Immunogenicity and Cross-Protective Efficacy Induced by Outer Membrane Proteins from Salmonella Typhimurium Mutants with Truncated LPS in Mice

Immunogenicity and cross-protective efficacy induced by delayed attenuated Salmonella with regulated length of lipopolysaccharide in mice

Non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica (NTS) is a major global foodborne pathogen that poses a major public health concern worldwide, and no vaccines are available for protecting against infection of multiple Salmonella serotypes, therefore, the development of Salmonella vaccines to provide broad protection is valuable. In this work, we aimed to regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis of live Salmonella in vivo for exposing conserved protein antigens on the outer membrane while maintaining smooth LPS patterns in vitro to keep their original ability to invade host cells for inducing cross-protection against infection of multiple Salmonella serotypes. We generated a series of mutants defective in genes to affect the length of LPS. These mutants exhibit in vivo regulated-delayed attenuation and altered length of LPS, and all these mutants were derived from SW067 (ΔpagL7 ΔpagP81::Plpp lpxE ΔlpxR9 Δfur9) containing ∆pagP81::Plpp lpxE mutation to reduce their endotoxic activity. Animal experiments demonstrated that all regulated delayed attenuated mutants exhibited reduced ability to colonize the organs of the mice, and SW114 (waaI), SW116 (waaJ), SW118 (waaL), and SW120 (wbaP) induced a significant production of IgG and IgA against OMPs isolated from S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, and S. Choleraesuis. SW114 (waaI), SW116 (waaJ), and SW118 (waaL) were capable of conferring significant protection against infection of wild-type S. Enteritidis and S. Choleraesuis, with SW118 (waaL) triggering significant CD4+ T-cell responses as well as the B220low IgG+ BM cell. In conclusion, regulated delayed attenuated Salmonella vaccines with the whole core oligosaccharides of LPS showed a goo.d ability to expose conserved outer antigens and to trigger strong cross-immune responses against both homologous and heterologous Salmonella infections. These results give new insight into the development of the Salmonella vaccine against multiple serotypes of Salmonella.

Engineered bacterial membrane vesicles are promising carriers for vaccine design and tumor immunotherapy

Bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) have emerged as novel and promising platforms for the development of vaccines and immunotherapeutic strategies against infectious and noninfectious diseases. The rich microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and nanoscale membrane vesicle structure of BMVs make them highly immunogenic. In addition, BMVs can be endowed with more functions via genetic and chemical modifications. This article reviews the immunological characteristics and effects of BMVs, techniques for BMV production and modification, and the applications of BMVs as vaccines or vaccine carriers. In summary, given their versatile characteristics and immunomodulatory properties, BMVs can be used for clinical vaccine or immunotherapy applications.

Evaluation of Safety and Protective Efficacy of a waaJ and spiC Double Deletion Korean Epidemic Strain of Salmonella enterica Serovar Gallinarum

With an aim to develop a highly attenuated and strongly immunogenic distinguishable vaccine candidate, a waaJ (a gene involved in the synthesis of lipopolysaccharide) and spiC (a virulence gene) double deletion Korean epidemic strain of S. enterica ser. Gallinarum (SG005) was constructed. Our results showed that the growth and biochemical characteristics were not altered by this double deletion. The double deletion strain contained dual markers. One was a bacteriological marker (rough phenotype) and the other was a serological marker helping distinguish infected chickens from vaccinated chickens. The double deletion strain showed good genetic stability and reduced resistance to environmental stresses in vitro; furthermore, it was extremely safe and highly avirulent in broilers. Single intramuscular or oral immunization of 7-day-old broilers with the double deletion strain could stimulate the body to produce antibody levels similar to the conventional vaccine strain SG9R. In addition, against a lethal wild-type challenge, it conferred effective protection that was comparable to that seen in the group vaccinated with SG9R. In conclusion, this double deletion strain may be an effective vaccine candidate for controlling S. enterica ser. Gallinarum infection in broilers.

Engineered Remolding and Application of Bacterial Membrane Vesicles

Bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) are produced by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria during growth in vitro and in vivo. MVs are nanoscale vesicular structures with diameters ranging from 20 to 400 nm. MVs incorporate bacterial lipids, proteins, and often nucleic acids, and can effectively stimulate host immune response against bacterial infections. As vaccine candidates and drug delivery systems, MVs possess high biosafety owing to the lack of self-replication ability. However, wild-type bacterial strains have poor MV yield, and MVs from the wild-type strains may be harmful due to the carriage of toxic components, such as lipopolysaccharides, hemolysins, enzymes, etc. In this review, we summarize the genetic modification of vesicle-producing bacteria to reduce MV toxicity, enhance vesicle immunogenicity, and increase vesicle production. The engineered MVs exhibit broad applications in vaccine designs, vaccine delivery vesicles, and drug delivery systems.

