Rural Households' Livelihood Capital, Risk Perception, and Willingness to Purchase Earthquake Disaster Insurance: Evidence from Southwestern China

Spatio-Temporal Variation and Decomposition Analysis of Livelihood Resilience of Rural Residents in China

The key to sustainable rural development and coordinated regional development is to properly measure the livelihood resilience of rural residents (LRRR), and investigate its regional differences, distribution characteristics, and evolutionary patterns. This study combined the entropy method, the Dagum Gini coefficient and decomposition, kernel density estimation, and convergence analysis to measure the LRRR in 30 provinces of China from 2006 to 2020, and to analyze its regional differences and sources, dynamic distribution, and characteristics of convergence. The LRRR in China overall declined 2006-2020, with an east-to-west spatial gradient toward lower livelihood resilience. Intra-regional differences in LRRR narrowed in the Eastern and Central Regions, while those in the Western Region widened. Inter-regional differences were the main source of differences in LRRR. The LRRRs in most provinces in China were gradually reaching the same level over time (i.e., σ convergence and β convergence). This research provides a factual reference for policies related to reducing inter-provincial differences in the LRRR in China.

Impact of Natural Disaster Shocks on Farm Household Poverty Vulnerability—A Threshold Effect Based on Livelihood Resilience

Poverty caused by disasters poses a great challenge to consolidate the achievements of poverty alleviation. Livelihood resilience is the key factor for farmers to resist risks and get rid of poverty. Therefore, this study used the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) database. Firstly, we examined the impact of natural disasters on the poverty vulnerability of farmers. Secondly, taking livelihood resilience and its decomposition dimensions as threshold variables, we examined the mechanism of livelihood resilience between natural disasters and poverty. The results show that natural disaster shocks, natural disaster intensity, and natural disaster frequency all had a significant positive effect on farm households’ vulnerability to poverty. The threshold test shows that natural disasters had larger effects on the poverty vulnerability of the farmers with lower buffer capacity, self-organizing capacity, and learning capacity. When the livelihood resilience value exceeded the third threshold, the impact of natural disasters on the poverty vulnerability of farmers turned from positive to negative. When the buffer capacity exceeded the third threshold, the impact of natural disasters on poverty vulnerability turned from positive to negative; when the self-organizing capacity exceeded the first threshold, the impact of natural disasters on poverty vulnerability turned from positive to negative; when the learning capacity exceeded the third threshold, the impact of natural disasters on poverty vulnerability turned from positive to negative. Therefore, it is suggested that appropriate policies should be needed to support farmers’ livelihood resilience and address disaster-induced poverty by improving farmers’ buffer capacity, self-organizing capacity, and learning capacity. Focusing on farmers’ livelihood resilience, government should establish a policy support system aimed at improving farmers’ buffer capacity, self-organizing capacity, and learning capacity, that will help farmers to escape from disaster-induced poverty.

How livelihood capital affects farmers' willingness to pay for farmland non-market value? Evidence from Jianghan Plain, China

Farmland not only provides human being with food and industrial materials, but also has non-market value. However, few studies have explored the impact of livelihood capital configuration and their willingness to pay (WTP) for the farmland non-market value, from farmers' perspective. Based on the field survey data of 434 households in Jianghan Plain, China, this paper divided the research process into two stages to explore the impact of farmers' livelihood capital on their WTP by using binary logistics model and qualitative comparative analysis method of fuzzy sets (fsQCA). The results show that (1) The total livelihood capital of farmers was 2.667, with psychological capital 0.649, natural capital 0.621, social capital 0.127. 79.49% of the households were willing to pay for the farmland non-market value, and the most concentrated range of it is 50-200 yuan/hm². (2) Both social capital and psychological capital had positive impacts on farmers' WTP for the non-market value of farmland protection. (3) There were two livelihood capital configurations that could improve the WTP of farmers. When lacking of human capital, physical capital and psychological capital, the improvement in farmers' financial capital and social capital will improve farmers' WTP. When the natural, financial, and psychological capital are poor, the rich human capital, physical capital and social capital will also increase farmers' WTP. In view of the results, policy implications on livelihood capital structure optimization and ecological compensation system differentiation were proposed.

Do Livelihood Strategies Affect the Livelihood Resilience of Farm Households in Flooded Areas? Evidence From Hubei Province, China

Hubei Province, located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, is a complex area of fragile ecological environment and traditional agricultural production in China. With the further intensification of the impact of global warming, flood disasters have brought a more severe threat to the sustainable development of farmers’ livelihoods. This paper therefore examines the livelihood resilience of farmers with different livelihood strategies in the region by constructing a livelihood resilience evaluation system based on three target levels: buffering capacity, Adaptation and restoration, and using a contribution model to identify the main contributing factors affecting the livelihood resilience of fa rmers. The following three conclusions were found: (1). The overall level of livelihood resilience of farmers in flood-affected areas in Hubei Province is not high, and the difference in livelihood resilience indices between farmers with different livelihood strategies is large; (2). Farming-led farmers and part-time balanced farmers can better adapt to external shocks brought about by floods; (3). The main contributing factors affecting the livelihood resilience of various types of farmers have Convergence.

