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Sanil K, Almotairy A, Uttreja P, Ashour EA. Formulation Development and Evaluation of Cannabidiol Hot-Melt Extruded Solid Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Oral Applications. AAPS PharmSciTech 2024; 25:136. [PMID: 38862810 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-024-02857-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a highly lipophilic compound with poor oral bioavailability, due to poor aqueous solubility and extensive pre-systemic metabolism. The aim of this study was to explore the potential of employing Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) technology for the continuous production of Self Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SEDDS) to improve the solubility and in vitro dissolution performance of CBD. Accordingly, different placebos were processed through HME in order to obtain a lead CBD loaded solid SEDDS. Two SEDDS were prepared with sesame oil, Poloxamer 188, Gelucire®59/14, PEO N80 and Soluplus®. Moreover, Vitamin E was added as an antioxidant. The SEDDS formulations demonstrated emulsification times of 9.19 and 9.30 min for F1 and F2 respectively. The formed emulsions showed smaller droplet size ranging from 150-400 nm that could improve lymphatic uptake of CBD and reduce first pass metabolism. Both formulations showed significantly faster in vitro dissolution rate (90% for F1 and 83% for F2) compared to 14% for the pure CBD within the first hour, giving an enhanced release profile. The formulations were tested for stability over a 60-day time period at 4°C, 25°C, and 40°C. Formulation F1 was stable over the 60-day time-period at 4°C. Therefore, the continuous HME technology could replace conventional methods for processing SEDDS and improve the oral delivery of CBD for better therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavish Sanil
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi, 38677, USA
| | - Ahmed Almotairy
- Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology Department, College of Pharmacy, Taibah University, Al Madinah AlMunawarah, 30001, Saudi Arabia
| | - Prateek Uttreja
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi, 38677, USA
| | - Eman A Ashour
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi, 38677, USA.
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2
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O'Leary C, Greer R, Huggett G, Good P, Gurgenci T, Hardy J. Cannabidiol oil or placebo in advanced cancer-disease progression and survival: a secondary analysis. BMJ Support Palliat Care 2024; 14:191-194. [PMID: 38307703 DOI: 10.1136/spcare-2023-004746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Medical cannabinoids have become increasingly popular over the last decade. Preclinical trials suggest cannabinoids, for example, cannabidiol (CBD), may provide an anticancer effect; however, good-quality clinical information supporting this is lacking. We assessed the effect of CBD treatment on disease progression and survival in patients enrolled in a study of CBD versus placebo for symptom management in patients with advanced cancer (MEDCAN-1). METHODS We reviewed the clinical records of all patients enrolled in the MEDCAN-1 Study (CBD vs placebo) at days 14, 28 and 56 of study follow-up, for evidence of disease progression. The proportion of participants with disease progression by treatment arm at each time point was compared, as was survival between both groups from study entry to the censor date (end of study period) and the effect of treatment arm and disease progression status on survival. RESULTS Of the 135 patient records assessed, 128 were included in the final analysis. 36% (n=46) had progressive disease documented at day 28, rising to 49.2% (n=63) by day 56. No significant difference in disease progression was noted between the two groups at days 14 (p=0.33), 28 (p=0.67) or 56 (p=0.50). There was no difference in survival between both groups from study entry to censor date (p=0.38). Disease progression at day 14 was highly predictive of mortality (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS In this substudy analysis, treatment with CBD oil did not affect disease progression or survival over the course of 56 days in patients with advanced cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cian O'Leary
- Oncology, Mater Cancer Care Centre, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ristan Greer
- The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Georgie Huggett
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Supportive and Palliative Care, Mater Health Services, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Phillip Good
- The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Supportive and Palliative Care, Mater Health Services, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Taylan Gurgenci
- Supportive and Palliative Care, Mater Health Services, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Janet Hardy
- Supportive and Palliative Care, Mater Health Services, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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3
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Doganc F, Ozkan T, Farhangzad N, Mavideniz A, Celik I, Sunguroglu A, Göker H. Synthesis of novel indol-3-acetamido analogues as potent anticancer agents, biological evaluation and molecular modeling studies. Bioorg Chem 2024; 148:107429. [PMID: 38728910 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Cannabinoids bind to cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 and their antitumoral activity has been reported against some various cancer cell lines. Some synthetic cannabinoids possessing indole rings such as JWH-015 and JWH-133 particularly bind to the cannabinoid CB2 receptor and it was reported that they inhibit the proliferation and growth of various cancer cells without their psychoactive effects. However, the pharmacological action mechanisms of the cannabinoids are completely unknown. In this study, we report the synthesis of some new cannabinoidic novel indoles and evaluate their anticancer activity on various cancerous and normal cell lines (U87, RPMI 8226, HL60 and L929) using several cellular and molecular assays including MTT assay, real-time q-PCR, scratch assay, DAPI assay, Annexin V-PE/7AAD staining, caspase3/7 activity tests. Our findings indicated that compounds 7, 10, 13, 16, and 17 could reduce cell viability effectively. Compound 17 markedly increased proapoptotic genes (BAX, BAD, and BIM), tumor suppressor gene (p53) expression levels as well as the BAX/BCL-2 ratio in U87 cells. In addition, 17 inhibited cell migration. Based on these results, 17 was chosen for determining the mechanism of cell death in U87 cells. DAPI and Annexin V-7AAD staining results showed that 17 induced apoptosis, moreover activated caspase 3/7 significantly. Hence, compound 17, was selected as a lead compound for further pharmacomodulation. To rationalize the observed biological activities of 17, our study also included a comprehensive analysis using molecular docking and MD simulations. This integrative approach revealed that 17 fits tightly into the active site of the CB2 receptor and is involved in key interactions that may be responsible for its anti-proliferative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Doganc
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara 06560, Turkey
| | - Tulin Ozkan
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nazila Farhangzad
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey; Graduate School of Health Sciences, Ankara University, Dışkapı, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Acelya Mavideniz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara 06560, Turkey; Graduate School of Health Sciences, Ankara University, Dışkapı, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ismail Celik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erciyes University, Kayseri 38280, Turkey
| | - Asuman Sunguroglu
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Hakan Göker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara 06560, Turkey.
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4
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Mohammed T, Yu J, Qiao Y, Kim Y, Mortensen E, Swede H, Wu Z, Zhang J. Marijuana Use May Be Associated with Reduced Prevalence of Prostate Cancer: A National Survey on Drug Use and Health Study from United States of America. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1008. [PMID: 38790970 PMCID: PMC11118915 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12051008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Preclinical evidence indicates the potential anti-tumor capabilities of cannabinoids in prostate cancer (PC). We undertook a cross-sectional study using National Survey on Drug Use and Health data from 2002 to 2020, involving 2503 participants in the USA. The independent variable was marijuana use status (current, former, never), while the dependent variable was self-reported PC (yes, no). Eleven other demographic variables were assessed as covariates. PC prevalence was lower among current marijuana users (46/145, 31.7%) and former users (323/1021, 31.6%) compared to non-users (534/1337, 39.9%, p < 0.001). PC prevalence was lower among users versus non-users in the elderly (≥65) (36.4% vs. 42.4%, p = 0.016) and non-Hispanic white subgroups (28.9% vs. 38.3%, p < 0.001). There were no significant PC prevalence differences between users and non-users in the younger population (50-64) or other race/ethnicity. In the multivariable analyses, former marijuana use was associated with lower PC compared to never using (odd ratio = 0.74, 95% CI 0.62-0.90, p = 0.001). Current use was also suggestive of reduced prevalence but was not statistically significant (odd ratio = 0.77, 95% CI 0.52-1.14, p = 0.198), possibly due to low sample size. Our findings from a large national survey provide additional data to link marijuana use with lower PC prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Turab Mohammed
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (T.M.); (J.Y.)
| | - James Yu
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (T.M.); (J.Y.)