"One for All": Functional Transfer of OMV-Mediated Polymyxin B Resistance From Salmonella enterica sv. Typhi ΔtolR and ΔdegS to Susceptible Bacteria

The appearance of multi-resistant strains has contributed to reintroducing polymyxin as the last-line therapy. Although polymyxin resistance is based on bacterial envelope changes, other resistance mechanisms are being reported. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are nanosized proteoliposomes secreted from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In some bacteria, OMVs have shown to provide resistance to diverse antimicrobial agents either by sequestering and/or expelling the harmful agent from the bacterial envelope. Nevertheless, the participation of OMVs in polymyxin resistance has not yet been explored in S. Typhi, and neither OMVs derived from hypervesiculating mutants. In this work, we explored whether OMVs produced by the hypervesiculating strains Salmonella Typhi ΔrfaE (LPS synthesis), ΔtolR (bacterial envelope) and ΔdegS (misfolded proteins and σ ^E activation) exhibit protective properties against polymyxin B. We found that the OMVs extracted from S. Typhi ΔtolR and ΔdegS protect S. Typhi WT from polymyxin B in a concentration-depending manner. By contrast, the protective effect exerted by OMVs from S. Typhi WT and S. Typhi ΔrfaE is much lower. This effect is achieved by the sequestration of polymyxin B, as assessed by the more positive Zeta potential of OMVs with polymyxin B and the diminished antibiotic's availability when coincubated with OMVs. We also found that S. Typhi ΔtolR exhibited an increased MIC of polymyxin B. Finally, we determined that S. Typhi ΔtolR and S. Typhi ΔdegS, at a lesser level, can functionally and transiently transfer the OMV-mediated polymyxin B resistance to susceptible bacteria in cocultures. This work shows that mutants in genes related to OMVs biogenesis can release vesicles with improved abilities to protect bacteria against membrane-active agents. Since mutations affecting OMV biogenesis can involve the bacterial envelope, mutants with increased resistance to membrane-acting agents that, in turn, produce protective OMVs with a high vesiculation rate (e.g., S. Typhi ΔtolR) can arise. Such mutants can functionally transfer the resistance to surrounding bacteria via OMVs, diminishing the effective concentration of the antimicrobial agent and potentially favoring the selection of spontaneous resistant strains in the environment. This phenomenon might be considered the source for the emergence of polymyxin resistance in an entire bacterial community.

Biomimetic bacterial and viral-based nanovesicles for drug delivery, theranostics, and vaccine applications

Smart nanocarriers obtained from bacteria and viruses offer excellent biomimetic properties which has led to significant research into the creation of advanced biomimetic materials. Their versatile biomimicry has application as biosensors, biomedical scaffolds, immobilization, diagnostics, and targeted or personalized treatments. The inherent natural traits of biomimetic and bioinspired bacteria- and virus-derived nanovesicles show potential for their use in clinical vaccines and novel therapeutic drug delivery systems. The past few decades have seen significant progress in the bioengineering of bacteria and viruses to manipulate and enhance their therapeutic benefits. From a pharmaceutical perspective, biomimetics enable the safe integration of naturally occurring bacteria and virus particles to achieve high, stable rates of cellular transfection/infection and prolonged circulation times. In addition, biomimetic technologies can overcome safety concerns associated with live-attenuated and inactivated whole bacteria or viruses. In this review, we provide an update on the utilization of bacterial and viral particles as drug delivery systems, theranostic carriers, and vaccine/immunomodulation modalities.

Immunogenicity and duration of immunity of the polyvalent vaccine against chicken salmonellosis

Poultry salmonellosis causes serious economic damage and must be prevented by disinfection, zoohygienic measures or by vaccination. To develop a new polyvalent vaccine against poultry salmonellosis, we used bacterial strains of Salmonella enteritidis, S. typhimurium and S. gallinarum. Antigenic and immunogenic efficacy of the vaccine was tested on specific-pathogen free chickens, which were divided into five groups of 10 birds in each group and were vaccinated intramuscularly at 8 and 12 weeks: group A (non-immunized control), group B (S. enteritidis mono-vaccine), group C (S. typhimurium mono-vaccine), group D (S. gallinarum mono-vaccine) and group E (trivalent vaccine Polimun Salmo). None of the immunized birds showed such adverse reactions as abnormal behaviour, mortality or signs of anorexia, depression or diarrhea. Two weeks after the revaccination, 5 birds in each group were challenged by watering 3 cm3 of working suspensions of S. gallinarum, S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis control strains at a concentration of 1 × 109 CFU. 72 h after the challenge, faeces were collected from all chickens in each group to identify Salmonella excretion with faeces, and the chickens were euthanized. Significant protection against the virulent challenge was observed in all immunized groups based on mortality and post-mortem lesions compared with the non-immunized control group. Blood samples were selected weekly from 5 chickens of each group for 184 days. The antigenic efficacy of the vaccines was studied by reaction of haemagglutination in the obtained serum. The potent antigen-specific response to lymphocyte activation found in all immunized groups indicated the induction of immune responses. Overall, the results showed that persistent immunity is formed in 4 weeks after the revaccination and lasts for a productive period. Immune response of chickens on day 184 after vaccination with Polimun Salmo was 1: 647, indicating that the developed polyvalent vaccine against common serovars of S. enterica in poultry is effective and immunogenic and can be further used in field studies.

Comparison of Humoral Immune Responses to Different Forms of Salmonella enterica Serovar Gallinarum Biovar Gallinarum

Fowl typhoid is caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Gallinarum biovar Gallinarum (SG), and live attenuated, rough vaccine strains have been used. Both humoral and cellular immune responses are involved in protection, but the humoral responses to different forms of SG antigens are unclear. In this study, we compared humoral responses to a killed oil-emulsion (OE) smooth vaccine (SG002) and its rough mutant vaccine (SR2-N6) strains using proteomics techniques. We identified two immunogenic outer membrane proteins (OmpA and OmpX), and the selected linear epitopes were successfully applied in peptide-ELISA. Our peptide- and total OMP-ELISAs were used to compare the temporal humoral responses to various SG antigens: OE SG002 and SR2-N6; live, killed [PBS-suspension (PS) and OE)] and mixed (live and PS) formulations of another rough vaccine strain (SG 9R); and orally challenge with a field strain. Serum antibodies to the linear epitopes of OmpA and OmpX lasted only for the first 2 weeks, but serum antibodies against OMPs increased over time. The rough strain (SR2-N6) and mixed SG 9R induced higher serum antibody titers than the smooth strain (SG002) and single SG 9R (OE, live and PS SG 9R), respectively. Infection with the field strain delayed the serum antibody response by ~2 weeks. Mucosal immunity was not induced by any formulation, except for infection with the field strain after SG 9R vaccination. Thus, our results may be useful to understand humoral immunity against various SG antigens and to improve vaccine programs and serological diagnosis in the field.

