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Ferreira T, Homem V, Cereceda-Balic F, Fadic X, Alves A, Ratola N. Are volatile methylsiloxanes in downcycled tire microplastics? Levels and human exposure estimation in synthetic turf football fields. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:11950-11967. [PMID: 38228949 PMCID: PMC10869416 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-31832-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Downcycled rubber, derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs), is frequently applied as crumb rubber (CR) as infill of synthetic turf in sports facilities. This practice has been questioned in recent years as numerous studies have reported the presence of potentially hazardous chemicals in this material. CR particles fall into the category of microplastics (MPs), making them possible vectors for emerging micropollutants. A preliminary study where volatile methylsiloxanes (VMSs) were found in CR originated the hypothesis that VMSs are present in this material worldwide. Consequently, the present work evaluates for the first time the levels and trends of seven VMSs in CR from synthetic turf football fields, while attempting to identify the main sources and impacts of these chemicals. A total of 135 CR samples and 12 other of alternative materials were analyzed, employing an ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the presence of VMSs was confirmed in all samples, in total concentrations ranging from 1.60 to 5089 ng.g-1. The levels were higher in commercial CR (before field application), a reflection of the use of VMS-containing additives in tire production and/or the degradation of silicone polymers employed in vehicles. The VMSs generally decreased over time on the turf, as expected given their volatile nature and the wearing of the material. Finally, the human exposure doses to VMSs in CR (by dermal absorption and ingestion) for people in contact with synthetic turf in football fields were negligible (maximum total exposure of 20.5 ng.kgBW-1.year-1) in comparison with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) reference doses: 1.35 × 109 ng.kgBW-1.year-1 for D4 and 1.83 × 109 ng.kgBW-1.year-1 for D5. Nevertheless, more knowledge on exposure through inhalation and the combined effects of all substances is necessary to provide further corroboration. This work proved the presence of VMSs in CR from ELTs, another family of chemical of concern to take into account when studying MPs as vectors of other contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Ferreira
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisco Cereceda-Balic
- Centre for Environmental Technologies (CETAM) and Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Ximena Fadic
- Centre for Environmental Technologies (CETAM) and Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
- ALiCE-Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
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Moreno T, Balasch A, Bartrolí R, Eljarrat E. A new look at rubber recycling and recreational surfaces: The inorganic and OPE chemistry of vulcanised elastomers used in playgrounds and sports facilities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161648. [PMID: 36669664 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We revisit current understanding of the chemical complexity of different kinds of particulate vulcanised elastomers widely used in playgrounds and sports fields, adding new data on trace element and organophosphate ester contents of used tyre and EDPM crumb rubber. Enrichments in elements such as Zn, S, Co, Bi and Nd relate to the vulcanised mixtures created during manufacture. Zinc concentrations vary across an order of magnitude, being highest in our used tyre particulate samples (up to 2.4 %). In contrast, other trace element variations are due to coloured pigments causing increases in Cu and Zr (blue), Cr (green), and Fe and Sn (red and yellow) concentrations. The use of pale fillers such as CaCO3 and clay minerals (rather than carbon black) strongly influences Ca and Al concentrations, which are much higher in the coloured EPDM than in black used tyre crumb rubber. Representatives from all three of the main organophosphate ester (OPE) groups, namely chlorinated (e.g. TCEP, TCIPP, TDCPP), alkyl (e.g. TEHP, TEP, TNBP, TBOEP) and aryl (e.g. TPHP, EHDPP, TCP) were identified, confirming how these chemicals are commonly used in modern rubber compounding as flame retardants and plasticisers. Elevated concentrations of TEHP (up to 117 μg/g) in coloured-coated used tyre turf infill crumb rubbers were traced to the coating rather than the crumb rubber itself. The presence and weathering behaviour of OPEs in recreational crumb rubber materials deserve closer investigation. The ecological "onehealth" impact of potentially toxic substances present in recreational crumb rubbers will depend on if and how they are released during play and sports activities, maintenance procedures, and natural weathering. We argue that detailed chemical data on these materials should be available to buyers, as manufacturers strive to reduce ecotoxin content as part of the quest towards sustainable use and recycling of vulcanised elastomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Moreno
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain.
| | - Aleix Balasch
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
| | - Rafael Bartrolí
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
| | - Ethel Eljarrat
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
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Mohammed AM, Saleh IA, Abdel-Latif NM. Hazard assessment study on organic compounds and heavy metals from using artificial turf. Heliyon 2023; 9:e14928. [PMID: 37089337 PMCID: PMC10113793 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Artificial turf or synthetic grass releases hazardous substances such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Objective The current study aimed to evaluate the concentration levels of hazardous substances that are emitted from artificial turf as a result of sunlight effect; and to assess the expected exposure risks to such emitted substances during various activities.The current study aimed to evaluate the concentration levels of hazardous substances that are emitted from artificial turf as a result of the effect of sunlight. And to assess the expected risks of exposure to these substances emitted during the various activities. Study design VOCs emitted from artificial turf samples were monitored and collected in the ambient air of three football fields, the ambient air around a piece of new artificial turf that has not yet been used on playing fields, but has been exposed to sunlight within one year and in the indoor air around a piece of new artificial turf. Which has not yet been used on the playgrounds and was placed at room temperature and away from sunlight. Results The current study shows that average afternoon morning VOCs levels were 277, 333, 405 and 509 mg/m3 in winter, autumn, spring and summer, respectively. The most predominant PAHs compounds present in the samples were compounds with 3-rings and 4-rings.The average daily intake (ADI) for three exposure routes (ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact) was calculated for different age categories (3-6, 7-15, 16-18, 19-22, 23-55, and 56-70 year). Non-Carcinogenic exposure risk as hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) were detected. Conclusion All HI values were <1, indicating that there is no potential adverse health effects occur as a result of a chemical exposure. Total carcinogenic risk (R) values for the different age categories were higher than 1E-04 for three football artificial grass fields, which indicated a high cancer risk development probability. HI and R probability increased in the age group of 7-15 year > 3-6 years.