| | - Yong Qiao
- Department of Statistics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA;
| | - Youngchul Kim
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - Eric Mortensen
- Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT 06032, USA;
| | - Helen Swede
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT 06032, USA;
| | - Zhao Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030, USA;
| | - Jingsong Zhang
- Department of Genito-Urology Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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Medrano M, Contreras M, Caballero-Velázquez T, Martínez L, Bejarano-García JA, Calderón-Ruiz R, García-Calderón CB, Rosado IV, Pérez-Simón JA. Cannabinoids induce cell death in leukaemic cells through Parthanatos and PARP-related metabolic disruptions. Br J Cancer 2024; 130:1529-1541. [PMID: 38461169 PMCID: PMC11058274 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-024-02618-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies have described a potential anti-tumour effect of cannabinoids (CNB). CNB receptor 2 (CB2) is mostly present in hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). The present study evaluates the anti-leukaemic effect of CNB. METHODS Cell lines and primary cells from acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) patients were used and the effect of the CNB derivative WIN-55 was evaluated in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo. RESULTS We demonstrate a potent antileukemic effect of WIN-55 which is abolished with CB antagonists. WIN-treated mice, xenografted with AML cells, had better survival as compared to vehicle or cytarabine. DNA damage-related genes were affected upon exposure to WIN. Co-incubation with the PARP inhibitor Olaparib prevented WIN-induced cell death, suggesting PARP-mediated apoptosis which was further confirmed with the translocation of AIF to the nucleus observed in WIN-treated cells. Nicotinamide prevented WIN-related apoptosis, indicating NAD+ depletion. Finally, WIN altered glycolytic enzymes levels as well as the activity of G6PDH. These effects are reversed through PARP1 inhibition. CONCLUSIONS WIN-55 exerts an antileukemic effect through Parthanatos, leading to translocation of AIF to the nucleus and depletion of NAD+, which are reversed through PARP1 inhibition. It also induces metabolic disruptions. These effects are not observed in normal HSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Medrano
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - M Contreras
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - T Caballero-Velázquez
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
- Department of Hematology, University Hospital Virgen del Rocío, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - L Martínez
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
- Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa (CABIMER), Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
| | - J A Bejarano-García
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - R Calderón-Ruiz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - C B García-Calderón
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - I V Rosado
- Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa (CABIMER), Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
| | - J A Pérez-Simón
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS/CSIC), Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
- Department of Hematology, University Hospital Virgen del Rocío, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
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Swierczynski M, Kasprzak Z, Makaro A, Salaga M. Regulators of G-Protein Signaling (RGS) in Sporadic and Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:577. [PMID: 38203748 PMCID: PMC10778579 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common neoplasms worldwide. Among the risk factors of CRC, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is one of the most important ones leading to the development of colitis-associated CRC (CAC). G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) are transmembrane receptors that orchestrate a multitude of signaling cascades in response to external stimuli. Because of their functionality, they are promising targets in research on new strategies for CRC diagnostics and treatment. Recently, regulators of G-proteins (RGS) have been attracting attention in the field of oncology. Typically, they serve as negative regulators of GPCR responses to both physiological stimuli and medications. RGS activity can lead to both beneficial and harmful effects depending on the nature of the stimulus. However, the atypical RGS-AXIN uses its RGS domain to antagonize key signaling pathways in CRC development through the stabilization of the β-catenin destruction complex. Since AXIN does not limit the efficiency of medications, it seems to be an even more promising pharmacological target in CRC treatment. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge on RGS significance in sporadic CRC and CAC with particular emphasis on the regulation of GPCR involved in IBD-related inflammation comprising opioid, cannabinoid and serotonin receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maciej Salaga
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Mazowiecka 5, 92-215 Lodz, Poland; (M.S.); (Z.K.); (A.M.)
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Kovacs D, Flori E, Bastonini E, Mosca S, Migliano E, Cota C, Zaccarini M, Briganti S, Cardinali G. Targeting Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Counteracts the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Keratinocyte-Derived Tumors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17379. [PMID: 38139209 PMCID: PMC10743516 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system regulates physiological processes, and the modulation of endogenous endocannabinoid (eCB) levels is an attractive tool to contrast the development of pathological skin conditions including cancers. Inhibiting FAAH (fatty acid amide hydrolase), the degradation enzyme of the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) leads to the increase in AEA levels, thus enhancing its biological effects. Here, we evaluated the anticancer property of the FAAH inhibitor URB597, investigating its potential to counteract epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process crucially involved in tumor progression. The effects of the compound were determined in primary human keratinocytes, ex vivo skin explants, and the squamous carcinoma cell line A431. Our results demonstrate that URB597 is able to hinder the EMT process by downregulating mesenchymal markers and reducing migratory potential. These effects are associated with the dampening of the AKT/STAT3 signal pathways and reduced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and tumorigenic lipid species. The ability of URB597 to contrast the EMT process provides insight into effective approaches that may also include the use of FAAH inhibitors for the treatment of skin cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Kovacs
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Enrica Flori
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Emanuela Bastonini
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Sarah Mosca
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Emilia Migliano
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy;
| | - Carlo Cota
- Genetic Research, Molecular Biology and Dermatopathology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.Z.)
| | - Marco Zaccarini
- Genetic Research, Molecular Biology and Dermatopathology Unit, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.Z.)
| | - Stefania Briganti
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
| | - Giorgia Cardinali
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Physiopathology and Integrated Center of Metabolomics Research, San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, IRCCS, 00144 Rome, Italy; (D.K.); (E.F.); (E.B.); (S.M.); (S.B.)
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8
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Suttithumsatid W, Sukketsiri W, Panichayupakaranant P. Cannabinoids and standardized cannabis extracts inhibit migration, invasion, and induce apoptosis in MCF-7 cells through FAK/MAPK/Akt/NF-κB signaling. Toxicol In Vitro 2023; 93:105667. [PMID: 37625625 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2023.105667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Breast cancer is the highest incidence of all types of cancer in women, and the cancer metastasis process accounts for a majority of cancer deaths. Two major cannabinoids, Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), from Cannabis sativa are expected to have anti-cancer activity. This study aimed to investigate the effects of THC, CBD, and standardized cannabis extracts (F1, F2, and F3) on migration, invasion, and apoptosis of human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells. METHODS Cell viability, survival, and apoptosis were determined using the MTT, clonogenic, and nuclear staining assays, respectively, while cancer cell migration and invasion were evaluated by the wound healing, trans-well, and filopodia assays. Western blot analysis was used to find out the mechanisms of the cannabinoids against MCF-7 cells. RESULTS CBD, THC, and F1 inhibited filopodia formation, migration, and invasion of MCF-7 cells through suppressing the expression of the FAK, Akt, ERK1/2, p38MAPKs, and NF-κB upstream pathways, as well as inhibiting the Rac1/Cdc42 downstream pathways. In addition, CBD significantly inhibited the mTOR pathway. Furthermore, CBD and F1 induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells via the Bcl-2/caspase-3 pathways. CONCLUSION These results indicate that THC, CBD, and F1 have great abilities for preventing breast cancer cell metastasis in in vitro experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiwit Suttithumsatid
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai 90112, Thailand
| | - Wanida Sukketsiri
- Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Hat-Yai 90112, Thailand
| | - Pharkphoom Panichayupakaranant
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai 90112, Thailand; Phytomedicine and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Excellence Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai 90112, Thailand.