rOmpF and OMVs as efficient subunit vaccines against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis infections in poultry farms

Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis remains the most prevalent serotype causing human salmonellosis through the consumption of contaminated foods, especially poultry products. The development of a subunit vaccine against S. Enteritidis can not only protect chickens against Salmonella infection in the poultry industry but also cut the transmission sources. In this study, both the expressed recombinant outer membrane protein F (rOmpF) and extracted outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) were developed as subunit vaccines against S. Enteritidis challenge in chickens. Immunization with the subunit vaccine could induce not only antibody production but also strong cell-mediated immune response. Both rOmpF plus QuilA adjuvant and OMVs alone had highly protective efficacy against S. Enteritidis challenge and rapidly decreased the colonization of bacteria in chicken. These findings revealed the potential application of rOmpF and OMVs as subunit vaccines in the poultry industry.

Orally-administered outer-membrane vesicles from Helicobacter pylori reduce H. pylori infection via Th2-biased immune responses in mice

As the trend of antibiotic resistance has increased, prevention and treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection have been challenged by the fact that no vaccines preventing H. pylori infection are available. Scientists continue to make sustained efforts to find better vaccine formulations and adjuvants to eradicate this chronic infection. In this study, we systemically analyzed the protein composition and potential vaccine function of outer-membrane vesicles (OMVs) derived from gerbil-adapted H. pylori strain 7.13. In total, we identified 169 proteins in H. pylori OMVs and found that outer-membrane, periplasmic and extracellular proteins (48.9% of the total proteins) were enriched. Furthermore, we evaluated the immune protective response of H. pylori OMVs in a C57BL/6 mouse model, and mice were orally immunized with OMVs or the H. pylori whole cell vaccine (WCV) alone, with or without cholera toxin (CT) as an adjuvant. The data demonstrated that oral immunization with OMVs can elicit a strong humoral and significantly higher mucosal immune response than the group immunized with the WCV plus the CT adjuvant. Moreover, our results also confirmed that OMVs predominantly induced T helper 2 (Th2)-biased immune responses that can significantly reduce bacterial loads after challenging with the H. pylori Sydney Strain 1 (SS1). In summary, OMVs as new antigen candidates in vaccine design would be of great value in controlling H. pylori infection.

Attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium expressing Salmonella Paratyphoid A O-antigen induces protective immune responses against two Salmonella strains

Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi A is the main causative agent of paratyphoid fever in many Asian countries. As paratyphoid is spread by the fecal-oral route, the most effective means of controlling S. Paratyphi A infection is through the availability of clean water supplies and working sanitation services. Because sanitation facilities improve slowly in these poor areas and antibiotic resistance is severe, the development of a safe and effective vaccine remains a priority for controlling the spread of paratyphoid disease. In this study, we investigated the strategy of heterologous O-antigenic O2 serotype (S. Paratyphi A characterized) conversion in S. Typhimurium to prevent paratyphoid infections. A series of S. Typhimurium mutants were constructed with replacement of abe, wzxB1 and wbaVB1 genes with respective prt-tyvA1, wzxA1 and wbaVA1, and the results showed that only three genes including prt, wbaVA1 and wzxA1 from S. Paratyphi A presence enable S. Typhimurium to sufficiently express O2 antigen polysaccharide. We also constructed a series of live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccine candidates expressing heterologous O2 O-antigens, and a mouse model was used to evaluate the immunogenicity of live vaccines. ELISA data showed that vaccine candidates could induce a comparatively high level of S. Paratyphi A and/or S. Typhimurium LPS-specific IgG and IgA responses in murine model, and IgG2a levels were consistently higher than IgG1 levels. Moreover, the functional properties of serum antibodies were evaluated using in vitro C3 complement deposition and opsonophagocytic assays. Our work highlights the potential for developing S. Typhimurium live vaccines against S. Paratyphi A.

Expression and purification of an immunogenic SUMO-OmpC fusion protein of Salmonella Typhimurium in Escherichia coli

Salmonella is found to be a major causes of food borne diseases globally. Poultry products contaminated with this pathogen is one of the major sources of infections in humans. Outer membrane protein C (OmpC) of Salmonella Typhimurium is a promising DNA vaccine candidate to mitigate Salmonella infection in poultry. However, the large-scale production of bioactive recombinant OmpC (rOmpC) protein is hindered due to the formation of inclusion bodies in Escherichia coli. The objective of this work was to attain high level expression of rOmpC protein, purify and evaluate its functional properties. The ompC gene was optimized and fused with small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) gene for high level expression as soluble protein. The fusion protein with ~58 kDa molecular weight was observed on SDS-PAGE gel. The expression levels of rOmpC fusion protein reached maximum of 38% of total soluble protein (TSP) after 8 h of 0.2% rhamnose induction. Protein purification was carried out using nickel nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni-NTA) purification column. Western blot were performed to analyse expression and immunoreactivity of rOmpC fusion protein. The results indicate that SUMO fusion system is ideal for large scale production of functional rOmpC fusion protein expression in E. coli.