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Chiba R, Fujinuma R, Yoshitomi T, Shimizu Y, Kobayashi M. Ingestion of rubber tips of artificial turf fields by goldfish. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1344. [PMID: 36693897 PMCID: PMC9873930 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28672-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine microplastics are one of the global environmental issues. The present study examined whether rubber tips of artificial sports fields could be marine microplastics. We observed the migration of rubber tips from the artificial turf field to the surrounding ditch connected to sewer pipes and then examined the ingestion of rubber tips using the goldfish Carassius auratus. The rubber tips found in sediments in the ditch suggest that the rubber tips could be sent to the river and released into the ocean. The goldfish ingested rubber tips with or without fish feed, and rubber tips were found in the intestine. However, the fish discharged the rubber tips within 48 h after ingestion. These results indicate that ingestion of the rubber tips was not accidental but an active behavior. Therefore, artificial turf sports fields could be a source of marine microplastics and may cause hazardous effects on wild fishes through ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rihito Chiba
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Fujinuma
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Tomoyasu Yoshitomi
- Field Studies Institute for Environmental Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, 4-1-1 Nukuikita-Machi, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8501, Japan
| | - Yasuo Shimizu
- Department of Physical Education, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan
| | - Makito Kobayashi
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, 3-10-2 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8585, Japan.
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Zuccaro P, Thompson DC, de Boer J, Watterson A, Wang Q, Tang S, Shi X, Llompart M, Ratola N, Vasiliou V. Artificial turf and crumb rubber infill: An international policy review concerning the current state of regulations. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2022; 9:100620. [PMID: 36644410 PMCID: PMC9838222 DOI: 10.1016/j.envc.2022.100620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although artificial turf fields are utilized widely around the world, sufficient research has not yet been conducted to assess the potential human and environmental health risks posed by the chemicals contained in the fields' fibers, backing, and often-used crumb rubber infill. Consequently, there is wide variation in governmental policies. OBJECTIVE Review the notable policies concerning artificial turf and crumb rubber infill in the European Union, United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, China, Qatar, and the Global Stockholm Convention of the United Nations. METHODS Information was collected that included published papers, technical and policy reports, and grey literature. These were then analyzed by a collaborative group familiar with the environmental policies in their respective countries to extract the pertinent legislative or regulatory information. The group members were primarily identified through their involvement in publications pertinent to artificial turf and crumb rubber infill health research and included environmental health professors, active researchers, and governmental agency officials. Most information on direct policies was taken directly from reports provided to the public by various governmental agencies responsible for their countries' regulations, often available within the respective agency's online archives. RESULTS There are significant differences in the regulatory approaches adopted by the investigated countries with regards to artificial turf and its crumb rubber infill. Some regions, such as the European Union, have taken substantial steps to limit the fields' chemical components to which the public and environment are exposed. Other regions and countries have done far less to address the issue. Most policies relate directly to (i) the fields themselves, (ii) the microplastic components of crumb rubber infill, or (iii) the concentrations of harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and heavy metals. CONCLUSION While nearly every country acknowledges the potential health risks posed by heavy metals, microplastics, PAHs, and PFAS chemicals, very few have actually implemented artificial turf and crumb rubber infill regulations and/or established adequate surveillance measures to protect those regularly exposed to the fields.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David C. Thompson
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Department of Environment and Health, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Andrew Watterson
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland
| | - Qiong Wang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Song Tang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoming Shi
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition, and Food Sciences, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE- Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology, and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vasilis Vasiliou
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
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Murphy M, Warner GR. Health impacts of artificial turf: Toxicity studies, challenges, and future directions. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 310:119841. [PMID: 35948114 PMCID: PMC10262297 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Many communities around the country are undergoing contentious battles over the installation of artificial turf. Opponents are concerned about exposure to hazardous chemicals leaching from the crumb rubber cushioning fill made of recycled tires, the plastic carpet, and other synthetic components. Numerous studies have shown that chemicals identified in artificial turf, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are known carcinogens, neurotoxicants, mutagens, and endocrine disruptors. However, few studies have looked directly at health outcomes of exposure to these chemicals in the context of artificial turf. Ecotoxicology studies in invertebrates exposed to crumb rubber have identified risks to organisms whose habitats have been contaminated by artificial turf. Chicken eggs injected with crumb rubber leachate also showed impaired development and endocrine disruption. The only human epidemiology studies conducted related to artificial turf have been highly limited in design, focusing on cancer incidence. In addition, government agencies have begun their own risk assessment studies to aid community decisions. Additional studies in in vitro and in vivo translational models, ecotoxicological systems, and human epidemiology are strongly needed to consider exposure from both field use and runoff, components other than crumb rubber, sensitive windows of development, and additional physiological endpoints. Identification of potential health effects from exposures due to spending time at artificial turf fields and adjacent environments that may be contaminated by runoff will aid in risk assessment and community decision making on the use of artificial turf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maire Murphy
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Genoa R Warner
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA.