Social Stability Risk Assessment of Disaster-Preventive Migration in Ethnic Minority Areas of Southwest China

Disaster-preventive migration (DPM) is an important method for disaster risk management, but migration itself entails a potential social stability risk. This study took County D in Yunnan Province, one of the counties most severely threatened by geological disasters in China, as an example to construct an indicator system of social stability risk factors for disaster-preventive migration based on a literature survey and in-depth interviews. The system consists of 5 first-level risk factors and 14 s-level risk factors. The social stability risk of DPM in County D was assessed using a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method based on experts’ weights. The results showed that the overall social stability risk level of disaster-preventive migration in County D is ‘high’. In terms of importance, the five first-level risk factors were ranked as follows: public opinion risk > compensation risk > livelihood recovery risk > cultural risk > geological disaster risk. Among the risk factors, the level of public opinion risk and compensation risk appeared to be high, whereas that of livelihood recovery risk, cultural risk and geological disaster risk resulted to be medium. To our knowledge, this paper is the first research to evaluate the social stability risk of DPM; it not only enriches the theories of social stability risk assessment, but also has important guiding significance for people relocation and resettlement in Chinese ethnic minority areas.

Vulnerability Assessment and Spatio-Temporal Difference Analysis of Inland Fisheries Flood Disaster in China

Vulnerability research is an active option for fisheries to adapt to climate change. Based on the vulnerability analysis framework of the vulnerability scoping diagram, a vulnerability evaluation index system for inland fisheries in China was constructed in three dimensions, including exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. The entropy method was used to evaluate the flood disaster vulnerability of China’s inland fisheries from 2010 to 2019 and its decomposition. The temporal and spatial differences between vulnerability and its decomposition were analyzed. Kernel density estimation and factor contribution model were used to analyze the changing trend of vulnerability and main influencing factors. The results show that: during the study period, the vulnerability of inland fisheries in China to flood disasters showed a fluctuating downward trend, and the high vulnerability areas were mainly distributed in South China and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River; the exposure index first decreased and then increased, and the high-exposure regions were mainly concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River; the sensitivity index first decreased and then increased, and the high-sensitivity areas were concentrated in North-east China, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and South China; the adaptive capacity index showed a downward trend, and the areas with lower adaptive capacity were concentrated in the South-west and North-west. From the factor contribution model, the economic losses of fishery floods and the affected area had the greatest impact on the exposure index; fingerling production and freshwater fishery production had the greatest impact on the sensitivity index; the index with a lower contribution to the adaptive capacity index was the total power of fishery machinery and fishery technology promotion. Therefore, building reservoirs, optimizing aquaculture layout and promoting fishery modernization are the keys to reducing the vulnerability of inland fisheries to flood disasters.

Farmers’ Livelihood Capital and Its Impact on Sustainable Livelihood Strategies: Evidence from the Poverty-Stricken Areas of Southwest China

Evaluating the influence of livelihood capital on livelihood strategies remains an unexplored strategy intended to cultivate the level of livelihood capital, enhance livelihood strategies, combine the achievements regarding a reduction in poverty, and attain everlasting poverty mitigation, along with endorsing sustainable livelihoods. Based on the survey data of 508 farmers within poverty-stricken areas of Southwest China, the entropy method was primarily used for measuring the level of farmers’ livelihood capital. Moreover, the logistic regression model was used to empirically analyze the impact of livelihood capital on the choice and transformation of livelihood strategies. The results showed the following: (1) The five categories of livelihood capital values were generally not high. The value of physical capital was the highest (0.4279), while the value of financial capital was the lowest (0.2018). (2) Physical capital, alongside natural capital, has a positive influence on the pure agriculture livelihood strategy, while human, social, and financial capital have a positive impact on the non-agriculture livelihood strategy. Excluding financial capital, the remaining types of capital have a positive impact on the part-time agriculture livelihood strategy. (3) Decisive factors are used to promote transformation from pure agriculture to part-time agriculture, mostly comprising social network support and family labor force, among other indicators. The important factors used to promote transformation from pure agriculture to non-agriculture are mainly labor education level and social network support, among other indicators. Finally, on the basis of the above findings, policy sanctions are proposed from the observations of livelihood capital and livelihood strategies.

Rural Household Differentiation and Poverty Vulnerability: An Empirical Analysis Based on the Field Survey in Hubei, China

Rural family differentiation is an important perspective to analyze farmers’ behavior and poverty. Based on the data of 1673 farm households from rural field survey in 2019 in Hubei Province of China, this paper examines the main influencing factors of farm household differentiation on farm household poverty vulnerability from the perspective of the sustainable livelihoods of farm households. On this basis, the contribution of each influencing factor to farm household poverty vulnerability is analysed using the regression decomposition method. The results of the study show that the variables of farm household differentiation have a significant impact on poverty vulnerability, and the net household income per capita, which reflect the vertical differentiation of farm households, and the proportion of non-farm labor, which reflects the horizontal differentiation of farm households. Both have a significant negative impact on the poverty vulnerability of farm households. The regression decomposition method shows that the proportion of non-farm labor force, which reflects the horizontal differentiation of farm households, has the highest contribution to the poverty vulnerability of farm households. Human capital, natural capital, social capital, and physical capital also influence the poverty vulnerability of farm households to a certain extent.