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Prateeksha P, Sharma VK, Singh SM, Sharma M, Diwan D, Hesham AEL, Guleria S, Nguyen QD, Gupta VK, Singh BN. Tetrahydrocannabinols: potential cannabimimetic agents for cancer therapy. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2023; 42:823-845. [PMID: 36696005 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-023-10078-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Tetrahydrocannabinols (THCs) antagonize the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, whose signaling to the endocannabinoid system is essential for controlling cell survival and proliferation as well as psychoactive effects. Most tumor cells express a much higher level of CB1 and CB2; THCs have been investigated as potential cancer therapeutic due to their cannabimimetic properties. To date, THCs have been prescribed as palliative medicine to cancer patients but not as an anticancer modality. Growing evidence of preclinical research demonstrates that THCs reduce tumor progression by stimulating apoptosis and autophagy and inhibiting two significant hallmarks of cancer pathogenesis: metastasis and angiogenesis. However, the degree of their anticancer effects depends on the origin of the tumor site, the expression of cannabinoid receptors on tumor cells, and the dosages and types of THC. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the molecular processes that THCs target for their anticancer effects. It also emphasizes the substantial knowledge gaps that should be of concern in future studies. We also discuss the therapeutic effects of THCs and the problems that will need to be addressed in the future. Clarifying unanswered queries is a prerequisite to translating the THCs into an effective anticancer regime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prateeksha Prateeksha
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, 79410, USA
| | - Vivek K Sharma
- Herbal Nanobiotechnology Lab, Pharmacology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Shiv M Singh
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Minaxi Sharma
- Haute Ecole Provinciale de Hainaut-Condorcet, Rue de la Sucrerie, 7800, Mons, ATH, Belgium
| | - Deepti Diwan
- Washington University, School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63108, USA
| | - Abd El-Latif Hesham
- Genetics Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62521, Egypt
| | - Sanjay Guleria
- Natural Product-cum-Nano Lab, Division of Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu, Main Campus Chatha, Jammu and Kashmir, 180009, India
| | - Quang D Nguyen
- Department of Bioengineering and Alcoholic Drink Technology, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Ménesi út 45, Budapest, H-1118, Hungary
| | - Vijai K Gupta
- Biorefining and Advanced Materials Research Center, SRUC, Kings Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK
- Center for Safe and Improved Food, SRUC, Kings Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK
| | - Brahma N Singh
- Herbal Nanobiotechnology Lab, Pharmacology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India.
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Stone HV, Topping FJ, Veiga AX, Pop A, Miles D, Knych D, Warren J, Loft MS, López AM, Silcock A, Mann IS, Millet A. Diastereoselective and Scalable Synthesis of 6-( S)-Hydroxycannabidivarin. J Org Chem 2023; 88:11767-11777. [PMID: 37525362 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c01057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of 6-(S)-hydroxycannabidivarin was required to assess its biological activity in the treatment of neurological disorders. A novel and scalable synthesis has been developed where the key step involves a Friedel-Crafts alkylation of phloroglucinol with (1S,2R,5R)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-5-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-ylbenzoate. Careful optimization of the reaction conditions identified trifluoromethanesulfonic acid in isopropyl acetate as the best catalyst/solvent combination, providing optimum regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity, and yield for this step. This enabled the multigram synthesis of 6-(S)-hydroxycannabidivarin in 10 steps from S-(+)-carvone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah V Stone
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Frederick J Topping
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Alberte X Veiga
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Alexandru Pop
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Daniel Miles
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Dominika Knych
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - John Warren
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Michael S Loft
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Alejandro Montellano López
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Alan Silcock
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Inderjit S Mann
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
| | - Antoine Millet
- Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Jazz Pharmaceuticals Inc., Building 735, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne ME9 8AG, U.K
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11
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Meccariello R. Molecular Advances on Cannabinoid and Endocannabinoid Research. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12760. [PMID: 37628940 PMCID: PMC10454180 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Since ancient times, cannabis has been used for recreational and medical purposes [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosaria Meccariello
- Department of Movement and Wellness Sciences, Parthenope University of Naples, 80133 Naples, Italy
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12
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Creanga-Murariu I, Filipiuc LE, Cuciureanu M, Tamba BI, Alexa-Stratulat T. Should oncologists trust cannabinoids? Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1211506. [PMID: 37521486 PMCID: PMC10373070 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1211506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis enjoyed a "golden age" as a medicinal product in the late 19th, early 20th century, but the increased risk of overdose and abuse led to its criminalization. However, the 21st century have witnessed a resurgence of interest and a large body of literature regarding the benefits of cannabinoids have emerged. As legalization and decriminalization have spread around the world, cancer patients are increasingly interested in the potential utility of cannabinoids. Although eager to discuss cannabis use with their oncologist, patients often find them to be reluctant, mainly because clinicians are still not convinced by the existing evidence-based data to guide their treatment plans. Physicians should prescribe cannabis only if a careful explanation can be provided and follow up response evaluation ensured, making it mandatory for them to be up to date with the positive and also negative aspects of the cannabis in the case of cancer patients. Consequently, this article aims to bring some clarifications to clinicians regarding the sometimes-confusing various nomenclature under which this plant is mentioned, current legislation and the existing evidence (both preclinical and clinical) for the utility of cannabinoids in cancer patients, for either palliation of the associated symptoms or even the potential antitumor effects that cannabinoids may have.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioana Creanga-Murariu
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
- Oncology Department, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
| | - Leontina Elena Filipiuc
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
| | - Magda Cuciureanu
- Pharmacology Department, Clinical Pharmacology and Algesiology, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
| | - Bogdan-Ionel Tamba
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
- Pharmacology Department, Clinical Pharmacology and Algesiology, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iași, Romania
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13
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Kaur S, Nathani A, Singh M. Exosomal delivery of cannabinoids against cancer. Cancer Lett 2023; 566:216243. [PMID: 37257632 PMCID: PMC10426019 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) originating from endosomes that play a role in cellular communication. These vesicles which mimic the parental cells that release them are promising candidates for targeted drug delivery and therapeutic applications against cancer because of their favorable biocompatibility, specific targeting, low toxicity, and immunogenicity. Currently, Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and other cannabinoids (e.g., CBG, THCV, CBC), are being explored for their anticancer and anti-proliferative properties. Several mechanisms, including cell cycle arrest, proliferation inhibition, activation of autophagy and apoptosis, inhibition of adhesion, metastasis, and angiogenesis have been proposed for their anticancer activity. EVs could be engineered as cannabinoid delivery systems for tumor-specificity leading to superior anticancer effects. This review discusses current techniques for EV isolation from various sources, characterization and strategies to load them with cannabinoids. More extensively, we culminate information available on different sources of EVs that have anticancer activity, mechanism of action of cannabinoids against various wild type and resistant tumors and role of CBD in histone modifications and cancer epigenetics. We have also enumerated the role of EVs containing cannabinoids against various tumors and in chemotherapy induced neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukhmandeep Kaur
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, 32307, USA
| | - Aakash Nathani
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, 32307, USA
| | - Mandip Singh
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, 32307, USA.
