Gender Differences in Fundamental Motor Skills Proficiency in Children Aged 3-6 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Effects of a staff-led multicomponent physical activity intervention on preschooler's fundamental motor skills and physical fitness: The ACTNOW cluster-randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) and physical fitness (FIT) play important roles in child development and provide a foundation for lifelong participation in physical activity (PA). Unfortunately, many children have suboptimal levels of PA, FMS, and FIT. The Active Learning Norwegian Preschool(er)s (ACTNOW) study investigated the effects of a staff-led PA intervention on FMS, FIT, and PA in 3-5-year-old children.

METHODS

Preschools in Western Norway having ≥ six 3-4-year-old children were invited (n = 56). Of these, 46 agreed to participate and were cluster-randomized into an intervention (n = 23 preschools [381 children, 3.8 yrs., 55% boys]) or a control group (n = 23 [438, 3.7 yrs., 52% boys]). Intervention preschools participated in an 18-month PA intervention involving a 7-month staff professional development between 2019 and 2022, amounting to 50 h, including face-to-face seminars, webinars, and digital lectures. Primary outcomes in ACTNOW were cognition variables, whereas this study investigated effects on secondary outcomes. FMS was measured through 9 items covering locomotor, object control, and balance skills. FIT was assessed as motor fitness (4 × 10 shuttle-run test) and upper and lower muscular strength (handgrip and standing long jump). PA was measured with accelerometers (ActiGraph GT3X +). All measures took place at baseline, 7-, and 18-month follow-up. Effects were analysed using a repeated measures linear mixed model with child and preschool as random effects and with adjustment for baseline scores.

RESULTS

Participants in the intervention preschools showed positive, significant effects for object control skills at 7 months (standardized effect size (ES) = 0.17) and locomotor skills at 18 months (ES = 0.21) relative to controls. A negative effect was found for handgrip strength (ES = -0.16) at 7 months. No effects were found for balance skills, standing long jump, or motor fitness. During preschool hours, sedentary time decreased (ES = -0.18), and light (ES = 0.14) and moderate-to-vigorous PA (ES = 0.16) increased at 7 months, whereas light PA decreased at 18 months (ES = -0.15), for intervention vs control. No effects were found for other intensities or full day PA.

CONCLUSIONS

The ACTNOW intervention improved some FMS outcomes and increased PA short-term. Further research is needed to investigate how to improve effectiveness of staff-led PA interventions and achieve sustainable improvements in children's PA, FMS, and FIT.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT04048967 , registered August 7, 2019.

FUNDING

ACTNOW was supported by the Research Council of Norway (grant number 287903), the County Governor of Sogn og Fjordane, the Sparebanken Sogn og Fjordane Foundation, and the Western Norway University of Applied Sciences.

Sleep and fundamental movement skills in primary schoolchildren: The REACT project

OBJECTIVE

Whether sleep is related to fundamental movement skills (FMS) in the pediatric population is largely unknown. The objective of this study was to examine the association between sleep characteristics (duration, efficiency, regularity) and FMS proficiency levels in school-aged children.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 996 children (mean age: 8.3 ± 1.2 years) from 25 of the 32 primary schools in Matosinhos, northern Portugal. Data collection occurred between January and June 2022. Sleep was assessed using an ActiGraph wGT3X-BT accelerometer worn on the wrist for 7 consecutive days. FMS proficiency levels were assessed in the schools with a new digital platform (Meu Educativo®) that evaluated five object control skills (dribble, kick, catch, throw, and underhand roll), with a total score ranging between 5 and 15. Multilevel ordinal logistic regression was used to test the associations between sleep characteristics and FMS proficiency levels. Covariates included age, sex, body mass index z-score, socioeconomic status, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

RESULTS

The results showed that sleep characteristics (duration, efficiency, and regularity) were not related to FMS proficiency. Being a boy, older age, and higher moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels were all significantly associated with better FMS proficiency levels. There were no significant sex-by-age interactions.