Identification of Fur in Pasteurella multocida and the Potential of Its Mutant as an Attenuated Live Vaccine

Pasteurella multocida is a pathogenic microorganism that causes a variety of serious diseases in humans and animals worldwide. The global regulator gene, fur, plays an important role in pathogenesis and regulates the virulence of many bacteria. Here, we identified a fur gene in P. multocida by complementing a Salmonella Choleraesuis Δfur mutant, and characterized a fur mutant strain of P. multocida. The P. multocida Δfur mutant strain exhibited no significant differences in growth and outer membrane protein (OMP) profiles when the complemented strain was compared to the parent. Ducks were used as the model organism to determine the virulence and protection efficacy induced by Δfur mutant strain. Animal experiments showed that colonization by the mutant was decreased by oral infection of live Δfur mutant strain. The LD₅₀ of the ducks infected with the Δfur mutant was 146-fold higher than that of the ducks infected with the wild-type strain when administered through the oral route. Evaluation of the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the Δfur mutant of P. multocida revealed strong serum IgY and bile IgA immune responses following oral inoculation with the Δfur strain. Ducks that were orally inoculated with the Δfur mutant strain demonstrated 62% protection efficacy against severe lethal challenge with the wild-type P. multocida. This study provides new insights into P. multocida virulence and the potential use of an attenuated vaccine against P. multocida.

Surface engineered polyanhydride-based oral Salmonella subunit nanovaccine for poultry

PURPOSE

Salmonellosis is a severe economic threat in poultry and a public health concern. Currently available vaccines are ineffective, and thus, developing effective oral Salmonella vaccine is warranted. Especially, a potent oral vaccine such as the mucoadhesive polyanhydride nanoparticle (PNP) protects the vaccine cargo and delivers to intestinal immune sites to elicit robust mucosal immunity and mitigate Salmonella colonization and shedding.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We designed a Salmonella subunit vaccine using PNP containing immunogenic Salmonella outer membrane proteins (OMPs) and flagellar (F) protein-entrapped and surface F-protein-coated PNPs (OMPs-F-PNPs) using a solvent displacement method. Using high-throughput techniques, we characterized the OMPs-F-PNPs physicochemical properties and analyzed its efficacy in layer birds vaccinated orally.

RESULTS

The candidate vaccine was resistant in acidic microenvironment and had ideal physicochemical properties for oral delivery in terms of particle size, charge, morphology, biocompatibility, and pH stability. In vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies showed that F-protein surface-anchored nanoparticles were better targeted to chicken immune cells in peripheral blood and splenocytes and intestinal Peyer's patch sites. In layer chickens inoculated orally with OMPs-F-PNPs, substantially higher OMPs-specific IgG response and secretion of Th1 cytokine IFN-γ in the serum, enhanced CD8+/CD4+ cell ratio in spleen, and increased OMPs-specific lymphocyte proliferation were observed. OMPs-F-PNPs vaccination also upregulated the expression of toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 and -4, TGF-β, and IL-4 cytokines' genes in chicken cecal tonsils (lymphoid tissues). Importantly, OMPs-F-PNPs vaccine cleared Salmonella cecal colonization in 33% of vaccinated birds.

CONCLUSION

This pilot in vivo study demonstrated the targeted delivery of OMPs-F-PNPs to ileum mucosal immune sites of chickens and induced specific immune response to mitigate Salmonella colonization in intestines.

Comparative evaluation of Salmonella Typhimurium vaccines derived from UK-1 and 14028S: Importance of inherent virulence

The initial virulence and invasiveness of a bacterial strain may play an important role in leading to a maximally efficacious attenuated live vaccine. Here we show that χ9909, derived from Salmonella Typhimurium UK-1 χ3761 (the most virulent S. Typhimurium strain known to us), is effective in protecting mice against lethal UK-1 and 14028S (less virulent S. Typhimurium strain) challenge. As opposed to this, 14028S-derived vaccine χ12359 induces suboptimal levels of protection, with survival percentages that are significantly lower when challenged with lethal UK-1 challenge doses. T-cell assays have revealed that significantly greater levels of Th1 cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α were secreted by stimulated T-lymphocytes obtained from UK-1(ΔaroA) immunized mice than those from mice immunized with 14028S(ΔaroA). In addition, UK-1(ΔaroA) showed markedly higher colonizing ability in the spleen, liver, and cecum when compared to 14028S(ΔaroA). Enumeration of bacteria in fecal pellets has also revealed that UK-1(ΔaroA) can persist in the host for over 10 days whereas 14028S(ΔaroA) titers dropped significantly by day 10. Moreover, co-infection of parent strains UK-1 and 14028S resulted in considerably greater recovery of the former in multiple mucosal and gut associated lymphatic tissues. Mice immunized with UK-1(ΔaroA) were also able to clear UK-1 infection remarkably more efficiently from the target organs than 14028S(ΔaroA). Together, these results provide ample evidence to support the hypothesis that attenuated derivatives of parent strains with higher initial virulence make better vaccines.