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14
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Pennant NM, Hinton CV. The evolution of cannabinoid receptors in cancer. WIREs Mech Dis 2023; 15:e1602. [PMID: 36750231 PMCID: PMC10484301 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa (cannabis) has been used as a therapeutic treatment for centuries treating various diseases and disorders. However, racial propaganda led to the criminalization of cannabis in the 1930s preventing opportunities to explore marijuana in therapeutic development. The increase in recreational use of cannabis further grew concern about abuse, and lead to further restrictions and distribution of cannabis in the 1970s when it was declared to be a Schedule I drug in the USA. In the late 1990s in some states, legislation assisted in legalizing the use of cannabis for medical purposes under physician supervision. As it has been proven that cannabinoids and their receptors play an essential role in the regulation of the physiological and biological processes in our bodies. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is the complex that regulates the cell-signaling system consisting of endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), cannabinoid receptors, and the enzymes responsible for the synthesis and degradation of the endocannabinoids. The ECS along with phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids serves to be a beneficial therapeutic target in treating diseases as they play roles in cell homeostasis, cell motility, inflammation, pain-sensation, mood, and memory. Cannabinoids have been shown to inhibit proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis and even restore homeostasis in a variety of models of cancer in vitro and in vivo. Cannabis and its receptors have evolved into a therapeutic treatment for cancers. This article is categorized under: Cancer > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nakea M Pennant
- Biological Sciences, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Cimona V Hinton
- Biological Sciences, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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15
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Omer S, Pathak S, Nadar R, Bowen D, Sandey M, Dhanasekaran M, Pondugula S, Mansour M, Boothe D. Validating the anti-lymphoma pharmacodynamic actions of the endocannabinoids on canine non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Life Sci 2023; 327:121862. [PMID: 37330042 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
AIMS This study established the in vitro anti-lymphoma pharmacodynamic actions of the endocannabinoids (anandamide-AEA and 2-arachidonoylglycerol-2AG) on canine non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and human NHL cells. MAIN METHODS The expression of cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) receptors in various canine NHL cells {1771, CLBL-1, CLL-1, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs)} was studied using Quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Anti-lymphoma cell viability assay was performed to assess the effect of endocannabinoids on various canine and human NHL cells (1771, CLBL-1, CLL-1, Ramos cells). The spectrophotometric and fluorometric procedures evaluated oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and mitochondrial function markers. SAS® and Prism-V La Jolla, CA, USA, were used for statistical analysis. KEY FINDINGS The current study validated the presence of CB1 and CB2 receptors in the canine NHL cells. There was a significantly higher expression of CB1 and CB2 receptors in B-cell lymphoma (BCL) cells (1771, CLBL-1, Ramos) compared to canine T-cell lymphoma (TCL) cells (CL-1). AEA and 2AG dose and time-dependently exhibited significant but differential anti-lymphoma effects on canine and human NHL cells. Anti-lymphoma pharmacodynamic actions of the endocannabinoids in the canine 1771 NHL cells revealed a significant alteration in the markers of oxidative stress, inflammation, and a decrease in mitochondrial function without altering the apoptotic markers. SIGNIFICANCE Establishing the anti-lymphoma pharmacodynamic actions of endocannabinoids may provide new therapeutic interventions and expedite cannabinoid research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saba Omer
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, & Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA; Shifa College of Dentistry, Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Suhrud Pathak
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Rishi Nadar
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Dylan Bowen
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Maninder Sandey
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Satyanarayana Pondugula
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, & Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Mohammed Mansour
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, & Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Dawn Boothe
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, & Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
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16
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Zare A, Izanloo S, Khaledi S, Maratovich MN, Kaliyev AA, Abenova NA, Rahmanifar F, Mahdipour M, Bakhshalizadeh S, Shirazi R, Tanideh N, Tamadon A. A Bibliometric and In Silico-Based Analysis of Anti-Lung Cancer Compounds from Sea Cucumber. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21050283. [PMID: 37233477 DOI: 10.3390/md21050283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the most lethal malignancies in the world. However, current curative approaches for treating this type of cancer have some weaknesses. Therefore, scientists are attempting to discover new anti-lung cancer agents. Sea cucumber is a marine-derived source for discovering biologically active compounds with anti-lung cancer properties. To explore the anti-lung cancer properties of sea cucumber, we analyzed surveys using VOSviewer software and identified the most frequently used keywords. We then searched the Google Scholar database for compounds with anti-lung cancer properties within that keyword family. Finally, we used AutoDock 4 to identify the compounds with the highest affinity for apoptotic receptors in lung cancer cells. The results showed that triterpene glucosides were the most frequently identified compounds in studies examining the anti-cancer properties of sea cucumbers. Intercedenside C, Scabraside A, and Scabraside B were the three triterpene glycosides with the highest affinity for apoptotic receptors in lung cancer cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that anti-lung cancer properties of sea cucumber-derived compounds have been examined in in silico conditions. Ultimately, these three components displayed anti-lung cancer properties in in silico conditions and may be used for the manufacture of anti-lung cancer agents in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshin Zare
- The PerciaVista Biotechnology Company, Shiraz 71676-83745, Iran
| | - Safoura Izanloo
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 14496-14535, Iran
- School of Nursing, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd 94149-74877, Iran
| | - Sajed Khaledi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14117-13116, Iran
| | | | | | - Nurgul Abdullayevna Abenova
- Department of Internal Diseases, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe 030019, Kazakhstan
| | - Farhad Rahmanifar
- Department of Basic Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz 71348-14336, Iran
| | - Mahdi Mahdipour
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51666-53431, Iran
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 51666-53431, Iran
| | - Shabnam Bakhshalizadeh
- Reproductive Development, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Reza Shirazi
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Biomedical & Health, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 1466, Australia
| | - Nader Tanideh
- The PerciaVista Biotechnology Company, Shiraz 71676-83745, Iran
- Stem Cells Technology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 71348-14336, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 71348-14336, Iran
| | - Amin Tamadon
- The PerciaVista Biotechnology Company, Shiraz 71676-83745, Iran
- Department for Scientific Work, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe 030010, Kazakhstan
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17
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Woerdenbag HJ, Olinga P, Kok EA, Brugman DAP, van Ark UF, Ramcharan AS, Lebbink PW, Hoogwater FJH, Knapen DG, de Groot DJA, Nijkamp MW. Potential, Limitations and Risks of Cannabis-Derived Products in Cancer Treatment. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15072119. [PMID: 37046779 PMCID: PMC10093248 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15072119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The application of cannabis products in oncology receives interest, especially from patients. Despite the plethora of research data available, the added value in curative or palliative cancer care and the possible risks involved are insufficiently proven and therefore a matter of debate. We aim to give a recommendation on the position of cannabis products in clinical oncology by assessing recent literature. Various types of cannabis products, characteristics, quality and pharmacology are discussed. Standardisation is essential for reliable and reproducible quality. The oromucosal/sublingual route of administration is preferred over inhalation and drinking tea. Cannabinoids may inhibit efflux transporters and drug-metabolising enzymes, possibly inducing pharmacokinetic interactions with anticancer drugs being substrates for these proteins. This may enhance the cytostatic effect and/or drug-related adverse effects. Reversely, it may enable dose reduction. Similar interactions are likely with drugs used for symptom management treating pain, nausea, vomiting and anorexia. Cannabis products are usually well tolerated and may improve the quality of life of patients with cancer (although not unambiguously proven). The combination with immunotherapy seems undesirable because of the immunosuppressive action of cannabinoids. Further clinical research is warranted to scientifically support (refraining from) using cannabis products in patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman J. Woerdenbag
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Olinga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen A. Kok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Donald A. P. Brugman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ulrike F. van Ark
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Paul W. Lebbink
- Transvaal Apotheek, Kempstraat 113, 2572 GC Den Haag, The Netherlands
| | - Frederik J. H. Hoogwater
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Daan G. Knapen
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Derk Jan A. de Groot
- Department of Medical Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten W. Nijkamp
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
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18
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The Mechanisms of GPR55 Receptor Functional Selectivity during Apoptosis and Proliferation Regulation in Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065524. [PMID: 36982628 PMCID: PMC10054013 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
GPR55 is a non-canonical cannabinoid receptor, important for cancer proliferation. Depending on the ligand, it induces either cell proliferation or death. The objective of the study was to establish the mechanisms of this multidirectional signaling. Using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, the GPR55, CB1, CB2, and GPR18 receptor knockouts of the MDA-MB-231 line were obtained. After the CB2 receptor knockout, the pro-apoptotic activity of the pro-apoptotic ligand docosahexaenoyl dopamine (DHA-DA) slightly increased, while the pro-proliferative activity of the most active synthetic ligand of the GPR55 receptor (ML-184) completely disappeared. On the original cell line, the stimulatory effect of ML-184 was removed by the CB2 receptor blocker and by GPR55 receptor knockout. Thus, it can be confidently assumed that when proliferation is stimulated with the participation of the GPR55 receptor, a signal is transmitted from the CB2 receptor to the GPR55 receptor due to the formation of a heterodimer. GPR18 was additionally involved in the implementation of the pro-apoptotic effect of DHA-DA, while the CB1 receptor is not involved. In the implementation of the pro-apoptotic action of DHA-DA, the elimination of Gα13 led to a decrease in cytotoxicity. The obtained data provide novel details to the mechanism of the pro-proliferative action of GPR55.