CONCLUSION

Sleep was not found to be related to FMS performance in children. This finding suggests that sleep is not a good correlate of FMS proficiency levels in school-aged children, and attention should be dedicated to other more important factors such as skill-learning-specific physical activity.

Development of Basic Motor Skills from 3 to 10 Years of Age: Comparison by Sex and Age Range in Chilean Children

Basic motor skills are recognized as fundamental movements that allow children to interact with their environment and are identified as the basic structure on which more complex movements are built.

OBJECTIVE

to identify the level of motor development of children from 3 to 10 years of age according to sex and age group.

METHODOLOGY

We studied a sample with a total of 328 participants (girls = 170; boys = 158) at preschool (n = 154) and school levels (n = 174). The ages of the students ranged from 3 to 10 years, with a mean of 5.94 years (±2.53). TGMD2 was applied to identify motor development.

RESULTS

boys and girls present low levels of physical activity, with most of them in the very poor, poor, and low-average categories (n = 182, 55.5%). Levels of motor development in locomotion, manipulation, and general development by age show significant differences (p = 0.000). However, levels of development by sex are not significant in manipulation, locomotion, and gross motor skills tests, respectively (p = 0.150, p = 0.208, and p = 0.210), and in relation to chronological age and motor development age show significant differences (p = 0.000).

Associations Between Object Control Skills and Cognitive Functions in Boys, Younger and Older Men: Across-Sectional Study

Purpose: This study aimed to explore the association of cognitive function and process- as well product-oriented outcomes of object control skills (OCS) in boys, younger and older men. Methods: A total of 77 male participants took part in this study, including 35 primary school children (9.04 ± 0.53 years), 22 younger adults (23.5 ± 2.34 years), and 20 older adults (69.5 ± 4.43 years). We assessed the process-oriented performance of throwing, kicking, and catching performance using the component approach. For the product-oriented performance, throwing and kicking velocity was recorded with a STALKER SOLO 2.0 radar gun. For catching, the number of caught balls was assessed. Cognitive function was evaluated using the Trail-Making-Test (TMT) one day later. Results: Younger adults performed better in both domains than the other two groups. The results of the children and older adults were comparable in the motor and cognitive domains. However, the older adults yielded significantly better results for the process-oriented catching and product-oriented throwing performances. Moderate to strong correlations exist between OCS- and TMT performance, with significant correlations predominantly between product-oriented OCS results and TMT in children. Conclusion: The results of both domains support a hypothetical lifespan developmental trajectory with a progression from childhood to younger adult age and a degression in older adults. Furthermore, our results suggest that the suspected relationship between motor and cognitive function depends on age, the analyzed cognitive and motor skills, and the applied methodological approach (process-oriented vs. product-oriented).

An experimental study on the influence of healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability of Chinese senior high school students

In recent years, the growing incidence of health issues among Chinese students, including obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases, has been attributed to a sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity, and unhealthy eating habits. Physical education (PE) classes play a crucial role in promoting physical activity and fostering healthy lifestyles among Chinese students. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the healthy PE curriculum model on the sports ability of senior high school students in China. The trial adopted a quasi-experimental design with equivalent groups. The experimental group followed the healthy PE curriculum model in their PE classes, while the control group received traditional technical instruction. During the 12-week intervention, 149 senior high school students completed the sports ability test as both the pre-test and post-test measurements for this experimental study. The results indicated that the experimental group showed significant improvements in sports ability compared to the control group, highlighting the positive effects of the healthy PE curriculum model. The structural characteristics of the healthy PE curriculum model provided essential support for students' learning and proved to be an effective way to promote physical literacy among senior high school students in China.

