Microbial Contamination and Survival Rate on Different Types of Banknotes

Stability of pathogens on banknotes and coins: A narrative review

For the prevention of infectious diseases, knowledge about potential transmission routes is essential. Pathogens can be transmitted directly (i.e. respiratory droplets, hand-to-hand contact) or indirectly via contaminated surfaces (fomites). In particular, frequently touched objects/surfaces may serve as transmission vehicles for different clinically relevant bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. Banknotes and coins offer ample surface area and are frequently exchanged between individuals. Consequently, many concerns have been raised in the recent past, that banknotes and coins could serve as vectors for the transmission of disease-causing microorganisms. This review summarizes the latest research on the potential of paper currency and coins to serve as sources of pathogenic viral, bacterial, and fungal agents. In contrast to the current perception of banknotes and coins as important transmission vehicles, current evidence suggests, that banknotes and coins do not pose a particular risk of pathogen infection for the public.

Mutant-Dependent Local Orientational Correlation in Biofilms of Vibrio campbellii Revealed through Digital Processing of Light Microscopy Images

Biofilms are key bacterial communities in genetic and adaptive resistance to antibiotics as well as disease control strategies. The mature high-coverage biofilm formations of the Vibrio campbellii strains (wild type BB120 and isogenic derivatives JAF633, KM387, and JMH603) are studied here through the unstraightforward digital processing of morphologically complex images without segmentation or the unrealistic simplifications used to artificially simulate low-density formations. The main results concern the specific mutant- and coverage-dependent short-range orientational correlation as well as the coherent development of biofilm growth pathways over the subdomains of the image. These findings are demonstrated to be unthinkable based only on a visual inspection of the samples or on methods such as Voronoi tessellation or correlation analyses. The presented approach is general, relies on measured rather than simulated low-density formations, and could be employed in the development of a highly efficient screening method for drugs or innovative materials.

Opportunistic Pathogens of Recreational Waters with Emphasis on Antimicrobial Resistance-A Possible Subject of Human Health Concern

Infections caused by exposure to opportunistic pathogens can cause serious health problems during recreational water use. The problem of diseases caused by microbes transmitted by water is a major public health challenge, especially in developing countries with economic problems and poor hygiene conditions. Moreover, the quality of water in natural reservoirs is often at a very low level in terms of microbiological water purity, which means that their use for recreational purposes, but also as a source of drinking water, may have serious health consequences. Recreational waters pose a threat to human health. Therefore, the quality of recreational waters is closely monitored in many jurisdictions. In this review, we summarize key information on the most common pathogens that can be water-based or waterborne. The issue of antimicrobial resistance among opportunistic pathogens remains equally important. It is important not only to fight pathogens, but also to take action to reduce chemical stressors (especially antibiotics) in the aquatic environment, and to understand the various mechanisms of the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes.

Decreased Antibiotic Consumption Coincided with Reduction in Bacteremia Caused by Bacterial Species with Respiratory Transmission Potential during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Nonpharmaceutical interventions implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020−2021) have provided a unique opportunity to understand their impact on the wholesale supply of antibiotics and incidences of infections represented by bacteremia due to common bacterial species in Hong Kong. The wholesale antibiotic supply data (surrogate indicator of antibiotic consumption) and notifications of scarlet fever, chickenpox, and tuberculosis collected by the Centre for Health Protection, and the data of blood cultures of patients admitted to public hospitals in Hong Kong collected by the Hospital Authority for the last 10 years, were tabulated and analyzed. A reduction in the wholesale supply of antibiotics was observed. This decrease coincided with a significant reduction in the incidence of community-onset bacteremia due to Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis, which are encapsulated bacteria with respiratory transmission potential. This reduction was sustained during two pandemic years (period 2: 2020−2021), compared with eight pre-pandemic years (period 1: 2012−2019). Although the mean number of patient admissions per year (1,704,079 vs. 1,702,484, p = 0.985) and blood culture requests per 1000 patient admissions (149.0 vs. 158.3, p = 0.132) were not significantly different between periods 1 and 2, a significant reduction in community-onset bacteremia due to encapsulated bacteria was observed in terms of the mean number of episodes per year (257 vs. 58, p < 0.001), episodes per 100,000 admissions (15.1 vs. 3.4, p < 0.001), and per 10,000 blood culture requests (10.1 vs. 2.1, p < 0.001), out of 17,037,598 episodes of patient admissions with 2,570,164 blood culture requests. Consistent with the findings of bacteremia, a reduction in case notification of scarlet fever and airborne infections, including tuberculosis and chickenpox, was also observed; however, there was no reduction in the incidence of hospital-onset bacteremia due to Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli. Sustained implementation of non-pharmaceutical interventions against respiratory microbes may reduce the overall consumption of antibiotics, which may have a consequential impact on antimicrobial resistance. Rebound of conventional respiratory microbial infections is likely with the relaxation of these interventions.