What catalyzes the proactive recovery of peasants from the COVID-19 pandemic? A livelihood perspective in Ningqiang County, China

The livelihood recovery strategy is utilized for peasants during the COVID-19 pandemic. This strategy serves a salient role to help them recover from the relevant hazardous impacts. Disaster risk has been a major concern among hazards for the increasing likelihood of exposure and vulnerability, especially in the process of poverty alleviation in China. However, few studies have discussed the factors and mechanisms that influence peasants to adopt livelihood recovery strategies in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Based on a case study of Ningqiang County, China, this study explores the mechanisms that catalyze the proactive recovery of peasants from the COVID-19 pandemic from a livelihood perspective. Methodologically, the study proposes a framework that integrates the modified pressure-state-response (PSR) framework and the sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA), and it employs structure equation modeling (SEM) approach to examine how specific factors affect peasants to proactively adopt livelihood strategies to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicate that the COVID-19 pressure significantly increases the risk perception of peasants and decreases their livelihood capital. Further, the decreased livelihood capital, the improvement of risk perception and supportive policy will promote peasants to adopt livelihood recovery strategies. Moreover, the results specify that risk perception and supportive policy mediate the relation between livelihood capital and recovery strategy. The findings will be beneficial for policymakers and researchers to understand the mechanisms that peasants adopt livelihood strategies to recover from disasters, and can serve as references for formulating disaster risk reduction and resilience policies.

Insurance as an Alternative for Sustainable Economic Recovery after Natural Disasters: A Systematic Literature Review

The risk of natural disasters has increased over the last few decades, leading to significant economic losses across the globe. In response, research related to the risk of economic loss due to natural disasters has continued to develop. At present, insurance remains the best solution for funding such losses. The purpose of this study is to analyse the development of insurance as an alternative for sustainable economic recovery after natural disasters. The data used are articles obtained from several sources indexed by Scopus and Google Scholar. The search resulted in a final database of 266 articles, culled from a total of 813 articles before the final selection was made. The articles used are publications from 2000–2021 (including 21 database periods), to which we applied a systematic literature review method. Identification and evaluation of the articles was carried out through visualization of their content, development of disaster risk insurance, and availability of disaster risk insurance by country and type. The identification results show that the relationship between the word “insurance”, according to visualization using the VOSviewer software, has a relationship with other clusters including the words “disaster”, “disaster insurance”, “risk”, “natural disaster”, “study”, “recovery”, and “disaster risk financing”. The 266 articles studied show that there was an annual increase in the number of published scientific papers over the period 2000–2021. The types of disaster risk insurance, based on a review of the articles, include agricultural insurance, flood insurance, property insurance, earthquake insurance, crop insurance, and natural disaster insurance. In addition, of the six types of disaster risk insurance, three have been discussed the most in the last five years, namely, agricultural, flood, and property insurance. The increase in the number of scientific publications discussing these three types of disaster risk insurance has been influenced by climate change. Climate change causes a significant increase in the potential for disasters and is accompanied by an increased risk of loss. This review is expected to provide information and motivation for researchers related to the development and importance of disaster risk insurance research. Research in the risk sector for disaster losses due to climate change should be continued in the future in order to help fund economic recovery, especially throughout the insurance sector. With continuous research on disaster risk insurance, it is hoped that the resulting information can be more effective in determining insurance risk and in helping local economies and communities recover after the advent of a disaster. With the availability of funds for post-disaster recovery, the regional economy affected by the disaster can be immediately restored and recovered from adversity.

The Contributing Factors of Delayed-Onset Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Nested Case-Control Study Conducted After the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake

Background: Delayed-onset post-traumatic stress disorder after catastrophes is a major public health issue. However, good designs for identifying post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among earthquake survivors are rare. This is the first nested case-control study to explore the possible factors associated with delayed-onset PTSD symptoms. Methods: A nested case-control study was conducted. The baseline (2011) and follow-up (2018) surveys were utilized to collect data. A total of 361 survivors of the Wenchuan earthquake were investigated and 340 survivors underwent follow-up. The survivors, from the hardest-hit areas, who met the criteria for PTSD were included in the case group, and PTSD-free survivors from the same area, matched for age, were included in the control group, with a ratio of one to four. Conditional logistic regression was used to evaluate the variables' odds ratio (OR). Results: The overall prevalence of delayed-onset PTSD symptoms in survivors of the Wenchuan earthquake was 9.7% (33/340). The unemployed earthquake survivors had a higher risk of developing delayed-onset PTSD symptoms (OR = 4.731, 95% CI = 1.408-15.901), while higher perceived social support was a protective factor against delayed-onset PTSD symptoms (OR = 0.172, 95% CI = 0.052-0.568). Conclusion: Delayed-onset PTSD symptoms, after a disaster, should not be ignored. Active social support and the provision of stable jobs can contribute to the earthquake survivors' mental health.