Sex differences in 3- to 5-year-old children's motor competence: A pooled cross-sectional analysis of 6241 children

There is some, albeit inconsistent, evidence supporting sex differences in preschoolers' motor competence (MC), with these observations not uniform when analyzed by age, and cultural groups. Thus, this study examined sex differences across ages in 3- to 5-year-old children's MC. A cross-country pooled sample of 6241 children aged 3-5 years (49.6% girls) was assessed for MC using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd/3rd edition, and children were categorized into groups of age in months. Multiple linear regression models and predictive margins were calculated to explore how sex and age in months affect scores of MC (i.e., locomotor and ball skills), with adjustments for country and BMI. The Chow's Test was used to test for the presence of a structural break in the data. Significant differences in favor of girls were seen at 57-59 and 66-68 months of age for locomotor skills; boys performed better in ball skills in all age periods, except for 42-44 and 45-47 months of age. The higher marginal effects were observed for the period between 45-47 and 48-50 months for locomotor skills (F = 30.21; and F = 25.90 for girls and boys, respectively), and ball skills (F = 19.01; and F = 42.11 for girls and boys, respectively). A significantly positive break point was seen at 45-47 months, highlighting the age interval where children's MC drastically improved. The identification of this breakpoint provides an evidence-based metric for when we might expect MC to rapidly increase, and an indicator of early delay when change does not occur at that age.

Impact and Implementation of an Early Years Fundamental Motor Skills Intervention for Children 4-5 Years

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are the cornerstone of a child's motor development, but concerns remain on the current level of FMS competencies, and intervention is required. This evaluation investigated if a targeted Early Years FMS intervention, delivered by a specialist physical education (PE) provider, improved the FMS of 4-5-year-old children across multiple sites.

METHODS

The Early Years FMS intervention ran for 18 weeks, 1 h/week, using a standardised programme of activities to develop FMS competencies across 219 children from 15 schools in the Midlands, UK. An adapted assessment was employed as a measure of FMS, assessing locomotor, object control, and stability skills at weeks 1, 9, and 18. The FMS were each rated as green = competent, amber = working towards, or red = not meeting the standards of the skill. A description of key programme implementation characteristics was described.

FINDINGS

Statistically significant increases in FMS competencies were achieved for 80% of participants at 18 weeks. Key implementation characteristics for the intervention included consistent staffing, a standardised programme, and a variety of pedagogical approaches delivered by specialist PE staff.

CONCLUSION

This evaluation provided important insights into the effectiveness and implementation of the Early Years FMS intervention to improve FMS competencies in children aged 4-5 years.

The Effects of a 6-Week Swimming Intervention on Gross Motor Development in Primary School Children

(1) Background: This study examines the effects of a 6-week swimming intervention on motor competence in children. (2) Methods: A total of 107 children (n = 52 boys, n = 55 girls) aged 7.8 ± 0.63 years that were recruited from five primary schools in central England participated in this study, undertaking either an aquatic intervention once a week for six weeks or acting as a control group completing their usual physical education program. Participants underwent pre- and post-assessments of general motor competence using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Third Edition (TGMD-3) (a process measure) and a composite of 10 m running sprint time and standing long jump distance (product measures). Aquatic motor competence was assessed via the Aquatic Movement Protocol (AMP). Fear of drowning and swimming opportunities were also assessed by implementing a questionnaire. (3) Results: Following a mixed-model ANOVA, an overall main effect was found from pre (40.05 ± 13.6) to post (48.3 ± 18.6) for TGMD-3 scores (p < 0.05) and pre (38.7 ± 31.7) to post (50.6 ± 36.8) for AMP scores (p = 0.001). A negative significant relationship was found between AMP scores with both fear of water (p = 0.01) and fear of drowning (p < 0.05). A positive significant relationship was found between swimming opportunities and AMP score (p = 0.001). (4) Conclusions: The aquatic-based intervention improves not only aquatic motor competence but also transfers improvements in dryland movement competencies. Future research should look to implement control groupings which do not participate in swimming to further investigate the difference between swimmers and non-swimmers; however, due to swimming being a part of the national curriculum in England, this may not be feasible.