A biologically conjugated polysaccharide vaccine delivered by attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium provides protection against challenge of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli O1 infection

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) causes avian airsacculitis and colibacillosis, resulting in significant economic loss to the poultry industry. O1, O2 and O78 are the three predominant serotypes. O-antigen of lipopolysaccharide is serotype determinant and highly immunogenic, and O-antigen polysaccharide-based vaccines have great potential for preventing bacterial infections. In this study, we utilized a novel yeast/bacterial shuttle vector pSS26 to clone the 10.8 kb operon synthesizing APEC O1 O-antigen polysaccharide. The resulting plasmid was introduced into attenuated Salmonella vaccines to deliver this O-antigen polysaccharide. O1 O-antigen was stably synthesized in attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium, demonstrated by slide agglutination, silver staining and western blot. Our results also showed that APEC O1 O-antigen produced in the Salmonella vaccines was attached to bacterial cell surfaces, and the presence of heterologous O-antigen did not alter the resistance to surface-acting agents. Furthermore, birds immunized orally or intramuscularly provided protection against the virulent O1 APEC challenge. Salmonella vaccines carrying APEC O1 O-antigen gene cluster also induced high IgG and IgA immune responses against lipopolysaccharide from the APEC O1 strain. The use of our novel shuttle vector facilitates cloning of large DNA fragments, and this strategy could pave the way for production of Salmonella-vectored vaccines against prevalent APEC serotypes.

IgG Responses to Porins and Lipopolysaccharide within an Outer Membrane-Based Vaccine against Nontyphoidal Salmonella Develop at Discordant Rates

Antibodies acquired after vaccination or natural infection with Gram-negative bacteria, such as invasive Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, can protect against disease. Immunization with naturally shed outer membrane vesicles from Gram-negative bacteria is being studied for its potential to protect against many infections, since antigens within vesicles maintain their natural conformation and orientation. Shedding can be enhanced through genetic modification, and the resulting particles, generalized modules for membrane antigens (GMMA), not only offer potential as vaccines but also can facilitate the study of B-cell responses to bacterial antigens. Here we show that the response to immunization with GMMA from S. Typhimurium (STmGMMA) provides B-cell-dependent protection and induces antibodies to two immunodominant antigens, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and porins. Antibodies to LPS O antigen (O-Ag) markedly enhance protection in the spleen, but this effect is less marked in the liver. Strikingly, IgG responses to LPS and porins develop with distinct kinetics. In the first week after immunization, there is a dramatic T-cell-independent B1b-cell-associated induction of all IgG isotypes, except IgG1, to porins but not to LPS. In contrast, production of IgG1 to either antigen was delayed and T cell dependent. Nevertheless, after 1 month, cells in the bone marrow secreting IgG against porins or LPS were present at a similar frequency. Unexpectedly, immunization with O-Ag-deficient STmGMMA did not substantially enhance the anti-porin response. Therefore, IgG switching to all antigens does not develop synchronously within the same complex and so the rate of IgG switching to a single component does not necessarily reflect its frequency within the antigenic complex.

Vaccines save millions of lives, yet for some infections there are none. This includes some types of Salmonella infections, killing hundreds of thousands of people annually. We show how a new type of vaccine, called GMMA, that is made from blebs shed from the Salmonella cell wall, works to protect against infection in mice by inducing host proteins (antibodies) specifically recognizing bacterial components (antigens). The rate of development of IgG antibody to antigens within GMMA occurred with different kinetics. However, the antibody response to GMMA persists and is likely to provide prolonged protection for those who need it. These results help show how antibody responses to bacterial antigens develop and how vaccines like GMMA can work and help prevent infection.

A bivalent vaccine derived from attenuated Salmonella expressing O-antigen polysaccharide provides protection against avian pathogenic Escherichia coli O1 and O2 infection

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), a leading cause of avian airsacculitis and colibacillosis, is responsible for significant economic loss in the poultry industry. APEC serogroups O1, O2, and O78 are predominantly associated with disease. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O-antigen has been shown to be a potent antigen for inducing specific protective immune responses. Therefore, we sought to develop a multivalent polysaccharide vaccine to prevent most APEC infections. We previously reported the stable expression of plasmid pSS27 encoding the APEC O1 O-antigen gene cluster (10.8 kb) in attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium S740 provided excellent protection against APEC O1 challenge. In this study, the plasmid pSS28 harboring the APEC O2 O-antigen polysaccharide gene cluster (15.5 kb) was constructed. Biosynthesis of pSS28-encoded APEC O2 O-antigen in Salmonella vaccine strain S740 was validated by Western blot. The recombinant Salmonella vaccine strain S740 (pSS28) elicited homologous protection against virulent wild-type APEC O2 challenge in a chicken model. Furthermore, through equal-volume mixing the two monovalent vaccine strains S740 (pSS27) and S740 (pSS28), a bivalent vaccine candidate against both APEC O1 and O2 was developed. Immunization of chickens with the bivalent vaccine elicited production of serum IgG and mucosal sIgA antibodies against the LPS of both APEC O1 and O2. Moreover, antibodies induced by the bivalent vaccine promoted opsonization, provoked complement-mediated bactericidal activity, and elicited protection against lethal challenge with both virulent APEC O1 and O2 strains. These results demonstrate that the bivalent vaccine comprised of S740 (pSS27) and S740 (pSS28) is a promising vaccine candidate against APEC O1 and O2 infection.

Bi-valent polysaccharides of Vi capsular and O9 O-antigen in attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium induce strong immune responses against these two antigens

Salmonella Typhi is the causative agent of typhoid fever in humans, responsible for approximately 21 million infections and 222,000 deaths globally each year. The current licensed vaccines provide moderate protection to recipients aged >2 years. Prior work on typhoid vaccines has focused on injectable Vi capsular polysaccharide or Vi–protein conjugates and live, oral attenuated S. Typhi vaccines to induce humoral anti-Vi antibodies, while the value and importance of anti-O9 antibodies is less well established. In this study, we constructed a S. Typhimurium strain that synthesizes Vi capsular antigen in vivo and produces the immunodominant O9-antigen polysaccharide instead of its native O4-antigen. The live recombinant attenuated S. Typhimurium mutants were effective in stimulating anti-Vi and anti-O9 antibodies in a mouse model, and the surface Vi capsular expression did not affect the immune responses against the O9 O-antigen polysaccharide. Moreover, the resulting anti-Vi and anti-O9 antibodies were effective at killing S. Typhi and other Salmonella spp. expressing Vi or O9 antigen polysaccharides and provided efficient protection against lethal challenge by S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis. Our work highlights the strategy of developing live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccines to prevent typhoid fever by targeting the both Vi capsular and O9 O-polysaccharide antigens simultaneously.