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Mohajerani A, Kurmus H, Conti D, Cash L, Semcesen A, Abdurahman M, Rahman MT. Environmental impacts and leachate analysis of waste rubber incorporated in construction and road materials: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 835:155269. [PMID: 35430184 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the recycling of waste tyre rubber in construction and road materials has emerged as a potential innovative solution to the growing waste rubber tyre dilemma. However, to determine the feasibility of any recycling method, it is crucial to assess the potential environmental implications of the proposed method. The environmental conditions waste tyre rubber products are exposed to are often not accurately simulated in leachate studies, leading to incomplete findings. The Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (1997) and Australian Bottle Leaching Procedure (ABLP) (1992), which have been used in most leachate studies in the past, have been criticised for inadequate replication of site conditions when applied to assess the leachability of modified materials. The objective of this study is to (1) review standard leachate testing methods and subsequently investigate the adequacy of these methods, (2) review all available major research focusing on the leaching characteristics and environmental and health implications of products recycled with waste tyre rubber, (3) prepare recommendations for the improvement of future leachate studies and testing based on the assessment of existing research. The existing leachate analysis studies that assess the environmental implications of different applications of waste tyre rubber have demonstrated that considerable knowledge gaps exist in the current body of knowledge. It was found leachate studies involving the recently published ABLP (2019) and Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF) (2017) appeared to better replicate local environmental conditions and yield results of higher integrity and precision due to improved testing procedures. This study recommends that the ABLP and LEAF testing methods be applied to assess the leachability of heavy metals and organic materials (on which minimal research has been conducted) of all currently available products incorporated with waste tyre rubber, as well as in future leachate studies of waste tyre rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Halenur Kurmus
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - David Conti
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Lucinda Cash
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Adrian Semcesen
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Md Tareq Rahman
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
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Eriksson U, Titaley IA, Engwall M, Larsson M. Examination of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities, and levels of polyaromatic compounds (PACs) in tire granulates using in vitro bioassays and chemical analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 298:134362. [PMID: 35307388 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Tire granulates recovered from end-of-life tires contain a complex mixture of chemicals, amongst them polyaromatic compounds (PACs), of which many are recognized to be toxic and persistent in the environment. Only a few of these PACs are regularly monitored. In this study a combined approach of chemical analysis and a battery of CALUX® in vitro bioassays was used to determine PAC concentrations and estrogenic, (anti)-androgenic and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activities in tire granulates. Tire granulates from a recycling company was analyzed for PAHs, alkyl-PAHs, oxy-PAHs and heterocyclic PACs (NSO-PACs), in total 85 PACs. The concentrations of PACs were between 42 and 144 mg/kg, with major contribution from PAHs (74-88%) followed by alkyl-PAHs (6.6-20%) and NSO-PACs (1.8-7.0%). The sum of eight priority PAHs were between 2.3 and 8.6 mg/kg, contributing with 4.7-8.2% of ∑PACs. Bioassay analysis showed presence of AhR agonists, estrogen receptor (ERα) agonists, and androgen receptor (AR) antagonists in the tire granulate samples. Only 0.8-2.4% of AhR-mediated activities could be explained by the chemical analysis. Benzo[k+j]fluoranthenes, benzo[b]fluoranthene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, 2-methylchrysene, and 3-methylchrysene were the major contributors to the AhR-mediated activities. The high contribution (98-99%) of unknown bioactive compounds to the bioassay effects in this study raises concerns and urges for further investigations of toxicants identification and source apportionment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Eriksson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
| | - Ivan A Titaley
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden; Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, United States.
| | - Magnus Engwall
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
| | - Maria Larsson
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, 701 82, Sweden.
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Tests of rubber granules used as artificial turf for football fields in terms of toxicity to human health and the environment. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6683. [PMID: 35461320 PMCID: PMC9035180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10691-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubber waste, in the form of granules of styrene butadiene rubber and ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer with a particle size of 0.5 to 4 mm, is broadly used for the construction of synthetic surfaces of sport fields. This method of recycling may be significantly limited due to the restrictions on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content in rubber granules in the European Union since 2022. This also applies to the recommendations of the European Chemicals Agency in relation to the identification of other hazardous chemicals in this waste, including metal elements. The scope of the research included the identification of organotin compounds, PAHs content and 18 elements leached from recycled rubber granules in terms of substances harmful to human health and to natural environment. The research covered 84 samples of rubber granules collected from the surface of football pitches or supplied by recyclers in Poland. The test results showed an over-standard content of PAHs in rubber granules. This result confirms the need to develop alternative directions of rubber granules application: construction and hydro construction, reinforcing soil and roadsides, asphalt pavements, making retaining walls, anti-shock and anti-vibration slabs, soundproofing and damping screens, paving stones and landscaping elements.