Information Preference and Information Supply Efficiency Evaluation before, during, and after an Earthquake: Evidence from Songyuan, China

Efficient risk communication is aimed at improving the supply of risk information to meet the information needs of individuals, thus reducing their vulnerability when facing the risk of emergency. There is little information available in the literature regarding information preference from an individual’s need perspective, and there is a lack of differentiation in evaluation between information need and supply. Under the guidance of the crisis stage analysis theory, using multiple response analysis and weighted analysis methods, this study explores earthquake disaster information content and communication channel preferences, and develops an information deviation index (IDI) to evaluate the efficiency of risk communication before, during, and after an earthquake. A questionnaire-based survey of 918 valid respondents in Songyuan, China, which had been hit by a small earthquake swarm, was conducted to provide practical evidence for this study. The results indicated the following. Firstly, the information needs of individuals are highly differentiated in the different stages of an earthquake. From pre-disaster to post-disaster, individuals show a shift in information need from “preparedness and response knowledge” to “disaster information”, then to “disaster information and disaster relief information” in parallel, to “reconstruction and reflection information”. Based on the above analysis, a composition of the main earthquake disaster information is proposed for different stages. Secondly, by measuring the values of the IDI, we found that most individuals’ information needs were met for the earthquake. Thirdly, the TV and the internet were the two preferred commutation channels for acquiring disaster information from among all the effective channels in all the stages.

Livelihood Capital and Land Transfer of Different Types of Farmers: Evidence from Panel Data in Sichuan Province, China

Farmers’ livelihood and land have been the focus of academic and political attention for a long time. In the process of rapid urbanization in China, as farmers change their livelihood strategies and livelihood capital allocation driven by economic interests, farmland abandonment increases, which is not conducive to the guarantee of food security. This study aims to explore the characteristics of livelihood capital and land transfer of farmers under different livelihood strategies and the effect of livelihood capital on land transfer. Based on the data obtained from Sichuan Province in 2012, 2016 and 2019 by the China Rural Development Survey Group, this paper divides farmers into pure farmers, part-time farmers and non-farmers according to the proportion of non-agricultural income in total income, and constructed the panel binary Logit model and panel Tobit model. The analysis points to the following results: (1) pure farmers tend to shift other capitals toward natural capital, so their livelihood capital total index value decreased. The part-time farmers have different shift characteristics but their livelihood capital total index value both increased first and then decreased. Non-farmers tend to shift natural capital towards other livelihood capitals, so their livelihood capital total index value increased. (2) The higher the natural capital and human capital, the higher the probability of land transfers in. The higher the natural capital, the larger the area of land transfers in. The higher the financial capital, the higher the probability of land transfers out. The higher the financial capital and social capital, the larger the area of land transfers out. It is expected to provide suggestions for the policy of farmers’ land transfer under different livelihood capital endowments.

Social Networks, Trust, and Disaster-Risk Perceptions of Rural Residents in a Multi-Disaster Environment: Evidence from Sichuan, China

Individual perception of disaster risk is not only the product of individual factors, but also the product of social interactions. However, few studies have empirically explored the correlations between rural residents' flat social networks, trust in pyramidal channels, and disaster-risk perceptions. Taking Sichuan Province-a typical disaster-prone province in China-as an example and using data from 327 rural households in mountainous areas threatened by multiple disasters, this paper measured the level of participants' disaster-risk perception in the four dimensions of possibility, threat, self-efficacy, and response efficacy. Then, the ordinary least squares method was applied to probe the correlations between social networks, trust, and residents' disaster-risk perception. The results revealed four main findings. (1) Compared with scores relating to comprehensive disaster-risk perception, participants had lower perception scores relating to possibility and threat, and higher perception scores relating to self-efficacy and response efficacy. (2) The carrier characteristics of their social networks significantly affected rural residents' perceived levels of disaster risk, while the background characteristics did not. (3) Different dimensions of trust had distinct effects on rural residents' disaster-risk perceptions. (4) Compared with social network variables, trust was more closely related to the perceived level of disaster risks, which was especially reflected in the impact on self-efficacy, response efficacy, and comprehensive perception. The findings of this study deepen understanding of the relationship between social networks, trust, and disaster-risk perceptions of rural residents in mountainous areas threatened by multiple disasters, providing enlightenment for building resilient disaster-prevention systems in the community.