An attenuated strain of modified Salmonella Typhimurium bacteria could answer calls for a more effective typhoid fever vaccine. Current vaccines against typhoid-causing Salmonella Typhi are only moderately effective and potentially ineffective in children under 5 years. Qingke Kong and Roy Curtiss, leading a team of US and Chinese researchers, developed an attenuated version of the less-pathogenic S. Typhimurium that, when orally dosed in mice, expresses bacterial sugar-chain molecules known to elicit a strong immune response. In an in vitro assay, the antibodies produced by the mice in response to these molecules killed S. Typhi and related Salmonella bacteria with similar surface molecules, indicating a potential cross-protective ability. Further research would reveal whether this two-pronged live vaccine has the potential to protect in vivo, in live animals and in humans.

O-Serotype Conversion in Salmonella Typhimurium Induces Protective Immune Responses against Invasive Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Infections

Salmonella infections remain a big problem worldwide, causing enteric fever by Salmonella Typhi (or Paratyphi) or self-limiting gastroenteritis by non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) in healthy individuals. NTS may become invasive and cause septicemia in elderly or immuno-compromised individuals, leading to high mortality and morbidity. No vaccines are currently available for preventing NTS infection in human. As these invasive NTS are restricted to several O-antigen serogroups including B1, D1, C1, and C2, O-antigen polysaccharide is believed to be a good target for vaccine development. In this study, a strategy of O-serotype conversion was investigated to develop live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccines against the major serovars of NTS infections. The immunodominant O4 serotype of S. Typhimurium was converted into O9, O7, and O8 serotypes through unmarked chromosomal deletion–insertion mutations. O-serotype conversion was confirmed by LPS silver staining and western blotting. All O-serotype conversion mutations were successfully introduced into the live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccine S738 (Δcrp Δcya) to evaluate their immunogenicity in mice model. The vaccine candidates induced high amounts of heterologous O-polysaccharide-specific functional IgG responses. Vaccinated mice survived a challenge of 100 times the 50% lethality dose (LD₅₀) of wild-type S. Typhimurium. Protective efficacy against heterologous virulent Salmonella challenges was highly O-serotype related. Furthermore, broad-spectrum protection against S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, and S. Choleraesuis was observed by co-vaccination of O9 and O7 O-serotype-converted vaccine candidates. This study highlights the strategy of expressing heterologous O-polysaccharides via genetic engineering in developing live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccines against NTS infections.

Regulated delayed synthesis of lipopolysaccharide and enterobacterial common antigen of Salmonella Typhimurium enhances immunogenicity and cross-protective efficacy against heterologous Salmonella challenge

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O-antigen and enterobacterial common antigen (ECA) are two major polysaccharide structures on the surface of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Previous studies have demonstrated that regulated truncation of LPS enhances the cross-reaction against conserved outer membrane proteins (OMPs) from enteric bacteria. We speculate that the regulation of both O-antigen and ECA may enhance the induction of immune responses against conserved OMPs from enteric bacteria. In this work we targeted rfbB and rffG genes which encode dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratases and share the same function in regulating O-antigen and ECA synthesis. We constructed a mutant, S496 (ΔrfbB6 ΔrffG7 ΔpagL73::TT araC PBADrfbB-3), in which rfbB gene expression was dependent on exogenously supplied arabinose during in vitro growth and achieved the simultaneous tight regulation of both LPS and ECA synthesis, as demonstrated by the LPS profile and Western blotting using antisera against LPS and ECA. When administered orally, S. Typhimurium S496 was completely attenuated for virulence but still retained the capacity to colonize and disseminate in mice. In addition, we found that oral immunization with S496 resulted in increased immune responses against OMPs from enteric bacteria and enhanced survival compared with immunization with S492 possessing ΔrfbB6 ΔrffG8 mutations when challenged with lethal doses of Salmonella Choleraesuis or Salmonella Enteritidis. These results indicate that S. Typhimurium arabinose-regulated rfbB strain S496 is a good vaccine candidate, conferring cross-protection against lethal challenge with heterologous Salmonella.

Recombinant attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium with heterologous expression of the Salmonella Choleraesuis O-polysaccharide: high immunogenicity and protection

Non-typhoidal Salmonella are associated with gastrointestinal disease worldwide and invasive disease in Africa. We constructed novel bivalent vaccines through the recombinant expression of heterologous O-antigens from Salmonella Choleraesuis in Salmonella Typhimurium. A recombinant Asd⁺ plasmid pCZ1 with the cloned Salmonella Choleraesuis O-antigen gene cluster was introduced into three constructed Salmonella Typhimurium Δasd mutants: SLT11 (ΔrfbP), SLT12 (ΔrmlB-rfbP) and SLT16 (ΔrfbP ∆pagL::TT araCP_BADrfbP). Immunoblotting demonstrated that SLT11 (pCZ1) and SLT12 (pCZ1) efficiently expressed the heterologous O-antigen. In the presence of arabinose, SLT16 (pCZ1) expressed both the homologous and heterologous O-antigens, whereas in the absence of arabinose, SLT16 (pCZ1) mainly expressed the heterologous O-antigen. We deleted the crp/cya genes in SLT12 (pCZ1) and SLT16 (pCZ1) for attenuation purposes, generating the recombinant vaccine strains SLT17 (pCZ1) and SLT18 (pCZ1). Immunization with either SLT17 (pCZ1) or SLT18 (pCZ1) induced specific IgG against the heterologous O-antigen, which mediated significant killing of Salmonella Choleraesuis and provided full protection against a lethal homologous challenge in mice. Furthermore, SLT17 (pCZ1) or SLT18 (pCZ1) immunization resulted in 83% or 50% heterologous protection against Salmonella Choleraesuis challenge, respectively. Our study demonstrates that heterologous O-antigen expression is a promising strategy for the development of multivalent Salmonella vaccines.