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Armada D, Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Green methodology based on active air sampling followed by solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis to determine hazardous substances in different environments related to tire rubber. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1668:462911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.462911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Fořt J, Kobetičová K, Böhm M, Podlesný J, Jelínková V, Vachtlová M, Bureš F, Černý R. Environmental Consequences of Rubber Crumb Application: Soil and Water Pollution. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14071416. [PMID: 35406290 PMCID: PMC9003429 DOI: 10.3390/polym14071416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
End-of-life tires are utilized for various purposes, including sports pitches and playground surfaces. However, several substances used at the manufacture of tires can be a source of concerns related to human health or environment’s adverse effects. In this context, it is necessary to map whether this approach has the desired effect in a broader relation. While the negative effects on human health were investigated thoroughly and legislation is currently being revisited, the impact on aquatic or soil organisms has not been sufficiently studied. The present study deals with the exposure of freshwater and soil organisms to rubber crumb using the analysis of heavy metal and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations. The obtained results refer to substantial concerns related to freshwater contamination specifically, since the increased concentrations of zinc (7 mg·L−1) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (58 mg·kg−1) inhibit the growth of freshwater organisms, Desmodesmus subspicatus, and Lemna minor in particular. The performed test with soil organisms points to substantial concerns associated with the mortality of earthworms as well. The acquired knowledge can be perceived as a roadmap to a consistent approach in the implementation of the circular economy, which brings with it a number of so far insufficiently described problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Fořt
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Klára Kobetičová
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Martin Böhm
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Jan Podlesný
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Veronika Jelínková
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Martina Vachtlová
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Filip Bureš
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Robert Černý
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
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Armada D, Llompart M, Celeiro M, Garcia-Castro P, Ratola N, Dagnac T, de Boer J. Global evaluation of the chemical hazard of recycled tire crumb rubber employed on worldwide synthetic turf football pitches. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 812:152542. [PMID: 34952075 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Social and environmental concern about the use of crumb rubber from end-of-life car tires in the construction of different sport and recreational facilities is increasing due to the presence of hazardous compounds. The aim of this research was the assessment of 42 organic chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, antioxidants and vulcanisation agents in a large number of infill samples (91) from synthetic turf football pitches of diverse characteristics and geographical origin. Samples were taken worldwide, in 17 countries on 4 continents, to show the global dimension of this problem. Ultrasound assisted extraction was employed to extract the target compounds, followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem-mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS). Seventy-eight crumb rubber samples as well as thirteen samples of alternatives materials, such as cork granulates, thermoplastic elastomers and coconut fibre, were analyzed. The results highlight the presence of all target PAH in most rubber samples at concentrations up to μg g-1, including the eight ECHA (European Chemicals Agency) PAHs considered as carcinogenic, and anthracene (ANC), pyrene (PYR) and benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), catalogued as substances of very high concern (SVHC). Endocrine disruptors such as some plasticizers (mainly phthalates), and other compounds like benzothiazole (BTZ) and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBTZ) were found reaching the mg g-1 level. This confirms the presence of the hazardous substances in the recycled crumb rubber samples collected all around the world. Three crumb rubber samples exceeded the limit of 20 μg g-1 for the sum of the eight ECHA PAHs. Regarding the chemical composition of other infill alternatives, cork appears to be adequate, while the thermoplastic elastomers contained high levels of some plasticizers. In addition, the plastic infill as well as the crumb rubber both are microplastics. Microplastics are considered contaminants of emerging concern since they do not biodegrade and remain in the environment for a long time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Pablo Garcia-Castro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment & Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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13
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de Boer J, Llompart M, Massey R, Dinan W, Clapp R, Watterson A. Letter to the Editor of Risk Analysis on the de Vries et al. Article (2021) on the Role of the Media in Communicating About Risks Linked to Crumb Rubber. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2021; 41:2179-2182. [PMID: 35088443 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
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14
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Luo Z, Zhou X, Su Y, Wang H, Yu R, Zhou S, Xu EG, Xing B. Environmental occurrence, fate, impact, and potential solution of tire microplastics: Similarities and differences with tire wear particles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 795:148902. [PMID: 34328941 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tire microplastics (TMPs) are identified as one of the most abundant types of microplastics, which originate from rubber with intended or unintended release. While increasing knowledge about TMPs concentrates on tire wear particles (TWPs), TMPs from other potential sources like recycled tire crumb (RTC) and tire repair-polished debris (TRD) are much less understood. Excessive levels of TMPs and their additives have been fragmentarily reported in the environment. The accumulating environmental TMPs from different sources may directly or indirectly cause adverse impacts on the environment and human health. The objectives of this review are to (1) summarize the properties, abundance, and sources of TMPs in the environment; (2) analyze the environmental fates and behaviors of TMPs, including their roles in carrying abiotic and biotic co-contaminants; (3) evaluate the potential impacts of TMPs on terrestrial and aquatic organisms, as well as human; and (4) discuss the potential solutions to mitigate the TMP pollution. By collecting and analyzing the up-to-date literature, this review enhances our better understanding of the environmental occurrence, fates, impacts, and potential solutions of TMPs, and further highlights critical knowledge gaps and future research directions that require cooperative efforts of scientists, policymakers, and public educators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuanxi Luo