Livelihood resilience and strategies of rural residents of earthquake-threatened areas in Sichuan Province, China

Natural disasters are increasing in frequency in China. Enhancing residents' livelihood resilience and adjusting their livelihood strategies have gradually become effective means of dealing with disaster risk. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore the livelihood strategies and livelihood resilience of rural residents in earthquake-stricken areas to help them cope with disaster risks. However, few studies have explored the correlation between residents' livelihood resilience and livelihood strategies from the perspective of residents' livelihood resilience. Based on a survey of 327 households in four districts and counties of Sichuan Province, China that were affected by the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquakes, we construct a framework for analyzing livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy selection. We comprehensively analyze the characteristics of livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy and explore their correlation using an ordinal multi-classification logistic regression model. The results show that: (1) Among 327 sample households, 90.21% were non-farming, 3.67% were part-time households and 6.12% were farming households. Residents' livelihood resilience is mainly based on their disaster prevention and mitigation capacity. (2) As far as the correlation between livelihood resilience and livelihood strategies is concerned, the stronger the buffer capacity in livelihood resilience, the more rural residents tend to engage in non-farming activities to obtain income. When other conditions remain unchanged, the logarithmic probability of choosing an agricultural livelihood strategy decreases by 21.814 for each unit of buffer capacity. From the perspective of residents' livelihood resilience, this study deepens our understanding of the relationship between livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy in earthquake-stricken areas. It also provides useful information for the formulation of policies to improve residents' resilience in disaster-threatened areas.

The role of sense of place, risk perception, and level of disaster preparedness in disaster vulnerable mountainous areas of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan

The study endeavored to analyze the risk perception, sense of place, and disaster preparedness in response to landslide disaster-prone mountain areas of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. To this end, we surveyed 315 rural residents of two vulnerable landslide districts (Hunza and Nagar) of Gilgit-Baltistan. To explore the relationships between the dimensions of risk perception, sense of place, and disaster preparedness, we used partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypotheses. The results derived from PLS-SEM have implied that there is a significant negative relationship between risk perception (apprehension and unidentified) with a sense of place (bond with society and place dependence). It was observed that the residents usually overestimate the risks of disasters due to their limited scientific knowledge regarding disaster occurrence, which reduces their dependencies on the place. We revealed that disaster preparedness enhances the place attachment and reduces the apprehension of landslides in the study area. This study devotes to government and relevant agencies to devise policies that can help relocate the vulnerable rural settlements, develop, and educate the masses on disaster mitigation and prevention strategies, and help prepare a suitable landslide management plan.

Differences in the Disaster-Preparedness Behaviors of the General Public and Professionals: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China

Sichuan Province in China is one of the world’s most earthquake-stricken areas. Wenchuan and Lushan Counties in Sichuan and other earthquake-stricken areas contain rural settlements subject to geological disasters and poverty. However, there is little research on the characteristics of disaster-preparedness behavior and whether these differ between professionals and the general public in rural settlements with high earthquake risk and poverty. Using survey data from 327 farmers in rural settlements affected by major earthquakes in Wenchuan and Lushan Counties, independent-sample t-tests and chi-squared tests were used to test for differences in the disaster-preparedness behaviors of professionals and the general public. The results show that (1) there were significant differences in emergency-disaster preparedness, knowledge and skills preparedness and overall disaster-prevention preparedness, and (2) there was no significant difference in physical disaster-prevention preparation. Based on these results, the study suggests policy directions for regional poverty alleviation, disaster prevention and reduction and disaster management.

Media Exposure, Disaster Experience, and Risk Perception of Rural Households in Earthquake-Stricken Areas: Evidence from Rural China

For effective communication and management of disaster risks, it is important to explore how media exposure and disaster experience related to earthquake events affect residents' prospect ranks of disaster risk perceptions. Using survey data from 327 households located in the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquake regions in China, the ordinary least square method was used to explore the associations among media exposure, severity of disaster experience, and residents' perception of prospect ranks of the possibility and severity of disasters. The results showed the following. (1) Rural households relied predominately on television broadcasts from traditional media, and on mobile phones and internet content from new media to obtain disaster information. From the residents surveyed, 90% believed that a disaster experience was serious, 82% considered that another major earthquake would seriously affect their lives and property, while approximately 40% of the residents did not believe there would be another major earthquake in the next 10 years. (2) Media exposure was negatively correlated with the perceived prospect ranks of the probability and severity of disasters, with traditional media exposure significantly negatively correlated with the perceived prospect ranks of the severity of disasters and new media exposure significantly negatively correlated with the perceived prospect ranks of the probability of disasters. Severity experience was significantly and positively correlated with the perceived prospect ranks of the probability and severity of disasters. (3) New media exposure moderated the relationship between residents' disaster experience and their perception of prospect ranks of the severity of disasters. This study can help deepen our understanding of disaster risk communication and better guide the practice of disaster risk management.

Land Registration, Adjustment Experience, and Agricultural Machinery Adoption: Empirical Analysis from Rural China

Land property security and advanced factor inputs play critical roles in agricultural modernization in developing countries. However, there are unclear relationships between land property security and advanced factor inputs. This study aims to clarify these relationships from the perspective of the differentiation of the realization process of land property security. From the perspective of property rights theory and endowment effects, data from 2934 farming households in rural China are used to determine the quantitative impacts of land registration and adjustment experience on the adoption of agricultural machinery. The results are as follows: (i) Land registration does not affect the adoption of agricultural machinery. (ii) Adjustment experience has a negative impact on the adoption of agricultural machinery. (iii) The interaction of land registration and adjustment experience has a positive impact on the adoption of agricultural machinery. This study provides some policy references with which developing countries can achieve agricultural modernization and revitalize the countryside by improving property rights security.