Salmonella Choleraesuis outer membrane vesicles: Proteomics and immunogenicity

Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis (S. Choleraesuis), Gram-negative facultative intracellular pathogen is capable of inducing the cholera in pigs whose symptoms manifest as fever, depression, septicemia, arthritis, and diarrhea. Infections with S. Choleraesuis has resulted in great economic loss for the swine breeding operations. Bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) play an important role in pathogenicity and host-pathogen interaction. In this study, we purified OMVs released by S. Choleraesuis strain χ3545 and characterized their lipopolysaccharide (LPS) profile. The OMVs contained intact LPS molecules. By using LC-MS/MS, we identified 192 proteins in the OMVs. In addition, the subcellular location and biological functions of the vesicles was predicted. The proteins were mainly derived from outer membranes and cytoplasm. Several proteins were immunoreactive and associated with the secretion pathway. Some putative multi-drug resistance-associated proteins were also identified. Furthermore, immunization experiment via intranasal or intraperitoneal route in mice demonstrated that S. Choleraesuis OMVs could elicit strong humoral and mucosal immune responses. Although OMVs as vaccine did not provide strong protection against clinical strain of wild-type S. Choleraesuis, immunization of OMVs still prolonged the survival time of vaccinated mice after high dose of S. Choleraesuis infection. Overall, this study provides valuable fundamental information toward elucidating the pathogenicity and functions of OMVs secreted from S. Choleraesuis.

Identification and characterization of a novel conserved 46 kD maltoporin of Aeromonas hydrophila as a versatile vaccine candidate in European eel (Anguilla anguilla)

European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a crucial economic fish that has been plagued by Aeromonas hydrophila infections for many years. Vaccines that are cross-protective against multiple serotypes could provide an effective control against A. hydrophila-mediated diseases. The outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are highly immunogenic and capable of eliciting protective immune responses. This study reports the identification of a novel 46 kD maltoporin that is a conserved protective antigen for different serotypes of A. hydrophila. First, this study purified OMPs from the strains of A. hydrophila B10, B11, B12, B15, B19, and B20. Western blot analysis revealed that the 46 kD maltoporin of B11 could be strongly reacted with all the specific European eel antisera against the above OMPs from different serotypes A. hydrophila. Cloning and sequencing of the maltoporin revealed that it contains an open reading frame (ORF) of 1281 nucleotides encoding 426 amino acids. Further sequence alignment analysis using the NCBI Conserved Domain Database (CDD) along with performing three-dimensional structure analysis showed that this protein belongs to maltoporin family. Three different study groups of European eels were intraperitoneal injected with one of the following conditions: phosphate-buffered saline (PBS group), formaline-killed-whole-cell (FKC) of A. hydrophila (FKC group) or with the recombinant maltoporin (OMP group) to analyze the immunogenicity of the recombinant maltoporin purified by nickel chelate affinity chromatography. On 14, 21, 28 and 42 days post-vaccination respectively, proliferation of the whole blood cells, titers of specific antibody, and lysozyme activities of experimental eels were detected. On 28d post-vaccination, eels from the three groups were challenged by intraperitoneal injection with five different live strains of A. hydrophila (B10, B11, B15, B19, and B20). The results showed that the proliferation of whole blood cells in the OMP group was significantly enhanced on 14d and the serum antibody titers of vaccinated European eels in FKC and OMP group were significantly increased on 28d and 42d. Lysozyme activities in serum were significantly up-regulated in FKC and OMP groups on 21d. The relative percent survival (RPS) of OMP group challenged by A. hydrophila B10, B11, and B20 was 75%, 62.5%, and 88%. This was higher than the corresponding RPS of FKC group with 50%, 37.5%, and 66%, respectively. The RPS was up to 100% in both OMP and FKC group when challenged by A. hydrophila B15 and B19. These results indicate that the 46 kD maltoporin is an effective potent vaccine candidate against different serotypes of A. hydrophila.

Reversible synthesis of colanic acid and O-antigen polysaccharides in Salmonella Typhimurium enhances induction of cross-immune responses and provides protection against heterologous Salmonella challenge