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19
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Systemic Changes in Endocannabinoids and Endocannabinoid-like Molecules in Response to Partial Nephrectomy-Induced Ischemia in Humans. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044216. [PMID: 36835635 PMCID: PMC9962891 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Renal ischemia-reperfusion (IR), a routine feature of partial nephrectomy (PN), can contribute to the development of acute kidney injury (AKI). Rodent studies show that the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a major regulator of renal hemodynamics and IR injury; however, its clinical relevance remains to be established. Here, we assessed the clinical changes in systemic endocannabinoid (eCB) levels induced by surgical renal IR. Sixteen patients undergoing on-clamp PN were included, with blood samples taken before renal ischemia, after 10 min of ischemia time, and 10 min following blood reperfusion. Kidney function parameters (serum creatinine (sCr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and serum glucose) and eCB levels were measured. Baseline levels and individual changes in response to IR were analyzed and correlation analyses were performed. The baseline levels of eCB 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) were positively correlated with kidney dysfunction biomarkers. Unilateral renal ischemia increased BUN, sCr, and glucose, which remained elevated following renal reperfusion. Renal ischemia did not induce changes in eCB levels for all patients pooled together. Nevertheless, stratifying patients according to their body mass index (BMI) revealed a significant increase in N-acylethanolamines (anandamide, AEA; N-oleoylethanolamine, OEA; and N-palmitoylethanolamine, PEA) in the non-obese patients. No significant changes were found in obese patients who had higher N-acylethanolamines baseline levels, positively correlated with BMI, and more cases of post-surgery AKI. With the inefficiency of 'traditional' IR-injury 'preventive drugs', our data support future research on the role of the ECS and its manipulation in renal IR.
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20
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Tucci P, Brown I, Bewick GS, Pertwee RG, Marini P. The Plant Derived 3-3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM) Behaves as CB 2 Receptor Agonist in Prostate Cancer Cellular Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043620. [PMID: 36835033 PMCID: PMC9962283 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
3-3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM) is a biologically active dimer derived from the endogenous conversion of indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a naturally occurring glucosinolate found in many cruciferous vegetables (i.e., Brassicaceae). DIM was the first pure androgen receptor antagonist isolated from the Brassicaceae family and has been recently investigated for its potential pharmacological use in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. Interestingly, there is evidence that DIM can also interact with cannabinoid receptors. In this context, by considering the well-known involvement of the endocannabinoid system in prostate cancer, we have pharmacologically characterized the properties of DIM on both CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors in two human prostate cancer cell lines: PC3 (androgen-independent/androgen receptor negative) and LNCaP (androgen-dependent). In the PC3 cell line, DIM was able to activate CB2 receptors and potentially associated apoptotic pathways. On the other hand, although DIM was also able to activate CB2 receptors in the LNCaP cell line, no apoptotic effects were observed. Our evidence confirms that DIM is a CB2 receptor ligand and, moreover, it has a potential anti-proliferative effect on androgen-independent/androgen receptor-negative prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Tucci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Iain Brown
- Division of Applied Medicine, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Guy S. Bewick
- The Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Roger G. Pertwee
- The Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Pietro Marini
- Institute of Education in Healthcare and Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
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21
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Cannabinoids in the Modulation of Oxidative Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032513. [PMID: 36768835 PMCID: PMC9916673 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa-derived compounds, such as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), and components of the endocannabinoids system, such as N-arachidonoylethanolamide (anandamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), are extensively studied to investigate their numerous biological effects, including powerful antioxidant effects. Indeed, a series of recent studies have indicated that many disorders are characterized by alterations in the intracellular antioxidant system, which lead to biological macromolecule damage. These pathological conditions are characterized by an unbalanced, and most often increased, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. For this study, it was of interest to investigate and recapitulate the antioxidant properties of these natural compounds, for the most part CBD and THC, on the production of ROS and the modulation of the intracellular redox state, with an emphasis on their use in various pathological conditions in which the reduction of ROS can be clinically useful, such as neurodegenerative disorders, inflammatory conditions, autoimmunity, and cancers. The further development of ROS-based fundamental research focused on cannabis sativa-derived compounds could be beneficial for future clinical applications.
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22
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Boyacıoğlu Ö, Korkusuz P. Cannabinoids as Prospective Anti-Cancer Drugs: Mechanism of Action in Healthy and Cancer Cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1410:145-169. [PMID: 36396926 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2022_748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids modulate many physiological and pathological processes by binding classical cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1) or 2 (CB2) or non-cannabinoid receptors. Cannabinoids are known to exert antiproliferative, apoptotic, anti-migratory and anti-invasive effect on cancer cells by inducing or inhibiting various signaling cascades. In this chapter, we specifically emphasize the latest research works about the alterations in endocannabinoid system (ECS) components in malignancies and cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, autophagy, and death by cannabinoid administration, emphasizing their mechanism of action, and give a future perspective for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Özge Boyacıoğlu
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Atılım University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Petek Korkusuz
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
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The Cytotoxic Effects of Cannabidiol and Cannabigerol on Glioblastoma Stem Cells May Mostly Involve GPR55 and TRPV1 Signalling. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14235918. [PMID: 36497400 PMCID: PMC9738061 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14235918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most aggressive cancers, comprising 60-70% of all gliomas. The large G-protein-coupled receptor family includes cannabinoid receptors CB1, CB2, GPR55, and non-specific ion receptor protein transporters TRPs. First, we found up-regulated CNR1, GPR55, and TRPV1 expression in glioma patient-derived tissue samples and cell lines compared with non-malignant brain samples. CNR1 and GPR55 did not correlate with glioma grade, whereas TRPV1 negatively correlated with grade and positively correlated with longer overall survival. This suggests a tumour-suppressor role of TRPV1. With respect to markers of GBM stem cells, preferred targets of therapy, TRPV1 and GPR55, but not CNR1, strongly correlated with different sets of stemness gene markers: NOTCH, OLIG2, CD9, TRIM28, and TUFM and CD15, SOX2, OCT4, and ID1, respectively. This is in line with the higher expression of TRPV1 and GPR55 genes in GSCs compared with differentiated GBM cells. Second, in a panel of patient-derived GSCs, we found that CBG and CBD exhibited the highest cytotoxicity at a molar ratio of 3:1. We suggest that this mixture should be tested in experimental animals and clinical studies, in which currently used Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is replaced with efficient and non-psychoactive CBG in adjuvant standard-of-care therapy.
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Aziz AI, Nguyen LC, Oumeslakht L, Bensussan A, Ben Mkaddem S. Cannabinoids as Immune System Modulators: Cannabidiol Potential Therapeutic Approaches and Limitations. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 8:254-269. [PMID: 36413346 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD) is the second most abundant Phytocannabinoid in Cannabis extracts. CBD has a binding affinity for several cannabinoid and cannabinoid-associated receptors. Epidiolex (oral CBD solution) has been lately licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of pediatric epileptic seizures. Methods: In this review, we discussed the most promising applications of CBD for chronic inflammatory conditions, namely CBD's anti-inflammatory effects during inflammatory bowel disease, coronavirus disease (antiviral effect), brain pathologies (neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties), as well as CBD immunomodulatory and antitumoral activities in the tumor microenvironment. Special focus was shed on the main therapeutic mechanisms of action of CBD, particularly in the control of the immune system and the endocannabinoid system. Results: Findings suggest that CBD is a potent immunomodulatory drug as it has manifested immunosuppressive properties in the context of sterile inflammation (e.g., inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and neurodegenerative diseases), and immunoprotective effects during viral infections (e.g. COVID-19) Similarly, CBD has exhibited a selective response toward cancer types by engaging different targets and signaling pathways. These results are in favor of the primary function of the endocannabinoid system which is homeostatic maintenance. Conclusion: The presented evidence suggests that the endocannabinoid system is a prominent target for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid diseases, viral infections, neurological and psychological pathologies, and cancer. Moreover, the antitumoral activities of CBD have been suggested to be potentially used in combination with chemo- or immunotherapy during cancer. However, clinical results are still lacking, which raises a challenge to apply translational cannabis research to the human immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdel-ilah Aziz
- Institute of Biological and Medical Sciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
| | - Long Chi Nguyen
- Ben May Department for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Loubna Oumeslakht
- Institute of Biological and Medical Sciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
| | - Armand Bensussan
- Institute of Biological and Medical Sciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
- Onco-Dermatology and Therapies, INSERM UMRS976, Hôpital Saint Louis, Paris, France
| | - Sanae Ben Mkaddem
- Institute of Biological and Medical Sciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Ben Guerir, Morocco
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Antitumor Effects of Delta (9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabinol on Cholangiocarcinoma Cells and Xenograft Mouse Models. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2022; 2022:6477132. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/6477132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a very aggressive tumor. The development of a new therapeutic drug for CCA is required. This study aims to evaluate the antitumor effect of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive component of marijuana (Cannabis sativa), and cannabinol (CBN), a minor, low-psychoactive cannabinoid, on CCA cells and xenograft mice. THC and CBN were isolated, and their identities were confirmed by comparing 1H- and 13C-NMR spectra and mass spectra with a database. Cell proliferation, cell migration, and cell apoptosis assays were performed in HuCCT1 human CCA cells treated with THC or CBN. The phosphorylation of signaling molecules in HuCCT1 cells was detected. To determine the effects of THC and CBN in an animal model, HuCCT1 cells were inoculated subcutaneously into nude mice. After the tumors reached an appropriate size, the mice were treated with THC or CBN for 21 days. Tumor volumes were monitored and calculated. The 1H- and 13C-NMR data of THC and CBN were almost identical to those reported in the literature. THC and CBN significantly inhibited cell proliferation and migration and induced apoptosis in HuCCT1 cells. The phosphorylation of AKT, GSK-3α/β, and ERK1/2 decreased in HuCCT1 cells treated with THC or CBN. CCA xenograft mice treated with THC showed significantly slower tumor progression and smaller tumor volumes than control mice. THC and CBN induced apoptosis in CCA by inhibiting the AKT and MAPK pathways. These findings provide a strong rationale for THC and CBN as therapeutic options for CCA.