Disaster Risk Perception, Sense of Pace, Evacuation Willingness, and Relocation Willingness of Rural Households in Earthquake-Stricken Areas: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China

Based on survey data from 327 rural households in the areas affected by the Wenchuan Earthquake and Lushan Earthquake in Sichuan Province, this study systematically analyzed disaster risk perception, sense of place, evacuation willingness, and relocation willingness among residents in these earthquake-stricken areas. Further, this study constructed an ordinal logistic regression analysis to probe the correlations between residents’ disaster risk perception or sense of place and evacuation willingness and relocation willingness, respectively. The results showed that (1) faced with the threat of earthquake disasters, residents have a strong willingness to evacuate and relocate. Specifically, 93% and 78% of the residents in the Wenchuan Earthquake and Lushan Earthquake areas were willing to evacuate and relocate, respectively, whereas 4% and 17% of the residents were unwilling to evacuate and relocate, respectively. (2) Place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence were significantly positively correlated with residents’ evacuation willingness, while the interaction term between place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence was negatively related to residents’ evacuation willingness. Specifically, when everything else remains constant, every one-unit increase in place dependence and severity corresponds to increases in the odds of willingness to evacuate by factors of 0.042 and 0.051, respectively; every one-unit increase in place dependence × severity corresponds to a decrease in the odds of willingness to evacuation by a factor of 0.004. (3) Place identity was significantly negatively correlated with residents’ relocation willingness, while place dependence and severity of disaster occurrence were positively related to residents’ relocation willingness. The interaction term between place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence as well as the interaction term between place identity and severity of disaster occurrence were significantly negatively correlated with residents’ relocation willingness. Specifically, every one-unit increase in place identity corresponds to a decrease in the odds of willingness to relocate by a factor of 0.034, while every one-unit increase in place dependence and severity corresponds to increases in the odds of willingness to relocate by factors of 0.041 and 0.028, respectively, and every one-unit increase in place dependence × severity and place identity × severity corresponds to decreases in the odds of willingness to relocate by factors of 0.003 and 0.003, respectively.

Disaster Risk Perception, Sense of Pace, Evacuation Willingness, and Relocation Willingness of Rural Households in Earthquake-Stricken Areas: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China

Based on survey data from 327 rural households in the areas affected by the Wenchuan Earthquake and Lushan Earthquake in Sichuan Province, this study systematically analyzed disaster risk perception, sense of place, evacuation willingness, and relocation willingness among residents in these earthquake-stricken areas. Further, this study constructed an ordinal logistic regression analysis to probe the correlations between residents' disaster risk perception or sense of place and evacuation willingness and relocation willingness, respectively. The results showed that (1) faced with the threat of earthquake disasters, residents have a strong willingness to evacuate and relocate. Specifically, 93% and 78% of the residents in the Wenchuan Earthquake and Lushan Earthquake areas were willing to evacuate and relocate, respectively, whereas 4% and 17% of the residents were unwilling to evacuate and relocate, respectively. (2) Place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence were significantly positively correlated with residents' evacuation willingness, while the interaction term between place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence was negatively related to residents' evacuation willingness. Specifically, when everything else remains constant, every one-unit increase in place dependence and severity corresponds to increases in the odds of willingness to evacuate by factors of 0.042 and 0.051, respectively; every one-unit increase in place dependence × severity corresponds to a decrease in the odds of willingness to evacuation by a factor of 0.004. (3) Place identity was significantly negatively correlated with residents' relocation willingness, while place dependence and severity of disaster occurrence were positively related to residents' relocation willingness. The interaction term between place dependence and the severity of disaster occurrence as well as the interaction term between place identity and severity of disaster occurrence were significantly negatively correlated with residents' relocation willingness. Specifically, every one-unit increase in place identity corresponds to a decrease in the odds of willingness to relocate by a factor of 0.034, while every one-unit increase in place dependence and severity corresponds to increases in the odds of willingness to relocate by factors of 0.041 and 0.028, respectively, and every one-unit increase in place dependence × severity and place identity × severity corresponds to decreases in the odds of willingness to relocate by factors of 0.003 and 0.003, respectively.

Relationships between Land Management Scale and Livelihood Strategy Selection of Rural Households in China from the Perspective of Family Life Cycle