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Xinyi Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Yu Su
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Haiming Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ruilian Yu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Shufeng Zhou
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Elvis Genbo Xu
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Baoshan Xing
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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15
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Selonen S, Dolar A, Jemec Kokalj A, Sackey LNA, Skalar T, Cruz Fernandes V, Rede D, Delerue-Matos C, Hurley R, Nizzetto L, van Gestel CAM. Exploring the impacts of microplastics and associated chemicals in the terrestrial environment - Exposure of soil invertebrates to tire particles. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 201:111495. [PMID: 34133973 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Abrasion of tire wear is one of the largest sources of microplastics to the environment. Although most tire particles settle into soils, studies on their ecotoxicological impacts on the terrestrial environment are scarce. Here, the effects of tire particles (<180 μm) on three ecologically relevant soil invertebrate species, the enchytraeid worm Enchytraeus crypticus, the springtail Folsomia candida and the woodlouse Porcellio scaber, were studied. These species were exposed to tire particles spiked in soil or in food at concentrations of 0.02%, 0.06%, 0.17%, 0.5% and 1.5% (w/w). Tire particles contained a variety of potentially harmful substances. Zinc (21 900 mg kg-1) was the dominant trace element, whilst the highest concentrations of the measured organic compounds were detected for benzothiazole (89.2 mg kg-1), pyrene (4.85 mg kg-1), chlorpyrifos (0.351 mg kg-1), HCB (0.134 mg kg-1), methoxychlor (0.116 mg kg-1) and BDE 28 (0.100 mg kg-1). At the highest test concentration in soil (1.5%), the tire particles decreased F. candida reproduction by 38% and survival by 24%, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of P. scaber by 65%, whilst the slight decrease in the reproduction of E. crypticus was not dose-dependent. In food, the highest test concentration of tire particles reduced F. candida survival by 38%. These results suggest that micro-sized tire particles can affect soil invertebrates at concentrations found at roadsides, whilst short-term impacts at concentrations found further from the roadsides are unlikely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salla Selonen
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecological Science, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Mustialankatu 3, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andraž Dolar
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lyndon N A Sackey
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecological Science, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; University of Chemistry and Technology, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Technická 5, 166 28, Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Tina Skalar
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Chair of Materials and Polymer Science, Večna Pot 113, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Virgínia Cruz Fernandes
- REQUIMTE/LAQV-Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4200-072, Porto, Portugal
| | - Diana Rede
- REQUIMTE/LAQV-Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4200-072, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Delerue-Matos
- REQUIMTE/LAQV-Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4200-072, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rachel Hurley
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadelléen 21, 0349, Oslo, Norway
| | - Luca Nizzetto
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadelléen 21, 0349, Oslo, Norway; Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Faculty of Science, Masarik University, Kamenice 753/5, 625 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecological Science, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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16
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Skoczyńska E, Leonards PEG, Llompart M, de Boer J. Analysis of recycled rubber: Development of an analytical method and determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic compounds in rubber matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 276:130076. [PMID: 33714875 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recycled crumb rubber (CR) is rich in compounds with unrecognized toxic potency; this study aims at the development of an analytical method that would allow identification and quantification of a very wide range of organic compounds extractable from the complex rubber matrix. The analytical set-up includes target analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and methyl-PAHs and suspect screening of raw extracts to tentatively identify primary organic compounds present, but not included in the standard target analysis of recycled rubber, followed by analytical method development and target analysis of identified compounds. Analyzed samples included weathered and new CR originating from football turf granulates, rubber mats, and end-of-life car tires (ELTs). The developed analytical method involves sonication extraction, followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) fractionation that enables simple and efficient separation of analytes with broad polarity scale. The application of SPE fractionation resolves coelution problems and simplifies the chromatograms. This analytical approach allowed to identify and quantify 46 sample specific compounds, including several heterocyclic PAHs like 2-methylthiobenzothiazole, benzonapthothiophenes, benzonaphthofuranes and aromatic amines like diphenylamine and N-phenyl-2-naphthylamine, which to our knowledge were not determined before. The PAHs concentrations determined in CR tiles purchased in Dutch and Spanish shops exceed the EU limits for articles marketed for use by the public. Furthermore, sets of methylated PAHs, dibenzothiazoles and aromatic amines were identified and quantified, and several other compounds were tentatively identified. The obtained results stress the need for expanding the list of target compounds analyzed in CR and the need for longitudinal studies on weathering processes taking place in CR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Skoczyńska
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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17
