed to identify key environmental factors that workers view as supportive for reducing sleepiness and to examine the relationship between worker and job characteristics and identified sleepiness remedies.

METHODS

We conducted a mixed-method (qualitative and quantitative) cross-sectional study analyzing data from a representative sample of 496 workers in New York State.

RESULTS

Changing air ventilation (29.2%), natural lighting (17.1%), and room temperature (14.9%) were the environmental strategies deemed most important for managing workplace sleepiness. Strategy selection differed by sociodemographic (income and education) and job characteristics (indoor/outdoor, sedentary/mobile, and cognitive/physical labor).

CONCLUSIONS

Customization of workplace environmental factors in a manner cognizant of workers' needs and sociodemographic and job characteristics could increase the use of evidence-based strategies to reduce sleepiness.

Stand Up, Students! Decisional Cues Reduce Sedentary Behavior in University Students

Background: University students are prone to sedentary behavior (SB) which is associated with multiple negative health outcomes. Sit-stand desks may allow for a reduction of SB through standing bouts. To promote standing in university students, decisional cues might be a low-cost approach that can easily be implemented. Purpose: To investigate the effects of decisional cues on students' SB, standing, and active behavior. Method: Over 3 weeks, students were observed in a building on a German university campus, which provides sit-stand-desks in study areas, using an adapted version of the SOPLAY protocol. Baseline data was collected in the first week (T1), before posters and table plaques containing decisional cues were set up in the study areas. Effects were measured in the following 2 weeks (T2 and T3). Results: 2,809 (33% female) students were observed. Sitting decreased from 92.9% [SD = 14.9] to 84.5% [SD = 22.1] from T1 to T3 [F (1, 141) = 15.6; p < 0.01; η2 = 0.10]. Standing increased from 5.6% [SD = 13.5] to 10.9% [SD = 14.4] [F (1, 141) = 9.0; p < 0.01; η2 = 0.06] and being active from 1.5% [SD = 6.9] to 4.5% [SD = 14.8] from T1 to T3 [F (1, 141) = 4.2; p < 0.05; η2 = 0.03). Main effect analyses revealed more students standing in the afternoon compared to morning and lunchtime [F (2, 140) = 3.2; p < 0.05; η2 = 0.04). Discussion: Decisional cues could decrease students' SB and promote standing or being active as alternatives. Future research should use a more rigorous study design. The content of the decisional cues should be explored more and expanded to other health promotion areas on campus.

The effect of sit-stand desks on office worker behavioral and health outcomes: A scoping review

This scoping review examines the effects of sit-stand desks (SSDs) on six domains: behavior (e.g. time sitting and standing), physiological, work performance, psychological, discomfort, and posture. Fifty-three articles met criteria. We determined the percentage of significant results for each domain. Forty-seven studies were experimental trials. Sample sizes ranged from six to 231 participants. Follow-up time-frames ranged from one day to one year. Sixty-one percent of behavioral (24 studies), 37% of physiological (28 studies), 7% of work performance (23 studies), 31% of psychological (11 studies), 43% of discomfort (22 studies), and 18% of posture domain results (4 studies) were significant. We conclude that SSDs effectively change behaviors, but these changes only mildly effect health outcomes. SSDs seem most effective for discomfort and least for productivity. Further study is needed to examine long-term effects, and to determine clinically appropriate dosage and workstation setup.

The effects of sedentary behaviour interventions on work-related productivity and performance outcomes in real and simulated office work: A systematic review

This review examined the impact of environmental, behavioral, and combined interventions to reduce occupational sedentary behaviour on work performance and productivity outcomes. Productivity outcomes were defined as variables assessing work-related tasks (e.g., typing, mouse), whereas performance outcomes were categorized as any variables assessing cognition that did not mimic work-related tasks. Nine databases were searched for articles published up to January 2018. Sixty-three studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria: 45 examined a productivity outcome (i.e., typing, mouse, work-related tasks, and absenteeism), 38 examined a performance outcome (i.e., memory, reading comprehension, mathematics, executive function, creativity, psychomotor function, and psychobiological factors), and 30 examined a self-reported productivity/performance outcome (i.e., presenteeism or other self-reported outcome). Overall, standing interventions do not appear to impact productivity/performance outcomes, whereas walking and cycling interventions demonstrate mixed null/negative associations for productivity outcomes. Hence, standing interventions to reduce occupational sedentary behaviour could be implemented without negatively impacting productivity/performance outcomes.