Rural households are micro-organizational systems that are composed of different family members. Against a background of fragmented land patterns and massive labor migration in China, it is of great significance for the sustainable development of regional economies to explore the optimal selection of livelihood strategies by rural households. Using a survey containing data from 8031 rural households from 27 provinces in China, this study analyzed the characteristics and spatial distribution trends of the land management scale, family life cycle, and livelihood strategy selection of rural households, and constructed Tobit econometric models to explore the correlations among these factors. The results show: (1) Rural households’ land management scale was primarily small-scale and, as it expanded, the proportion of the total cash income coming from agricultural activities increased. A relative majority of rural households were in the middle period of the family life cycle, and relatively few rural households were in the starting and empty nest periods. The proportion of the total cash income of rural households coming from agricultural pursuits while in the stable and the empty nest periods was relatively large, reaching 40.51% and 38.92%, respectively. In most provinces sampled, rural households’ livelihood strategies were non-agriculturally based, and the land management scale was mainly less than 0.67 ha. (2) Rural households’ land management scale positively correlated with their livelihood strategy selection. When other conditions remained unchanged, with every 1 ha increase in land management scale, the proportion of agricultural cash income in total family cash income increased, on average, by 3.7%. In comparison with rural households in the empty nest period, the proportions of agricultural cash income in the total family cash income of rural households in other family life cycles were relatively small. Specifically, for rural households in the starting, rearing, burden, stable, and maintenance periods, the proportion of agricultural cash income in the total family cash income decreased, on average, by 6.8%, 6.7%, 9.2%, 3.5%, and 16.3%, respectively.

Earthquake Disaster Risk Perception Process Model for Rural Households: A Pilot Study from Southwestern China

There are many important factors to consider when creating robust, regional disaster prevention systems. These include rural households’ knowledge and reported skills of earthquake disasters, disaster risk perception, awareness of disaster risk reduction, willingness to purchase insurance, and willingness to relocate to avoid disasters. However, few empirical studies have systematically established the theoretical research frameworks to analyze these factors. This study analyzed the data sampled from 241 rural households located in counties affected by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. A theoretical model was designed to investigate rural households’ disaster risk perception and used path analysis to systematically analyze the mechanism of the factors stated above. The results showed that 53.11% of rural households had a stronger willingness to purchase disease insurance and 72.19% had a stronger willingness to relocate to avoid disasters. Risk perception, knowledge and reported skills, and awareness of disaster risk reduction were significantly correlated with a willingness to purchase disaster insurance. Risk perception and awareness of disaster risk reduction were significantly positively correlated with a willingness to relocate to avoid disasters. Knowledge and reported skills indirectly affected the willingness to purchase insurance and the willingness to relocate to avoid disasters through risk perception and awareness of disaster risk reduction. Risk perception could indirectly affect the willingness to purchase insurance and the willingness to relocate to avoid disasters through awareness of disaster risk reduction.

Financial Preparation, Disaster Experience, and Disaster Risk Perception of Rural Households in Earthquake-Stricken Areas: Evidence From the Wenchuan and Lushan Earthquakes in China's Sichuan Province

Sichuan is a province in Southwest China that is famous worldwide for its earthquakes. However, few quantitative studies in China have probed the correlations between rural households’ financial preparation, disaster experience, and disaster-risk perception. Using survey data of 327 rural households from four areas stricken by the Wenchuan Earthquake and Lushan Earthquake in Sichuan, the ordinary least square (OLS) method was used to quantitatively explore the correlations between these three factors. The results show that rural households’ total family cash income, asset diversity, and whether rural households can borrow money from relatives and friends whenever there is a catastrophe such as an earthquake are significantly negatively correlated with the probability of disaster occurrence. Asset diversity and whether rural households can borrow money from banks whenever there is a catastrophe such as an earthquake are significantly positively related to the severity of disaster occurrence. The severity of residents’ disaster experience is not significantly correlated with the probability of disaster occurrence, but is significantly positively related to the severity of the disaster. The research results can provide useful enlightenment for the improvement of financial preparedness and disaster risk management for rural households in earthquake-stricken areas.

Rural Households' Poverty and Relocation and Settlement: Evidence from Western China

Based on survey data collected from five counties across southern Shaanxi, China, the present study employs a multinomial logistic model to explore the main factors related to the type of poverty of rural households, particularly focusing on the role of relocation time, reason for relocation, and type of relocation. The results showed that three types of poverty, “voluntary poverty”, “transient poverty”, and “chronic poverty”, are distinguished by combining income and consumption criteria. Moreover, relocation and settlement programs contribute to a certain degree to these three kinds of poverty, and the effects vary according to the relocation characteristics. Specifically, those relocated long-term were more likely to be trapped in “voluntary poverty” and “chronic poverty”, whereas those relocated short-term were less likely to fall into “voluntary poverty” and “transient poverty”. The poverty alleviation and disaster-related resettlers were less likely to be trapped in “chronic poverty”, whereas centralized resettlers were less likely to be trapped in “voluntary poverty” and “chronic poverty”. Additionally, demographic characteristics, capital endowment variables, and geographical features are all important factors affecting rural households’ type of poverty. This study can serve as a reference for further resettlement practice in China and other developing countries.