Influence of different caregiving styles on fundamental movement skills among children

Purpose

This study investigated the influence of parenting and grandparenting caregiving styles on fundamental motor skills (FMS) of preschool children.

Method

A total of 1,326 preschool children (698 boys, 628 girls) aged 4-6 years were recruited from the kindergartens of Jinhua City, China. Locomotor skills (LM), ball skills (BS), and total fundamental movement skills (TS) of children were assessed by the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd edition (TGMD-3).

Results

There were 978 children in parenting and 348 children in grandparenting caregiving styles. The LM, BS and TS scores of children were considerably (p < 0.001) increased with age (irrespective of sex or caregiving style). For the sex comparisons, BS scores of boys were significantly higher than girls (p < 0.001), while LM and TS scores were not different between boys and girls. For the caregiving style comparison, parenting is superior to grandparenting in developing of children's FMS. Parenting boys of 4-, 5-, and 6-years old showed better BS compared to age-matched parenting girls, whereas boys of 5-years old in grandparenting only showed better BS compared to same-age grandparenting girls (p < 0.05). Furthermore, parenting boys of 6-years reported higher LM (p < 0.01), BS (p < 0.001), and TS (p < 0.001) scores compared to grandparenting boys, but girls' FMS at all ages were not significantly different between the caregiving styles.

Conclusion

Parenting caregiving style is positively associated with proper development of FMS among children. Girl children with poor FMS in grandparenting may need a special care or intervention programs to promote their FMS.

Gamified family-based health exercise intervention to improve adherence to 24-h movement behaviors recommendations in children: "3, 2, 1 Move on Study"

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that movement patterns, including physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep duration, throughout a 24-h period, have a significant impact on biological processes and health outcomes for both young and adult populations. However, 80% of adolescents worldwide are not sufficiently active, and many children do not meet international physical activity recommendations for their age. Thus, the aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of a 12-week gamified family-based health and exercise intervention on physical fitness, basic motor competencies, mental and behavioral health, and adherence to 24-h movement guidelines in children aged 4 to 5 years old. The study will evaluate changes in sedentary levels, physical fitness, basic motor competencies, mental and behavioral disorders, adherence to the exercise program, and compliance with physical activity recommendations. In addition, the aim of this protocol is to describe the scientific rationale in detail and to provide information about the study procedures.

METHODS/DESIGN

A total of 80 children, aged 4 to 5 years old, will be randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to one of two groups: the exercise group and the routine care group. The exercise group will undergo a 12-week exercise intervention, followed by a 12-week follow-up period. On the other hand, the routine care group will undergo a 12-week period of routine care, followed by a 12-week follow-up control period. The exercise program will be implemented in a family setting and facilitated through a gamified web platform with online supervision, with the hypothesis that it will have a positive impact on physical fitness, anthropometric measures, basic motor competencies, and adherence to 24-h movement guidelines.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study will provide valuable insights into the impact of a gamified, family-oriented health and exercise program on various aspects of health, including physical fitness, basic motor competencies, mental and behavioral well-being, and adherence to 24-h movement guidelines. The findings will contribute to closing the gap in current knowledge on the effectiveness of these types of interventions for children and their parents. These findings will also contribute to  the development of future guidelines for promoting physical activity in children who do not meet the World Health Organization's recommended levels. An online "3, 2, 1 Move on Study" is believed to increase accessibility, promoting health equity, and reducing economic barriers for all children and their families across diverse social groups.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial registration: NCT05741879 . Registered February 14, 2023, Version 1.