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Hirao-Suzuki M, Takayuki K, Takiguchi M, Peters JM, Takeda S. Cannabidiolic acid activates the expression of the PPARβ/δ target genes in MDA-MB-231 cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 2022; 731:109428. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2022.109428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Green R, Khalil R, Mohapatra SS, Mohapatra S. Role of Cannabidiol for Improvement of the Quality of Life in Cancer Patients: Potential and Challenges. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232112956. [PMID: 36361743 PMCID: PMC9654506 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232112956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There is currently a growing interest in the use of cannabidiol (CBD) to alleviate the symptoms caused by cancer, including pain, sleep disruption, and anxiety. CBD is often self-administered as an over-the-counter supplement, and patients have reported benefits from its use. However, despite the progress made, the mechanisms underlying CBD’s anti-cancer activity remain divergent and unclear. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of molecular mechanisms to determine convergent anti-cancer actions of CBD from pre-clinical and clinical studies. In vitro studies have begun to elucidate the molecular targets of CBD and provide evidence of CBD’s anti-tumor properties in cell and mouse models of cancer. Furthermore, several clinical trials have been completed testing CBD’s efficacy in treating cancer-related pain. However, most use a mixture of CBD and the psychoactive, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or use variable dosing that is not consistent between individual patients. Despite these limitations, significant reductions in pain and opioid use have been reported in cancer patients using CBD or CBD+THC. Additionally, significant improvements in quality-of-life measures and patients’ overall satisfaction with their treatment have been reported. Thus, there is growing evidence suggesting that CBD might be useful to improve the overall quality of life of cancer patients by both alleviating cancer symptoms and by synergizing with cancer therapies to improve their efficacy. However, many questions remain unanswered regarding the use of CBD in cancer treatment, including the optimal dose, effective combinations with other drugs, and which biomarkers/clinical presentation of symptoms may guide its use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Green
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- James A Haley VA Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Roukiah Khalil
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Shyam S. Mohapatra
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- James A Haley VA Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Correspondence: (S.S.M.); (S.M.)
| | - Subhra Mohapatra
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- James A Haley VA Hospital, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Correspondence: (S.S.M.); (S.M.)
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Benedicto A, Arteta B, Duranti A, Alonso-Alconada D. The Synthetic Cannabinoid URB447 Exerts Antitumor and Antimetastatic Effect in Melanoma and Colon Cancer. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15101166. [PMID: 36297277 PMCID: PMC9606960 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system is widespread through the body and carries out a wide variety of functions. However, its involvement in other pathologies, such as cancer, still needs further attention. We aim to investigate the role of CB2 receptor during melanoma and colorectal cancer (CRC) aggressiveness and metastatic growth in the liver. We used the synthetic cannabinoid URB447, a known CB2 agonist and CB1 antagonist drug, and studied prometastatic ability of mouse B16 melanoma and MCA38 CRC cells, by means of proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, migration and matrix degradation in vitro upon URB447 treatment. We reported a dose-dependent viability decrease in both tumor types. This result is partly mediated by apoptotic cell death and cell cycle arrest in G1/G0 phase, as observed through flow cytometry. Melanoma and CRC cell migration was affected in a dose-dependent fashion as observed through scratch assay, whereas the secretion of matrix degrading proteins metalloprotease 2 (MMP2) and 9 (MMP9) in tumor cells did not significantly change. Moreover, daily treatment of tumor bearing mice with URB447 decreased the development of liver metastasis in a melanoma model in vivo. This proof of concept study points out to the synthetic cannabinoid URB447 as a potential candidate for deeper studies to confirm its potential as antitumor therapy and liver metastasis treatment for CRC and melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitor Benedicto
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursery, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Beatriz Arteta
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursery, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Andrea Duranti
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Daniel Alonso-Alconada
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursery, University of the Basque Country, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-946013294
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW There have been many debates, discussions, and published writings about the therapeutic value of cannabis plant and the hundreds of cannabinoids it contains. Many states and countries have attempted, are attempting, or have already passed bills to allow legal use of cannabinoids, especially cannabidiol (CBD), as medicines to treat a wide range of clinical conditions without having been approved by a regulatory body. Therefore, by using PubMed and Google Scholar databases, we have reviewed published papers during the past 30 years on cannabinoids as medicines and comment on whether there is sufficient clinical evidence from well-designed clinical studies and trials to support the use of CBD or any other cannabinoids as medicines. RECENT FINDINGS Current research shows that CBD and other cannabinoids currently are not ready for formal indications as medicines to treat a wide range of clinical conditions as promoted except for several exceptions including limited use of CBD for treating two rare forms of epilepsy in young children and CBD in combination with THC for treating multiple-sclerosis-associated spasticity. SUMMARY Research indicates that CBD and several other cannabinoids have potential to treat multiple clinical conditions, but more preclinical, and clinical studies and clinical trials, which follow regulatory guidelines, are needed to formally recommend CBD and other cannabinoids as medicines.