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Gomes FO, Rocha MR, Alves A, Ratola N. A review of potentially harmful chemicals in crumb rubber used in synthetic football pitches. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 409:124998. [PMID: 33513533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recycling end-of-life tires (ELTs) reduces waste and provides a low-cost source of energy and materials such as crumb rubber, used as infill in artificial turf football pitches. However, some concerns were raised and remain about its safety. The potentially toxic human exposure to chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), metals and others (volatile organic compounds (VOCs), plasticizers, antioxidants and additives) existing in ELTs (and in the resulting crumb rubber) is being studied, with no definitive conclusions. The literature existing so far suggests the possibility of their release from synthetic turf infill into the environment as water leachates and to the air surrounding the pitches, but there is the need of further research, also to assess the contribution of other materials present in synthetic turf. The database available comprised crumb rubber infill studies from pitches in 6 countries (USA, Norway, Netherlands, Portugal, Italy, Spain) and revealed a myriad of hazardous chemicals, with benzo[a]pyrene (n.d.-4.31 ± 3.95 mg/kg) and zinc (n.d.-14150 ± 1344 mg/kg) often exceeding the established limits. A dependence on indoor/outdoor conditions and the age of the source material was evaluated, often showing significative differences. From this standpoint, this review is intended to add knowledge about the presence of contaminants in this recycled material, aiming to ensure the safety of end-users and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa O Gomes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - M Rosário Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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18
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Celeiro M, Armada D, Ratola N, Dagnac T, de Boer J, Llompart M. Evaluation of chemicals of environmental concern in crumb rubber and water leachates from several types of synthetic turf football pitches. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 270:128610. [PMID: 33121811 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays concern exists about the safety for both football players and the environment of recycled tire rubber used as infill in synthetic turf football pitches. In this study 40 target compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), plasticizers, antioxidants and vulcanization agents were determined in 50 synthetic football pitches of diverse characteristics to estimate environmental risks. This is the first study of crumb rubber sport facilities in Portugal. Analyses were performed by ultrasound-assisted extraction followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS). To evaluate the transfer of the target chemicals from the crumb rubber to the runoff water, water leachates collected from several football pitches were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME-GC-MS/MS). In addition, lab-scale runoff simulation experiments were performed to assess whether a persistent inflow of the target compounds from the football pitches into the runoff water wcould exist. Results revealed the presence of most of the target PAHs in crumb rubber at total concentrations up to 57 μg g-1, next to a high number of plasticizers and vulcanization agents. Runoff water collected from the football pitches contained up to 13 PAHs as well as other chemicals of environmental concern. In addition, continuous leaching of chemicals from the crumb rubber to the surrounding water was demonstrated. The transfer of target chemicals into the runoff water poses a potential risk for the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Daniel Armada
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias S/n, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment & Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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19
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Howard M, Solaru S, Kang HP, Bolia IK, Hatch GFR, Tibone JE, Gamradt SC, Weber AE. Epidemiology of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury on Natural Grass Versus Artificial Turf in Soccer: 10-Year Data From the National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System. Orthop J Sports Med 2020; 8:2325967120934434. [PMID: 32743012 PMCID: PMC7376298 DOI: 10.1177/2325967120934434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is prevalent among National
Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) soccer players. Controversy remains
regarding the effect of the surface type on the rate of ACL injury in soccer
players, considering differences in sex, type of athletic exposure, and
level of competition. Hypothesis: Natural grass surfaces would be associated with decreased ACL injury rate in
NCAA soccer players. Sex, type of athletic exposure (match vs practice), and
level of competition (Division I-III) would affect the relationship between
playing surface and ACL injury rates. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Using the NCAA Injury Surveillance System (ISS) database, we calculated the
incidence rate of ACL injury in men and women from 2004-2005 through
2013-2014 seasons. The incidence was normalized against athletic exposure
(AE). Additional data collected were sex, athletic activity at time of
injury (match vs practice), and level of competition (NCAA division) to
stratify the analysis. Statistical comparisons were made by calculating
incidence rate ratios (IRR). Statistical significance was set at an alpha of
.05. Results: There were 30,831,779 weighted AEs during the study period. The overall
injury rate was 1.12 ACL injuries per 10,000 AEs (95% CI, 1.08-1.16). Women
comprised 57% of the match data (10,261 games) and 55% of practice data
(26,664 practices). The overall injury rate was significantly higher on
natural grass (1.16/10,000 AEs; 95% CI, 1.12-1.20) compared with artificial
turf (0.92/10,000 AEs [95% CI, 0.84-1.01]; IRR, 1.26 [95% CI, 1.14-1.38])
(P < .0001). This relationship was demonstrated
consistently across all subanalyses, including stratification by NCAA
division and sex. The injury rate on natural grass (0.52/10,000 AEs; 95% CI,
1.11-1.26) was significantly greater than the injury incidence during
practice on artificial turf (0.06/10,000 AEs; 95% CI, 0.043-0.096). Players
were 8.67 times more likely to sustain an ACL injury during practice on
natural grass compared with practice on artificial turf (95% CI, 5.43-12.13;
P < .0001). No significant difference was found in
injury rates between matches played on grass versus turf (IRR, 0.93; 95% CI,
0.84-1.03; P = .15). Conclusion: NCAA soccer players who practice on natural grass have increased risk of ACL
injury compared with the risk of those practicing on an artificial surface,
regardless of sex or NCAA division of play. No difference in risk of ACL
injury between playing surfaces was detected during matches. Further
research is necessary to examine the effect of multiple factors when
evaluating the effect of the surface type on the risk of ACL injury in
soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Howard
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Samantha Solaru
- University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Hyunwoo P Kang
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ioanna K Bolia
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - George F R Hatch
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - James E Tibone
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Seth C Gamradt
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Alexander E Weber
- USC Epstein Family Center for Sports Medicine at Keck Medicine of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
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20
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Schneider K, Bierwisch A, Kaiser E. ERASSTRI - European risk assessment study on synthetic turf rubber infill - Part 3: Exposure and risk characterisation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 718:137721. [PMID: 32173010 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