Current and ceased users of sit stand workstations: a qualitative evaluation of ergonomics, safety and health factors within a workplace setting

Background

Many workplaces have implemented sit-stand workstations (SSW), which enable a worker to transition between sitting and standing as they perform their work activities. The factors which determine the initial adoption, sustainability or cessation of use for a SSW, remain largely unexamined. This study investigates the experiences of workers who had previously used or were currently using a SSW.

Methods

The study setting was within an Australian university. Participants who were current or past SSW users, as well as workplace key informants, were interviewed for the study. All interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed. Transcripts were coded by two researchers for concepts and themes regarding uptake and sustainability of SSW. Discussion and validation of themes was undertaken by the team of three researchers.

Results

A total of 24 interviews were conducted. Twenty-two interviews were with ceased and current users (16 current and six ceased users) and two interviews were with workplace key informants. Analysis of the interviews with current and ceased users identified three main themes: Personal considerations for use/sustainability; Posture; and Usability. Analysis of the interviews with key informants identified two themes: Considerations and concerns and Policies and procedures. Little information was provided to workers when first using a SSW. Workers who were able to adopt their working style to the new workstations were able to sustain ongoing use of a SSW. Key informants were concerned that employees believed using a SSW would provide a health benefit in its own right without an understanding of the possible risks that might be associated with use.

Conclusions

Sustainable usage of this type of SSW is achievable, however, it requires some element of adaptation at the individual worker level. Participants spoke about how the use of the SSW in a standing position was typically associated with the time of day, specific task selection and musculoskeletal comfort or fatigue factors. The provision of education to new SSW users with relevant supporting information by a subject matter expert should enable the worker to obtain a more holistic understanding of the safety and health risks and benefits embedded in the use of a SSW.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-018-6296-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Stand Up to Work: assessing the health impact of adjustable workstations

Purpose

Sedentary behavior is linked to health risks, and prolonged sitting is prevalent among office workers. Adjustable workstations (AWS) promote health by allowing transitions between sitting and standing. Stand Up to Work compares workers with AWS to traditional desks (TD). The paper aims to discuss these issues.

Design/methodology/approach

Employees were randomly selected from one office floor to receive AWS, two identical floors maintained TD. Participants received workplace wellness and ergonomic training, completed self-administered questionnaires, and responded to repeated micropolling at baseline (T0), 3 (T1), 6 (T2), and 12 (T3) months in Atlanta, 2015-2016. Groups were compared using two-sample t-tests and nonparametric Wilcoxon tests.

Findings

Compared to TD (n = 24), participants with AWS (n = 24) reported significantly less sedentary behavior at T1 and T2 after AWS installation (p<0.05), with a retention rate at T2 of 80 and 65 percent for the AWS and TD group, respectively. In all, 47 percent of participants with AWS reported decline in upper back, shoulder, and neck discomfort (p=0.04); 88 percent of AWS participants reported convenience to use, 65 percent reported increased productivity, and 65 percent reported positive impact outside the workplace. Individuals with normal or underweight body mass index (BMI) reported a significantly greater decline in percent of time sitting compared to participants with overweight or obese BMI at all three time points.

Originality/value

AWS are beneficial in reducing sedentary behavior in and outside the workplace. Behavioral changes were sustained over time and associated with less self-reported muscle pain, more self-reported energy, and awareness of standing. When considering total worker health, employers should include options for AWS to promote reducing sedentary behavior.