Colanic Acid (CA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) are two major mannose-containing extracellular polysaccharides of Salmonella. Their presence on the bacterial surface can mask conserved protective outer membrane proteins (OMPs) from the host immune system. The mannose moiety in these molecules is derived from GDP-mannose, which is synthesized in several steps. The first two steps require the action of phosphomannose isomerase, encoded by pmi (manA), followed by phosphomannomutase, encoded by manB. There are two copies of manB present in the Salmonella chromosome, one located in the cps gene cluster (cpsG) responsible for CA synthesis, and the other in the rfb gene cluster (rfbK) involved in LPS O-antigen synthesis. In this study, it was demonstrated that the products of cpsG and rfbK are isozymes. To evaluate the impact of these genes on O-antigen synthesis, virulence and immunogenicity, single mutations (Δpmi, ΔrfbK or ΔcpsG) and a double mutation (ΔrfbK ΔcpsG) were introduced into both wild-type Salmonella enterica and an attenuated Δcya Δcrp vaccine strain. The Δpmi, ΔrfbK and ΔcpsG ΔrfbK mutants were defective in LPS synthesis and attenuated for virulence. In orally inoculated mice, strain S122 (Δcrp Δcya ΔcpsG ΔrfbK) and its parent S738 (Δcrp Δcya) were both avirulent and colonized internal tissues. Strain S122 elicited higher levels of anti-S. Typhimurium OMP serum IgG than its parent strain. Mice immunized with S122 were completely protected against challenge with wild-type virulent S. Typhimurium and partially protected against challenge with either wild-type virulent S. Choleraesuis or S. Enteritidis. These data indicate that deletions in rfbK and cpsG are useful mutations for inclusion in future attenuated Salmonella vaccine strains to induce cross-protective immunity.

Safety, Protective Immunity, and DIVA Capability of a Rough Mutant Salmonella Pullorum Vaccine Candidate in Broilers

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Gallinarum biovar Pullorum (Salmonella Pullorum) is highly adapted to chickens causing an acute systemic disease that results in high mortality. Vaccination represents one approach for promoting animal health, food safety and reducing environmental persistence in Salmonella control. An important consideration is that Salmonella vaccination in poultry should not interfere with the salmonellosis monitoring program. This is the basis of the DIVA (Differentiation of Infected and Vaccinated Animals) program. In order to achieve this goal, waaL mutant was developed on a spiC mutant that was developed previously. The safety, efficacy, and DIVA features of this vaccine candidate (Salmonella Pullorum ΔspiCΔwaaL) were evaluated in broilers. Our results show that the truncated LPS in the vaccine strain has a differentiating use as both a bacteriological marker (rough phenotype) and also as a serological marker facilitating the differentiation between infected and vaccinated chickens. The rough mutant showed adequate safety being avirulent in the host chicks and showed increased sensitivity to environmental stresses. Single intramuscular immunization of day-old broiler chicks with the mutant confers ideal protection against lethal wild type challenge by significantly stimulating both humoral and cellular immune responses as well as reducing the colonization of the challenge strain. Significantly lower mean pathology scores were observed in the vaccination group compared to the control group. Additionally, the mutant strain generated cross-protection against challenge with the wild type Salmonella Gallinarum thereby improving survival and with the wild type Salmonella Enteritidis thereby reducing colonization. These results suggest that the double-mutant strain may be a safe, effective, and cross-protective vaccine against Salmonella infection in chicks while conforming to the requirements of the DIVA program.

Outer membrane vesicles from flagellin-deficient Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium induce cross-reactive immunity and provide cross-protection against heterologous Salmonella challenge

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) isolated from Salmonella Typhimurium are potentially useful for developing subunit vaccines because of high immunogenicity and protective efficacy. However, flagella might remain in OMV pellets following OMV purification, resulting in non-essential immune responses and counteraction of bacterial protective immune responses when developing a vaccine against infection of multiple serotypes Salmonella. In this study, a flagellin-deficient S. Typhimurium mutant was constructed. Lipopolysaccharide profiles, protein profiles and cryo-electron microscopy revealed that there were no significant differences between the wild-type and mutant OMVs, with the exception of a large amount of flagellin in the wild-type OMVs. Neither the wild-type OMVs nor the non-flagellin OMVs were toxic to macrophages. Mice immunized with the non-flagellin OMVs produced high concentrations of IgG. The non-flagellin OMVs elicited strong mucosal antibody responses in mice when administered via the intranasal route in addition to provoking higher cross-reactive immune responses against OMPs isolated from S. Choleraesuis and S. Enteritidis. Both intranasal and intraperitoneal immunization with the non-flagellin OMVs provided efficient protection against heterologous S. Choleraesuis and S. Enteritidis challenge. Our results indicate that the flagellin-deficient OMVs may represent a new vaccine platform that could be exploited to facilitate the production of a broadly protective vaccine.

Outer membrane vesicles derived from Salmonella Typhimurium mutants with truncated LPS induce cross-protective immune responses against infection of Salmonella enterica serovars in the mouse model

Salmonella enterica cause diarrheal and systemic diseases and are of considerable concern worldwide. Vaccines that are cross-protective against multiple serovars could provide effective control of Salmonella-mediated diseases. Bacteria-derived outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are highly immunogenic and are capable of eliciting protective immune responses. Alterations in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) length can result in outer membrane remodeling and composition of outer membrane proteins (OMPs) changing. In this study, we investigated the impact of truncated LPS on both the production and immunogenicity of Salmonella OMVs, including the ability of OMVs to elicit cross-protection against challenge by heterologous Salmonella strains. We found that mutations in waaJ and rfbP enhanced vesiculation, while mutations in waaC, waaF and waaG inhibited this process. Animal experiments indicated that OMVs from waaC, rfaH and rfbP mutants induced stronger serum immune responses compared to OMVs from the parent strain, while all elicited protective responses against the wild-type S. Typhimurium challenge. Furthermore, intranasal or intraperitoneal immunization with OMVs derived from the waaC and rfbP mutants elicited significantly higher cross-reactive IgG responses and provided enhanced cross-protection against S. Choleraesuis and S. Enteritidis challenge than the wild-type OMVs. These results indicate that truncated-LPS OMVs are capable of conferring cross protection against multiple serotypes of Salmonella infection.