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Khalsa JH, Bunt G, Blum K, Maggirwar SB, Galanter M, Potenza MN. Review: Cannabinoids as Medicinals. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2022; 9:630-646. [PMID: 36093358 PMCID: PMC9449267 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-022-00438-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of review
There have been many debates, discussions, and published writings about the therapeutic value of cannabis plant and the hundreds of cannabinoids it contains. Many states and countries have attempted, are attempting, or have already passed bills to allow legal use of cannabinoids, especially cannabidiol (CBD), as medicines to treat a wide range of clinical conditions without having been approved by a regulatory body. Therefore, by using PubMed and Google Scholar databases, we have reviewed published papers during the past 30 years on cannabinoids as medicines and comment on whether there is sufficient clinical evidence from well-designed clinical studies and trials to support the use of CBD or any other cannabinoids as medicines. Recent findings Current research shows that CBD and other cannabinoids currently are not ready for formal indications as medicines to treat a wide range of clinical conditions as promoted except for several exceptions including limited use of CBD for treating two rare forms of epilepsy in young children and CBD in combination with THC for treating multiple-sclerosis-associated spasticity. Summary Research indicates that CBD and several other cannabinoids have potential to treat multiple clinical conditions, but more preclinical, and clinical studies and clinical trials, which follow regulatory guidelines, are needed to formally recommend CBD and other cannabinoids as medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jag H. Khalsa
- Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, Medical Consequences of Drug Abuse and Infections Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Special Volunteer, 16071 Industrial Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20877 USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University School of Medicine, Ross Hall Room 502A, 2300 I Street, Washington, NWDC 20037 USA
- Drug Addiction and Co-occurring Infections, Aldie, VA 20105-5572 USA
| | - Gregory Bunt
- Samaritan Day Top Village, NYU School of Medicine, 550 First Ave, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Kenneth Blum
- Center for Behavioral Health & Sports, Western University Health Sciences, Pomona, CA USA
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- Division of Nutrigenomics, Precision Translational Medicine, LLC, San Antonio, TX USA
- Division of Nutrigenomics, Institute of Behavior & Neurogenetics, LLC, San Antonio, TX USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Wright University Boonshoff School of Medicine, Dayton, OH USA
| | - Sanjay B. Maggirwar
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University School of Medicine, Ross Hall Room 502A, 2300 I Street, Washington, NWDC 20037 USA
| | - Marc Galanter
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, Room NBV20N28, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Marc N. Potenza
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience and the Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, 1 Church Street, Rm726, New Haven, CT 06510 USA
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Garofano F, Sharma A, Abken H, Gonzalez-Carmona MA, Schmidt-Wolf IGH. A Low Dose of Pure Cannabidiol Is Sufficient to Stimulate the Cytotoxic Function of CIK Cells without Exerting the Downstream Mediators in Pancreatic Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:3783. [PMID: 35409142 PMCID: PMC8998663 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite numerous studies conducted over the past decade, the exact role of the cannabinoid system in cancer development remains unclear. Though research has focused on two cannabinoid receptors (CB1, CB2) activated by most cannabinoids, CB2 holds greater attention due to its expression in cells of the immune system. In particular, cytokine-induced killer cells (CIKs), which are pivotal cytotoxic immunological effector cells, express a high-level of CB2 receptors. Herein, we sought to investigate whether inducing CIK cells with cannabidiol can enhance their cytotoxicity and if there are any possible counter effects in its downstream cascade of phosphorylated p38 and CREB using a pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell line (PANC-1). Our results showed that IL-2 modulates primarily the expression of the CB2 receptor on CIK cells used during ex vivo CIK expansion. The autophagosomal-associated scaffold protein p62 was found to co-localize with CB2 receptors in CIK cells and the PANC-1 cell line. CIK cells showed a low level of intracellular phospho-p38 and, when stimulated with cannabidiol (CBD), a donor specific variability in phospho-CREB. CBD significantly decreases the viability of PANC-1 cells presumably by increasing the cytotoxicity of CIK cells. Taken together, in our preclinical in vitro study, we propose that a low effective dose of CBD is sufficient to stimulate the cytotoxic function of CIK without exerting any associated mediator. Thus, the combinatorial approach of non-psychoactive CBD and CIK cells appears to be safe and can be considered for a clinical perspective in pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Garofano
- Department of Integrated Oncology, Center for Integrated Oncology (CIO), University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (F.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Amit Sharma
- Department of Integrated Oncology, Center for Integrated Oncology (CIO), University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (F.G.); (A.S.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Hinrich Abken
- RCI Regensburg Center for Interventional Immunology, Department Genetic Immunotherapy, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany;
| | | | - Ingo G. H. Schmidt-Wolf
- Department of Integrated Oncology, Center for Integrated Oncology (CIO), University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (F.G.); (A.S.)
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Pagano C, Navarra G, Coppola L, Avilia G, Bifulco M, Laezza C. Cannabinoids: Therapeutic Use in Clinical Practice. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063344. [PMID: 35328765 PMCID: PMC8952215 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Medical case reports suggest that cannabinoids extracted from Cannabis sativa have therapeutic effects; however, the therapeutic employment is limited due to the psychotropic effect of its major component, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The new scientific discoveries related to the endocannabinoid system, including new receptors, ligands, and mediators, allowed the development of new therapeutic targets for the treatment of several pathological disorders minimizing the undesirable psychotropic effects of some constituents of this plant. Today, FDA-approved drugs, such as nabiximols (a mixture of THC and non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD)), are employed in alleviating pain and spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Dronabinol and nabilone are used for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in cancer patients. Dronabinol was approved for the treatment of anorexia in patients with AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). In this review, we highlighted the potential therapeutic efficacy of natural and synthetic cannabinoids and their clinical relevance in cancer, neurodegenerative and dermatological diseases, and viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Pagano
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy or (C.P.); (G.N.); (L.C.); (G.A.)
| | - Giovanna Navarra
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy or (C.P.); (G.N.); (L.C.); (G.A.)
| | - Laura Coppola
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy or (C.P.); (G.N.); (L.C.); (G.A.)
| | - Giorgio Avilia
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy or (C.P.); (G.N.); (L.C.); (G.A.)
| | - Maurizio Bifulco
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy or (C.P.); (G.N.); (L.C.); (G.A.)
- Correspondence: (M.B.); or (C.L.)
| | - Chiara Laezza
- Institute of Endocrinology and Experimental Oncology, IEOS CNR, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.B.); or (C.L.)
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Non-Canonical Cannabinoid Receptors with Distinct Binding and Signaling Properties in Prostate and Other Cancer Cell Types Mediate Cell Death. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063049. [PMID: 35328467 PMCID: PMC8954350 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids exert anti-cancer actions; however, the underlying cytotoxic mechanisms and the cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) involved remain unclear. In this study, CBRs were characterized in several cancer cell lines. Radioligand binding screens surprisingly revealed specific binding only for the non-selective cannabinoid [3H]WIN-55,212-2, and not [3H]CP-55,940, indicating that the expressed CBRs exhibit atypical binding properties. Furthermore, [3H]WIN-55,212-2 bound to a single site in all cancer cells with high affinity and varying densities. CBR characteristics were next compared between human prostate cancer cell lines expressing low (PC-3) and high (DU-145) CBR density. Although mRNA for canonical CBRs was detected in both cell lines, only 5 out of 15 compounds with known high affinity for canonical CBRs displaced [3H]WIN-55,212-2 binding. Functional assays further established that CBRs in prostate cancer cells exhibit distinct signaling properties relative to canonical Gi/Go-coupled CBRs. Prostate cancer cells chronically exposed to both CBR agonists and antagonists/inverse agonists produced receptor downregulation, inconsistent with actions at canonical CBRs. Treatment of DU-145 cells with CBR ligands increased LDH-release, decreased ATP-dependent cell viability, and produced mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization. In summary, several cancer cell lines express CBRs with binding and signaling profiles dissimilar to canonical CBRs. Drugs selectively targeting these atypical CBRs might exhibit improved anti-cancer properties.
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Abstract
Preclinical models provided ample evidence that cannabinoids are cytotoxic against cancer cells. Among the best studied phytocannabinoids, cannabidiol (CBD) is most promising for the treatment of cancer as it lacks the psychotomimetic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In vitro studies and animal experiments point to a concentration- (dose-)dependent anticancer effect. The effectiveness of pure compounds versus extracts is the subject of an ongoing debate. Actual results demonstrate that CBD-rich hemp extracts must be distinguished from THC-rich cannabis preparations. Whereas pure CBD was superior to CBD-rich extracts in most in vitro experiments, the opposite was observed for pure THC and THC-rich extracts, although exceptions were noted. The cytotoxic effects of CBD, THC and extracts seem to depend not only on the nature of cannabinoids and the presence of other phytochemicals but also largely on the nature of cell lines and test conditions. Neither CBD nor THC are universally efficacious in reducing cancer cell viability. The combination of pure cannabinoids may have advantages over single agents, although the optimal ratio seems to depend on the nature of cancer cells; the existence of a 'one size fits all' ratio is very unlikely. As cannabinoids interfere with the endocannabinoid system (ECS), a better understanding of the circadian rhythmicity of the ECS, particularly endocannabinoids and receptors, as well as of the rhythmicity of biological processes related to the growth of cancer cells, could enhance the efficacy of a therapy with cannabinoids by optimization of the timing of the administration, as has already been reported for some of the canonical chemotherapeutics. Theoretically, a CBD dose administered at noon could increase the peak of anandamide and therefore the effects triggered by this agent. Despite the abundance of preclinical articles published over the last 2 decades, well-designed controlled clinical trials on CBD in cancer are still missing. The number of observations in cancer patients, paired with the anticancer activity repeatedly reported in preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies warrants serious scientific exploration moving forward.