Sensitivity of Rural Households’ Livelihood Strategies to Livelihood Capital in Poor Mountainous Areas: An Empirical Analysis in the Upper Reaches of the Min River, China

Exploring the sensitivity of rural households’ livelihood strategies to livelihood capital is of great significance for improving rural households’ livelihood levels. This paper selects 23 livelihood capital measurement indicators and conducts an in-depth survey of rural households. In addition, the entropy method and a weighted comprehensive model are used to explore the basic characteristics of rural households’ livelihood capital in the upper reaches of the Min River, China, in 2017. Furthermore, econometric models are used to analyze the sensitivity of rural households’ livelihood strategies to livelihood capital. As indicated from the research, the livelihood capital levels of different types of rural households in the study area are not equivalent. The types of rural households with different livelihood strategies can be ordered in terms of quantity as follows: non-agricultural type > non-agricultural dominant type > agricultural dominant type > pure agricultural type. Livelihood strategies have different sensitivities to different livelihood capital measurement indicators. Among these indicators, cash income, the number of relatives and friends available for financial assistance, and the number of civil servants have positive effects on the livelihood strategy selection of non-agricultural dominant rural households and non-agricultural rural households. However, the average age of laborers, area of cultivated land and gardens, number of livestock and poultry, and present value of production tools have negative effects. These evaluation results can provide a scientific decision-making basis for the formulation of poverty alleviation policies by relevant government departments.

Labor migration and farmland abandonment in rural China: Empirical results and policy implications

Farmland abandonment is a universal socio-economic phenomenon in various countries in the world. However, there is a lack of the large-sample empirical research on rural households' farmland abandonment in China, and few studies have explored the quantitative influences of labor migration on rural households' farmland abandonment. This study uses the survey data of 8031 rural households from 27 provinces (cities) in China. It analyzes the spatial distribution characteristics of labor migration and farmland abandonment on the basis of provinces (cities). Moreover, it constructs the iv-probit models and the iv-tobit models to quantitatively explore the influences of off-farm employment and part-time employment on rural households' farmland abandonment. The results show that: Labor migration and farmland abandonment in various provinces (cities) of China present the trend of spatial area agglomeration. The regional differences of off-farm laborers are significant, whereas the regional differences of part-time laborers are relatively small; Labor migration would promote rural households' farmland abandonment. When other conditions remain unchanged, with every 10% increase in off-farm employment and part-time employment, the average probability of rural households' farmland abandonment increases by 4% and 5%, respectively, and the average farmland area that rural household abandons increases by 3% and 5%, respectively. This study can enhance the understanding of the relationship between labor migration and rural households' farmland abandonment in China, so as to provide reference for the rational allocation of labor resources and the formulation of the policies related to ensuring food security.

Landslides and Cropland Abandonment in China’s Mountainous Areas: Spatial Distribution, Empirical Analysis and Policy Implications

Cropland, as the largest land use type in the human landscape, contributes to not only biodiversity but also global food security. However, cropland abandonment not only is harmful to agricultural cultural landscapes but also threatens food security. Prior studies have suggested that changes in the social environment drive farmers to abandon cropland. In contrast, this study reveals that factors of the natural environment (e.g., landslides) have steadily and significantly affected cropland abandonment after controlling the factors of the social environment. More specifically, based on the survey data of a large sample of 4850 mountainous households in 24 provinces of China and following the theoretical framework of “environment → land use”, this study quantitatively identified the impacts of landslides on cropland abandonment in mountainous areas using the Probit and Tobit models. The results show that: (1) There is a similar spatial agglomeration trend between landslides and cropland abandonment. Namely, an area that has a high incidence of landslides also has a high incidence of cropland abandonment. (2) There is a significant and positive correlation between landslides and cropland abandonment. Namely, compared with peasants who have not suffered from landslides, the probability that peasants suffering from landslides will abandon cropland and the area abandoned increase by 6.8% and 0.064 mu, respectively. (3) Elderly farmers (over 64 years old) and the development of urbanization help curb cropland abandonment in the mountains. The results of this study may provide reference for the government to implement effective policies for managing landslides and revitalizing unused cropland resources.

Labor Off-Farm Employment and Cropland Abandonment in Rural China: Spatial Distribution and Empirical Analysis

Alleviating cropland misallocation is helpful for the sustainable development of agriculture. Does off-farm employment inevitably result in cropland misallocation (e.g., cropland abandonment) and threaten the sustainable development of agriculture? This study differs from prior studies in its view that off-farm employment does not necessarily result in cropland abandonment. Specifically, the study employs survey data from 8031 peasant households from 27 provinces in rural China and spatial statistics to analyze the distribution of off-farm employment and cropland abandonment. Empirical models (i.e., IV-Probit and IV-Tobit) are used to examine the quantitative relation between off-farm employment and cropland abandonment. The results are as follows. (1) The spatial distribution of off-farm employment or cropland abandonment differs among regions. Regions with a higher rate of off-farm employment show more cropland abandonment but a lower average area of cropland abandonment. (2) Off-farm employment has a significant and positive correlation with cropland abandonment. However, its square has a significant and negative correlation with cropland abandonment; i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and cropland abandonment, with the turning point occurring at 46.00% off-farm employment. (3) Off-farm employment has a significant and positive correlation with the area of cropland abandonment. However, its square has a significant and negative correlation with the area; i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and area, with the turning point occurring at 44.50% off-farm employment. This study reveals the relationship between off-farm employment and cropland abandonment and provides policymakers with references for use in developing sustainable agriculture.