As the final part of a Europe-wide study on the risk from synthetic turf infill consisting of rubber granules derived from end-of-life tyres (ELT), exposure of sportspeople was assessed and compared with health-based reference values for various chemical substances. Based on information from previous project phases, exposure scenarios were established and exposure was calculated for oral, dermal and inhalation routes. Calculated cancer risks for exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were below 1:1 million. Risk characterisation ratios (RCRs) for non-carcinogenic substances were below 1, indicating no health concerns. For 2-hydroxybenzothiazole no toxicological data were found from which to derive a substance-specific reference value. A threshold-of-toxicological concern approach revealed maximum RCRs slightly above 1, which are acceptable, given the conservativism of the approach. ERASSTRI substantially improved the data available for assessing human health risks from using ELT-derived infill material. Overall, no health concerns could be identified for the use of synthetic turfs with ELT-derived infill material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Schneider
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| | - Anne Bierwisch
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| | - Eva Kaiser
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
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21
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Pronk MEJ, Woutersen M, Herremans JMM. Synthetic turf pitches with rubber granulate infill: are there health risks for people playing sports on such pitches? JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2020; 30:567-584. [PMID: 30568187 PMCID: PMC7181390 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-018-0106-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The presence of carcinogenic substances in rubber granulate made from old car tyres raised concerns that the use of this granulate as infill on synthetic turf pitches may cause leukaemia and lymphoma in young football players and goalkeepers. Limitations in a number of prior studies on the topic casted doubts on their conclusion that it was safe to play sports on such pitches. Rubber granulate samples from 100 Dutch synthetic turf pitches were analysed for 45 (all samples) or 79 substances (a subset). A subset of samples was additionally analysed for migration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates and metals into sweat and the gastrointestinal tract, and for evaporation of volatile substances into air. Exposure scenarios were developed to estimate the exposure of amateur football players via the oral, dermal and inhalation route to the most hazardous substances in rubber granulate. Risks to human health were assessed by comparing toxicological reference values for these substances with the exposure estimates. A number of carcinogenic, mutagenic and reprotoxic substances were present in rubber granulate used on Dutch pitches. No concern was, however, identified for phthalates, benzothiazoles, bisphenol A and the metals cadmium, cobalt and lead, as their exposures were below the levels associated with adverse effects on health. PAHs appeared to be the substances of highest concern, but even they present no appreciable health risk with exposures resulting in additional cancer risks at or below the negligible risk level of one in a million. Our findings for a representative number of Dutch pitches are consistent with those of prior and contemporary studies observing no elevated health risk from playing sports on synthetic turf pitches with recycled rubber granulate. Based on current evidence, there is no reason to advise people against playing sports on such pitches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja E J Pronk
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolijn Woutersen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Joke M M Herremans
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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22
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Abstract
Participation in youth soccer in the United States continues to increase steadily, with a greater percentage of preadolescent participants than perhaps any other youth sport. Despite the wide-ranging health benefits of participation in organized sports, injuries occur and represent a threat to the health and performance of young athletes. Youth soccer has a greater reported injury rate than many other contact sports, and recent studies suggest that injury rates are increasing. Large increases in the incidence of concussions in youth soccer have been reported, and anterior cruciate ligament injuries remain a significant problem in this sport, particularly among female athletes. Considerable new research has identified a number of modifiable risk factors for lower-extremity injuries and concussion, and several prevention programs have been identified to reduce the risk of injury. Rule enforcement and fair play also serve an important role in reducing the risk of injury among youth soccer participants. This report provides an updated review of the relevant literature as well as recommendations to promote the safe participation of children and adolescents in soccer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Watson
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin; and
| | - Jeffrey M Mjaanes
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
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23
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Valeriani F, Margarucci LM, Gianfranceschi G, Ciccarelli A, Tajani F, Mucci N, Ripani M, Romano Spica V. Artificial-turf surfaces for sport and recreational activities: microbiota analysis and 16S sequencing signature of synthetic vs natural soccer fields. Heliyon 2019; 5:e02334. [PMID: 31517095 PMCID: PMC6728760 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic fibres are used in place of the natural grass worldwide, for realizing playgrounds, soccer fields and even domestic gardens or recreational structures. An intensive use of artificial turf is currently observed in sports facilities, due to lower costs, higher sustainability in recycling of materials, and advantages related to athletic practice and performance. However, even if chemical and physical risks were studied, the microbiological component was not fully addressed, especially considering a comprehensive evaluation of the microbiota in synthetic vs natural playground surfaces. Here, we investigated the microbial community present on soccer fields, using Next Generation Sequencing and a 16S amplicon sequencing approach. Artificial and natural turfs show own ecosystems with different microbial profiles and a mean Shannon's diversity value of 2.176 and 2.475, respectively. The bacterial community is significantly different between facilities (ANOSIM: R = 0.179; p < 0.001) and surface materials (ANOSIM: R = 0.172; p < 0.005). The relative abundance of potentially pathogenic bacterial OTUs was higher in synthetic than in natural samples (ANOVA, F = 2.2). Soccer fields are characterized by their own microbiota, showing a different 16S amplicon sequencing signature between natural and artificial turfs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Valeriani
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Lory Marika Margarucci
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianluca Gianfranceschi
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonello Ciccarelli
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Filippo Tajani
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Nicolina Mucci
- INAIL, Department of Technological Innovations and Safety of Plants, Products and Anthropic Settlements, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Ripani
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- University of Rome "Foro Italico", Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Public Health Unit, Rome, Italy
- Corresponding author.