Characterisation of Salmonella Enteritidis ST11 and ST1925 Associated with Human Intestinal and Extra-Intestinal Infections in Singapore

Salmonella Enteritidis is a major foodborne pathogen worldwide. In this study, a total of 276 S. enteritidis isolates, collected between 2016 and 2017 from human, food and farm/slaughterhouse samples, were studied to enhance the understanding of the epidemiology of human salmonellosis in Singapore. Results showed all 276 isolates belonged either to ST1925 (70.3%) or ST11 (29.7%), with ST11 being significantly more frequent in extra-intestinal isolates and chicken isolates. Food isolates, most of which were from poultry, showed the highest prevalence of resistance (33–37%) against beta-lactams or beta-lactams/beta-lactamase inhibitor combination (ampicillin, piperacillin and ampicillin/sulbactam). The analysis showed the detection of genes associated with resistance to aminoglycoside genes (99.6%), tetracycline (55.1%), and beta-lactams (14.9%) of all isolates. Nine types of plasmids were found in 266 isolates; the most common incompatibility group profiles were IncFIB(S)-IncFII(S)-IncX1 (72.2%) and IncFIB(S)-IncFII(S) (15.8%). Most plasmid harbouring isolates from chicken (63.6%, 14/22) and from human (73.8%, 175/237) shared the same plasmid profile (IncFIB(S)-IncFII(S)-IncX1). SNP analysis showed clustering of several isolates from poultry food products and human isolates, suggesting phylogenetic relatedness among these isolates. Lastly, this study provides important epidemiological insights on the application of phenotypic and next-generation sequencing (NGS) tools for improved food safety and public health surveillance and outbreak investigation of S.enteritidis.

Pathogen- and Type-Specific Changes in Invasive Bacterial Disease Epidemiology during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic in The Netherlands

COVID-19 control measures have resulted in a decline in invasive bacterial disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis (IMD), Streptococcus pneumoniae (IPD), and Haemophilus influenzae (Hi-D). These species comprise different serogroups and serotypes that impact transmissibility and virulence. We evaluated type- and pathogen-specific changes in invasive bacterial disease epidemiology in the Netherlands during the first year of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Cases were based on nationwide surveillance for five bacterial species with either respiratory (IMD, IPD, Hi-D) or non-respiratory (controls) transmission routes and were compared from the pre-COVID period (April 2015−March 2020) to the first COVID-19 year (April 2020−March 2021). IMD, IPD, and Hi-D cases decreased by 78%, 67%, and 35%, respectively, in the first COVID-19 year compared to the pre-COVID period, although effects differed per age group. Serogroup B-IMD declined by 61%, while serogroup W and Y-IMD decreased >90%. IPD caused by serotypes 7F, 15A, 12F, 33F, and 8 showed the most pronounced decline (≥76%). In contrast to an overall decrease in Hi-D cases, vaccine-preventable serotype b (Hib) increased by 51%. COVID-19 control measures had pathogen- and type-specific effects related to invasive infections. Continued surveillance is critical to monitor potential rebound effects once restriction measures are lifted and transmission is resumed.