Associations between basic motor competencies and physical fitness in Spanish pre-schoolers: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Basic motor competencies (BMC) play a vital role in child development and are a primary focus of physical education. However, there is a lack of research on BMC in preschool-aged children, making this study particularly significant. The present study aims to examine the relationship between BMC and physical fitness components in Spanish preschool children.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 101 children (n = 52 boys, average age of 4.80 years) living in Pamplona, North Spain. Components of physical fitness (handgrip strength, standing long jump, speed-agility, and cardiorespiratory fitness) were assessed using the PREFIT Battery. Overall physical fitness was computed from the four selected fitness components separately for boys and girls. Higher z-scores values in physical fitness indicate better fitness performance. To assess BMC, the MOBAK KG test battery was applied (subscales of object control and self-movement). Sex, age, and body mass index were used as main confounders.

RESULTS

After adjustment for confounding factors, the BMC was positively associated with single (z-scores) components and overall physical fitness sum of z-scores (R2 from 0.178 to 0.469, all P-values < 0.05). Additional percentile scores weakened the associations, but they still remained significant (R2 from 0.146 to 0.337, all P-values < 0.05). Compared with participants in the lowest tertile, those in the highest tertile of the MOBAK KG sum score, and in both object movement and self-movement test subscales had significantly higher scores in single fitness component (z-scores or percentile) and overall physical fitness sum of z-scores (all P for trend < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results revealed that higher BMC is associated with better physical fitness in Spanish preschool children. The findings emphasize the crucial role that basic motor competence plays in promoting physical activity in preschool children.

Direct Parent Engagement to Improve Fundamental Movement Skills in Children: A Systematic Review

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic movements in children that represent the building blocks for more complex motor skill development and act as a prerequisite for enduring sport and physical activity (PA) engagement and positive health-related behaviours. The FMS proficiency is currently inadequate worldwide, and consequently there are alarming levels of inactivity and childhood obesity. However, parents are role models to their children and possess the power to influence their PA behaviour. This review investigated if parent-focused interventions could improve FMS in 2-7-year-old children and evaluated which setting and method of parent engagement was most impactful. Keyword searches were conducted via Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Only nine articles met the inclusion criteria. No research originated from the United Kingdom, highlighting the urgent need for further FMS interventions involving parents. The FMS improved in all nine studies, with significant changes in seven of the articles (p < 0.05). Parent-child co-activity, the education and empowerment of parents, and the provision of clear FMS guidance, messaging, and structure can positively influence children's FMS. Recently, smartphone apps have increased the feasibility and accessibility of FMS practice at home and may be integral to future interventions. Further research with direct parental involvement is clearly warranted.

Relationships between physical activity, fundamental motor skills, and body mass index in preschool children

Purpose

To investigate whether there is a potential relationship between physical activity (PA), fundamental motor skills (FMS), and Body Mass Index (BMI) in preschool children and to further explore the differences in PA and FMS between normal-weight and overweight/obese preschool children.

Method

Participants were 366 preschool children aged 3 to 6 years; 358 completed all tests (194 boys and 164 girls). PA, FMS, body weight, and height were measured by triaxial accelerometer, the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2), and anthropometry measurement, respectively.

Result

The overall rate of overweight/obesity was 17.0%, with no significant gender difference (χ ² = 0.628, p = 0.428). Older children perform significantly better in both object control skills and locomotor skills. Independent samples t-tests were used to examine the difference between genders on FMS and PA: girls in the 5-year-old group display better locomotor skills (p = 0.012) than boys. Boys spent more time on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and less time on sedentary activity when compared to girls. Results of partial correlation analysis showed that PA was significantly and positively correlated with both locomotor skills and object control skills in preschool children (p < 0.01), while there was no correlation between FMS, PA level, and BMI. Results of ANCOVA revealed no significant difference in FMS between normal-weight and overweight or obese preschool children; normal-weight girls had significantly longer MPA and MVPA duration and significantly shorter sedentary periods than overweight or obese girls (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Overweight/obesity in preschool children requires effective measures. PA is positively associated with FMS, while BMI is not potentially related to FMS or PA in preschool years. Overweight or obese girls should develop healthier weight status by increasing MVPA hours and reducing sedentary time.