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24
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Perkins AN, Inayat-Hussain SH, Deziel NC, Johnson CH, Ferguson SS, Garcia-Milian R, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V. Evaluation of potential carcinogenicity of organic chemicals in synthetic turf crumb rubber. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 169:163-172. [PMID: 30458352 PMCID: PMC6396308 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Currently, there are >11,000 synthetic turf athletic fields in the United States and >13,000 in Europe. Concerns have been raised about exposure to carcinogenic chemicals resulting from contact with synthetic turf fields, particularly the infill material ("crumb rubber"), which is commonly fabricated from recycled tires. However, exposure data are scant, and the limited existing exposure studies have focused on a small subset of crumb rubber components. Our objective was to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of a broad range of chemical components of crumb rubber infill using computational toxicology and regulatory agency classifications from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) to inform future exposure studies and risk analyses. Through a literature review, we identified 306 chemical constituents of crumb rubber infill from 20 publications. Utilizing ADMET Predictor™, a computational program to predict carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, 197 of the identified 306 chemicals met our a priori carcinogenicity criteria. Of these, 52 chemicals were also classified as known, presumed or suspected carcinogens by the US EPA and ECHA. Of the remaining 109 chemicals which were not predicted to be carcinogenic by our computational toxicology analysis, only 6 chemicals were classified as presumed or suspected human carcinogens by US EPA or ECHA. Importantly, the majority of crumb rubber constituents were not listed in the US EPA (n = 207) and ECHA (n = 262) databases, likely due to an absence of evaluation or insufficient information for a reliable carcinogenicity classification. By employing a cancer hazard scoring system to the chemicals which were predicted and classified by the computational analysis and government databases, several high priority carcinogens were identified, including benzene, benzidine, benzo(a)pyrene, trichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. Our findings demonstrate that computational toxicology assessment in conjunction with government classifications can be used to prioritize hazardous chemicals for future exposure monitoring studies for users of synthetic turf fields. This approach could be extended to other compounds or toxicity endpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaina N Perkins
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Salmaan H Inayat-Hussain
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA; Product Stewardship and Toxicology Section, Group Health, Safety, Security and Environment, Petroliam Nasional Berhad, Kuala Lumpur 50088, Malaysia
| | - Nicole C Deziel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Caroline H Johnson
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Stephen S Ferguson
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC 27709, USA
| | - Rolando Garcia-Milian
- Bioinformatics Support Program, Cushing/ Whitney Medical Library, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - David C Thompson
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Vasilis Vasiliou
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA.
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25
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Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Determination of priority and other hazardous substances in football fields of synthetic turf by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: A health and environmental concern. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 195:201-211. [PMID: 29268178 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Due to the high concern generated in the last years about the safety of recycled tire rubber used for recreational sports surfaces, this study aims at evaluating the presence of forty organic compounds including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, vulcanisation additives and antioxidants in recycled tire crumb of synthetic turf football fields. Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) was successfully employed to extract the target compounds from the crumb rubber, and analysis was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The transfer of the target chemicals from the crumb rubber to the runoff water and to the air above the rubber surface has also been evaluated employing solid-phase microextraction (SPME). Samples from fifteen football fields were analysed, and the results revealed the presence of 24 of the 40 target compounds, including 14 of the 16 EPA PAHs, with total concentrations up to 50 μg g-1. Heavy metals such as Cd, Cr and Pb were also found. A partial transfer of organic compounds to the air and runoff water was also demonstrated. The analysis of rain water collected directly from the football field, showed the presence of a high number of the target compounds at concentrations reaching above 100 μg L-1. The environmental risk arising from the burning of crumb rubber tires has been assessed, as well, analysing the crumb rubber, and the air and water in contact with this material, showing a substantial increase both of the number and concentration of the hazardous chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeiro
- Laboratory of Research and Development of Analytical Solutions (LIDSA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Chemistry, E-15782, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic and Agrarian Research Centre (INGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, 15080, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- Laboratory of Research and Development of Analytical Solutions (LIDSA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Chemistry, E-15782, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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