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Neurological Benefits, Clinical Challenges, and Neuropathologic Promise of Medical Marijuana: A Systematic Review of Cannabinoid Effects in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Models of Demyelination. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10030539. [PMID: 35327341 PMCID: PMC8945692 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10030539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite current therapeutic strategies for immunomodulation and relief of symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS), remyelination falls short due to dynamic neuropathologic deterioration and relapses, leading to accrual of disability and associated patient dissatisfaction. The potential of cannabinoids includes add-on immunosuppressive, analgesic, neuroprotective, and remyelinative effects. This study evaluates the efficacy of medical marijuana in MS and its experimental animal models. A systematic review was conducted by a literature search through PubMed, ProQuest, and EBSCO electronic databases for studies reported since 2007 on the use of cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in MS and in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD), and toxin-induced demyelination models. Study selection and data extraction were performed by 3 reviewers, and 28 studies were selected for inclusion. The certainty of evidence was appraised using the Cochrane GRADE approach. In clinical studies, there was low- and moderate-quality evidence that treatment with ~1:1 CBD/THC mixtures as a nabiximols (Sativex®) oromucosal spray reduced numerical rating scale (NRS) scores for spasticity, pain, and sleep disturbance, diminished bladder overactivity, and decreased proinflammatory cytokine and transcription factor expression levels. Preclinical studies demonstrated decreases in disease severity, hindlimb stiffness, motor function, neuroinflammation, and demyelination. Other experimental systems showed the capacity of cannabinoids to promote remyelination in vitro and by electron microscopy. Modest short-term benefits were realized in MS responders to adjunctive therapy with CBD/THC mixtures. Future studies are recommended to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of cannabinoid effects on MS lesions and to evaluate whether medical marijuana can accelerate remyelination and retard the accrual of disability over the long term.
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Liu WM, Hall NK, Liu HSY, Hood FL, Dalgleish AG. Combination of cannabidiol with low‑dose naltrexone increases the anticancer action of chemotherapy in vitro and in vivo. Oncol Rep 2022; 47:76. [PMID: 35179218 DOI: 10.3892/or.2022.8287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that both cannabidiol (CBD) and low‑dose naltrexone (LDN) exhibit complex effects on G‑protein coupled receptors, which can impact the expression and function of other members of this superfamily. These receptors feed into and interact with central signalling cascades that determine the ease by which cells engage in apoptosis, and can be used as a way to prime cancer cells to other treatments. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of combining these two agents on cancer cell lines in vitro and in a mouse model, and focused on how the sequence of administration may affect the overall action. The results showed both agents had minimal effect on cell numbers when used simultaneously; however, the combination of LDN and CBD, delivered in this specific sequence, significantly reduced the number of cells, and was superior to the regimen where the order of the agents was reversed. For example, there was a 35% reduction in cell numbers when using LDN before CBD compared to a 22% reduction when using CBD before LDN. The two agents also sensitised cells to chemotherapy as significant decreases in cell viability were observed when they were used before chemotherapy. In mouse models, the use of both agents enhanced the effect of gemcitabine, and crucially, their use resulted in no significant toxicity in the mice, which actually gained more weight compared to those without this pre‑treatment (+6.5 vs. 0%). Overall, the results highlight the importance of drug sequence when using these drugs. There is also a need to translate these observations into standard chemotherapy regimens, especially for common tumour types where treatment is often not completed due to toxicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai M Liu
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Nadine K Hall
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Harry S Y Liu
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
| | | | - Angus G Dalgleish
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
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Iozzo M, Sgrignani G, Comito G, Chiarugi P, Giannoni E. Endocannabinoid System and Tumour Microenvironment: New Intertwined Connections for Anticancer Approaches. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123396. [PMID: 34943903 PMCID: PMC8699381 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumour microenvironment (TME) is now recognised as a hallmark of cancer, since tumour:stroma crosstalk supports the key steps of tumour growth and progression. The dynamic co-evolution of the tumour and stromal compartments may alter the surrounding microenvironment, including the composition in metabolites and signalling mediators. A growing number of evidence reports the involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in cancer. ECS is composed by a complex network of ligands, receptors, and enzymes, which act in synergy and contribute to several physiological but also pathological processes. Several in vitro and in vivo evidence show that ECS deregulation in cancer cells affects proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and metastatic potential. Although it is still an evolving research, recent experimental evidence also suggests that ECS can modulate the functional behaviour of several components of the TME, above all the immune cells, endothelial cells and stromal components. However, the role of ECS in the tumour:stroma interplay remains unclear and research in this area is particularly intriguing. This review aims to shed light on the latest relevant findings of the tumour response to ECS modulation, encouraging a more in-depth analysis in this field. Novel discoveries could be promising for novel anti-tumour approaches, targeting the microenvironmental components and the supportive tumour:stroma crosstalk, thereby hindering tumour development.
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Comparative assessment of antimicrobial, antiradical and cytotoxic activities of cannabidiol and its propyl analogue cannabidivarin. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22494. [PMID: 34795379 PMCID: PMC8602723 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01975-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol and cannabidivarin are phytocannabinoids produced by Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa. Cannabidiol has been studied more extensively than its propyl analogue cannabidivarin. Therefore, we performed a battery of in vitro biological assays to compare the cytotoxic, antiradical and antibacterial activities of both cannabinoids. Potential mitochondrial metabolism alterations, DNA synthesis inhibition, and plasma membrane damage were studied by MTT assay, BrdU-ELISA and LDH assay of cancer and normal human cells exposed to cannabinoids. ABTS and DPPH assays were performed to observe the effects of the cannabinoids on free radicals. Microbial susceptibility tests were performed to study the activity of the cannabinoids in two bacterial species implicated in human infections, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that the cannabinoids induced medium levels of cytotoxicity in cancer and normal cells at concentrations ranging from 15.80 to 48.63 and from 31.89 to 151.70 µM, respectively, after 72 h of exposure. Cannabinoids did not exhibit a strong antioxidant capacity in scavenging ABTS or DPPH radicals. No evident differences were observed between the two cannabinoids in antimicrobial activity, except with respect to S. aureus, which showed greater susceptibility to cannabidiol than to cannabidivarin after 72 h of exposure.
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Cannabinoid Formulations and Delivery Systems: Current and Future Options to Treat Pain. Drugs 2021; 81:1513-1557. [PMID: 34480749 PMCID: PMC8417625 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-021-01579-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The field of Cannabis sativa L. research for medical purposes has been rapidly advancing in recent decades and a growing body of evidence suggests that phytocannabinoids are beneficial for a range of conditions. At the same time impressing development has been observed for formulations and delivery systems expanding the potential use of cannabinoids as an effective medical therapy. The objective of this review is to present the most recent results from pharmaceutical companies and research groups investigating methods to improve cannabinoid bioavailability and to clearly establish its therapeutic efficacy, dose ranges, safety and also improve the patient compliance. Particular focus is the application of cannabinoids in pain treatment, describing the principal cannabinoids employed, the most promising delivery systems for each administration routes and updating the clinical evaluations. To offer the reader a wider view, this review discusses the formulation starting from galenic preparation up to nanotechnology approaches, showing advantages, limits, requirements needed. Furthermore, the most recent clinical data and meta-analysis for cannabinoids used in different pain management are summarized, evaluating their real effectiveness, in order also to spare opioids and improve patients' quality of life. Promising evidence for pain treatments and for other important pathologies are also reviewed as likely future directions for cannabinoids formulations.
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